¹⁶ “Ygg’s (Óthin’s) Horse.” For the explanation of the kenning see “Hávamál,” St. 138, Note 66. This “world-tree” is the symbol of the ordered universe.

¹⁷ “Fate”; by popular etymology conceived as meaning “the Past.” The names of the other two norns, or goddesses of fate, Verthandi “the Present,” and Skuld “the Future” (see next stanza), are now understood to be learned inventions of the twelfth century, on the pattern of the three Parcæ or Molpai of classical antiquity. Like them, the Norns “spin the thread of Fate.” See “Helgakviða Hundingsbana” I, St. 3.

¹⁸ This difficult stanza is generally interpreted in connection with those immediately following. No satisfying explanation of the name and function of Gullveig has yet been given. She possibly represents the Vanir (as gods of commerce?) in their power to corrupt—she is a witch. The vain attempts of the Æsir to annihilate her bring about war between them and the Vanir in which the latter are victorious. Hostages are exchanged then, and the two races of gods rule the world together.

¹⁹ “The One-Eyed,” Óthin.

²⁰ A name frequently borne by witches.

²¹ That is, should both Æsir and Vanir share in the sacrificial feast offered up by men?