Bibliographic Note

It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a historian who possesses the hope of reaching a wide audience must be eager to flee from footnotes.

Well, perhaps not universally acknowledged, but a common enough assumption, and not really true at all. What would be universally acknowledged among historians is that writing without footnotes, whether in textbooks or in popular histories, makes us uneasy. Notes give us a sense of security, in the knowledge that our peers will find us honest in our use of their work and that of other scholars. Writing without them, on the other hand, creates unfamiliar anxieties, particularly the fear of inadvertent plagiarism. I hope that I have not been guilty of this, but as the sentence above will attest, memorable phrases are apt to stick in my brain. Thus when I tipped my hat to Pride and Prejudice just now, I did so not only to make my own prose seem a little less gray, but also to pay a small tribute to a writer whose wit and style I greatly admire. When it comes to the writings of my fellow historians, on the other hand, I have done my best to paraphrase only, recounting their interpretations at what I hope is at least a good arm’s length from their own words. Should any author find that I have failed in this, I can only apologize in the hope she or he can somehow understand it as an unintended example of the kind of homage I more consciously wanted to pay Austen. For I am in fact deeply grateful to many historians, living and dead, without whose work I could never have written this book.

Most of those secondary sources on which I have drawn can be found cited in the notes of a longer book I wrote several years ago, Crucible of War: The Seven Years’ War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754-1766 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2000), and in the relevant sections of a work that Andrew Cayton and I published more recently, The Dominion of War: Empire and Liberty in North America, 1500-2000 (New York: Viking, 2005); see especially pages 85-206. This essay, therefore, is less an attempt to be exhaustive than an effort to point out books and articles that are of particular value, and to identify important works that have appeared since Crucible of War, or of which I was unaware when I wrote.

The starting point in the historiography of the Seven Years’ War in America is of course Francis Parkman’s masterpiece, Montcalm and Wolfe, 2 vols. (Boston: Little, Brown & Company, 1884)—a work that reflects the racial and religious attitudes of patrician Americans in the late nineteenth century, but which continues to delight readers with the sheer force and vigor of its narrative. All American histories of the war, this one included, are in some measure commentaries on Parkman. This is also true of those written from a Canadian perspective, beginning with Abbé H. R. Casgrain’s Wolfe and Montcalm (Toronto: Morang & Company, 1905; reprinted by the University of Toronto Press, 1964). For more up-to-date Canadian histories of the war see especially Guy Frégault, Canada: The War of the Conquest (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1969); George F. G. Stanley, New France: The Last Phase, 1744-1760 (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1968); several pungent essays by W. J. Eccles (notably “The History of New France According to Francis Parkman,” “New France and the Western Frontier,” “The Social, Economic, and Political Significance of the Military Establishment in New France,” “The Battle of Quebec: A Reappraisal,” and “Sovereignty Association 1500-1783”), all of which have been collected in his Essays on New France (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1987); and the last two chapters of Eccles’s synthesis, France in America (East Lansing, Mich.: Michigan State University Press, 1990).

The Seven Years’ War was of course a worldwide conflict, and the historiography of its European and other aspects grows from concerns and traditions that have little to do with Parkman, except insofar as authors have habitually mined his work for background material on the American war. The most nearly comprehensive work dealing with Britain’s military, naval, and diplomatic history in the conflict remains Julian S. Corbett, England in the Seven Years’ War: A Study in Combined Strategy, 2 vols. (London: Longmans, Green & Company, 1907), while for France it is Richard Waddington, La guerre de sept ans: histoire diplomatique et militaire, 5 vols. (Paris: Firmin-Didot et Cie., 1899-1914). For the German war in the east, see the relevant portions of Dennis Showalter, The Wars of Frederick the Great (New York: Longman, 1996); in the west, Reginald Savory, His Britannic Majesty’s Army in Germany during the Seven Years’ War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1966); and, generally, Russell Weigley, The Age of Battles: The Quest for Decisive Warfare from Breitenfeld to Waterloo (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991). A forthcoming work by Paul W. Mapp will illuminate the diplomacy of the war’s origins and progress as no other book has; until it is published, readers should consult his Ph.D. dissertation, “European Geographic Ignorance and North American Imperial Rivalry: The Role of the Uncharted American West in International Affairs, 1713-1763” (Harvard University, 2001; available from ProQuest/University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor, Michigan, publication No. AAT 3011433, ISBN 0493214216).

No history has yet encompassed the entire war. The one that comes closest is Lawrence Henry Gipson, The British Empire Before the American Revolution, 15 vols. (Caldwell, Idaho, and New York: Caxton Printers and Alfred A. Knopf, 1936-1970). The three central volumes of this magnum opus deal directly with the Seven Years’ War, forming a subseries entitled The Great War for the Empire. That title, as well as those of volumes 6, 7, and 8—The Years of Defeat, The Victorious Years, and The Culmination—bears witness to the fundamental Anglocentrism of Gipson’s account. Nevertheless, this great work remains a landmark of twentieth-century historical scholarship and a monument to Gipson’s industry, integrity, and erudition. Several general narratives have appeared in recent years. Among these, see especially William M. Fowler Jr.’s excellent and highly readable Empires at War: The French and Indian War and the Struggle for North America (New York: Walker & Company, 2004); the three volumes by William R. Nester, The Great Frontier War: Britain, France, and the Imperial Struggle for North America, 1607-1755 (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2000), The First World War: Britain, France, and the Fate of North America, 1756-1775 (2001), and “Haughty Conquerors”: Amherst and the Great Indian Uprising of 1763 (2000); and Frank W. Brecher, Losing a Continent: France’s North American Policy, 1753-1763 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1998). Given the severe limitations on length imposed by the publisher, two slender illustrated volumes by Daniel Marston do a remarkably good job of narrating the major campaigns: The Seven Years’ War (Oxford: Osprey, 2001) and The French-Indian War, 1754-1760 (Oxford: Osprey, 2002). Seymour I. Schwartz, The French and Indian War, 1754-1763: The Imperial Struggle for North America (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994; reprinted Edison, N.J.: Castle Books, 2000), supports a splendid set of reproduced period maps, portraits, and views with a concise narrative of the campaigns.

Francis Jennings, who dedicated his scholarly career to counteracting what he saw as Parkman’s distortions and misrepresentations, produced a body of work essential to modern understandings of the French and Indian War. The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire: The Covenant Chain Confederation of Indian Tribes with English Colonies from Its Beginnings to the Lancaster Treaty of 1744 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1984) and Empire of Fortune: Crowns, Colonies, and Tribes in the Seven Years War in America (New York: W. W. Norton, 1988) are sometimes intemperate but always important in placing Indians at the center of the war’s events. The Creation of America: Through Revolution to Empire (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000) was his heroic attempt, at the very end of his life, to work out the implications for the Revolutionary and early national periods of the story he had begun in those earlier volumes.

Other scholars of the native experience have extended our understanding of the era of the Seven Years’ War beyond Jennings’s work. Notable among those later contributions are Daniel K. Richter’s masterful synthesis, Facing East from Indian Country: A Native History of Early America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2001); Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Republics, and Empires in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), a seminal work in the field; James H. Merrell, Into the American Woods: Negotiators on the Pennsylvania Frontier (New York: Norton, 1999), an eloquent and moving examination of the limits of accommodation; Michael N. McConnell, A Country Between: The Upper Ohio Valley and Its Peoples, 1724-1774 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1992); Colin G. Calloway, The Western Abenakis of Vermont, 1600-1800: War, Migration, and Survival (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990); Gregory Evans Dowd, A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745-1815 (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992) and War Under Heaven: Pontiac, the Indian Nations and the British Empire (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002); D. Peter MacLeod, The Canadian Iroquois and the Seven Years War (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 1996); Richard Aquila, The Iroquois Restoration: Iroquois Diplomacy on the Colonial Frontier, 1701-1754 (Detroit : Wayne State University Press, 1983); Jane Merritt, At the Crossroads: Indians and Empires on a Mid-Atlantic Frontier, 1700-1763 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003); and Tom Hatley, The Dividing Paths: Cherokees and South Carolinians through the Era of Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).

Works on empire and its shaping influence on North American (and, more broadly, Atlantic) history have lately regained interest and influence, and complement the new scholarship on Indians. Some older works retain great value. In addition to Gipson’s fifteen volumes, cited above, see especially Stanley M. Pargellis, Lord Loudoun in North America (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1933; reprinted New York: Archon, 1968); Richard Pares, War and Trade in the West Indies, 1739-1763 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1936); and Clarence W. Alvord, The Mississippi Valley in British Politics: A Study of Trade, Land Speculation, and Experiments in Imperialism Culminating in the American Revolution, 2 vols. (Cleveland, Ohio.: Arthur H. Clark Company, 1917), a remarkable work updated and extended by Jack M. Sosin in Whitehall and the Wilderness: The Middle West in British Colonial Policy, 1760-1775 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1961).

Several newer works on empire stand out for the creative and powerful ways in which they have built on this older scholarship. The articles in The Oxford History of the British Empire, vol. 2: The Eighteenth Century, ed. P. J. Marshall (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), offer excellent summaries of recent developments. Alison Gilbert Olson takes a transatlantic perspective in Making the Empire Work: London and American Interest Groups, 1690-1790 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992). Eric Hinderaker, Elusive Empires: Constructing Colonialism in the Ohio Valley, 1673-1800 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997), brilliantly treats empire on the ground level as a set of negotiated cultural relations, a conceptualization that Timothy J. Shannon develops with great success in Indians and Colonists at the Crossroads of Empire (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2002). A somewhat older work, Alan Rogers’s Empire and Liberty: American Resistance to British Authority, 1755-1763 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975), examines the strains that the war imposed on Britain’s transatlantic political community.

Several important books examine the British empire and its politics principally from the metropolitan perspective. In this connection, see especially Eliga H. Gould, The Persistence of Empire: British Political Culture in the Age of the American Revolution (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press for the Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, 2000); John Brewer, The Sinews of Power: War, Money and the English State, 1688-1783 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989); Richard Middleton, The Bells of Victory: The Pitt-Newcastle Ministry and the Conduct of the Seven Years’ War, 1757-1762 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); David Armitage, The Ideological Origins of the British Empire (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000); and Linda Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707-1837 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992) and Captives (New York: Pantheon, 2002). The latter, addressing the general experience and significance of those members of the imperial community taken prisoner by unsubjugated peoples on the periphery, has a more closely focused American counterpart in June Namias, White Captives: Gender and Ethnicity on the American Frontier (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993). For an illuminating comparison between the major European imperialisms, see Anthony Pagden, Lords of All the World: Ideologies of Empire in Spain, Britain, and France, c.1500-c.1800 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1998). Pagden takes an even broader view in Peoples and Empires: A Short History of European Migration, Exploration, and Conquest, from Greece to the Present (New York: Modern Library, 2001).

War, of course, was one of the principal engines by which imperial identities and structures of governance took shape. General works dealing with the projection of military power, its consequences, limits, and ironies include John Shy’s classic account, Toward Lexington: The British Army and the Coming of the American Revolution (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965). A recent book by Stephen Brumwell, Redcoats: The British Soldier and War in the Americas, 1755-1763 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), complements it nicely with a greater emphasis on social history. Two fine books by Douglas Edward Leach, Arms for Empire: A Military History of the British Colonies in North America, 1607-1763 (New York: Macmillan, 1973) and Roots of Conflict: British Armed Forces and Colonial Americans, 1677-1763 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986), narrate and analyze eighteenth-century war and empire within an essentially North American frame of reference. The standard narrative account of colonial warfare is Ian K. Steele, Warpaths: Invasions of America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994). A provocative, brief, and brilliant analysis of the topic can be found in John Grenier, The First Way of War: American War Making on the Frontier, 1607-1814 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005).

Several local studies, dealing with colonies or regions and their societies, treat the war’s impact from a variety of perspectives. These include Fred Anderson, A People’s Army: Massachusetts Soldiers and Society in the Seven Years’ War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press for the Institute of Early American History and Culture, 1984); Kerry A. Trask, In Pursuit of Shadows: Massachusetts Millennialism and the Seven Years’ War (New York: Garland, 1989); William Pencak, War, Politics and Revolution in Provincial Massachusetts (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1981); Harold E. Selesky, War and Society in Colonial Connecticut (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1990); James Titus, The Old Dominion at War: Society, Politics, and Warfare in Late Colonial Virginia (Columbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina Press, 1991); Matthew Ward, Breaking the Backcountry: The Seven Years’ War in Virginia and Pennsylvania (Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2004); Stephen F. Auth, The Ten Years’ War: Indian-White Relations in Pennsylvania, 1755-1765 (New York: Garland, 1989); Geoffrey Plank, An Unsettled Conquest: The British Campaign Against the Peoples of Acadia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001); and John Mack Faragher, A Great and Noble Scheme: The Tragic Story of the Expulsion of the French Acadians from their American Homeland (New York: W. W. Norton, 2005). A forthcoming work by Jay Cassel will treat the colony regular troops of New France in greater depth than any previous account; until it appears, consult his Ph.D. dissertation, “The Troupes de La Marine in Canada, 1683-1760: Men and Matériel” (University of Toronto, 1988; ProQuest/University Microfilms Publication No. AAT NL43490, ISBN: 0315434902).

Studies of battles, campaigns, and even an individual year of the Seven Years’ War add considerable depth to the broader narratives of the conflict. On Braddock’s defeat, see Paul Kopperman, Braddock at the Monongahela (Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1977; reprinted, 2003). The siege of Fort William Henry and its tragic aftermath receive definitive treatment in Ian Steele’s Betrayals: Fort William Henry and the “Massacre” (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990). Brian Leigh Dunnigan, Siege—1759: The Campaign Against Niagara (Youngstown, N.Y.: Old Fort Niagara Association, 1996), provides a similarly comprehensive view of that critical event. C. P. Stacey’s Quebec, 1759: The Siege and the Battle (Toronto: Macmillan, 1959) is the classic account of the Battle of the Plains and its contexts. Donald E. Graves has recently updated and expanded it in a new edition (Toronto: Robin Brass Studio, 2002). Even this version of events at Quebec, however, is incomplete without reference to a remarkable analysis of astronomical and hydrographical information by Donald W. Olson, William D. Liddle, et al., “Perfect Tide, Ideal Moon: An Unappreciated Aspect of Wolfe’s Generalship at Quebec, 1759,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 59 (2002): 957-74. Frank McLynn paints the largest context for understanding Britain’s annus mirabilis in a popular history, 1759: The Year Britain Became Master of the World (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2004).

Studies of individuals can allow an even closer approach to events than the examination of localities, groups, or even individual episodes. For Washington there are many; among the best for understanding this period in his life are Thomas A. Lewis, For King and Country: George Washington, the Early Years (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1993); Don Higginbotham, George Washington and the American Military Tradition (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1985); and Joseph Ellis, His Excellency: George Washington (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004). Investigations of other significant or emblematic actors include Stephen Brumwell’s finely nuanced study of Major Robert Rogers in the context of his Rangers’ raid on the réserve of Saint Francis, White Devil: A True Story of War, Savagery, and Vengeance in Colonial America (Cambridge, Mass.: Da Capo Press, 2005); Nicholas B. Wainwright, George Croghan: Wilderness Diplomat (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press for the Institute of Early American History and Culture, 1959); William G. Godfrey, Pursuit of Profit and Preferment in Colonial North America: John Bradstreet’s Quest (Waterloo, Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1982); Milton W. Hamilton, Sir William Johnson: Colonial American, 1715-1763 (Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat Press, 1976); Robert C. Alberts, The Most Extraordinary Adventures of Major Robert Stobo (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965); Anthony F. C. Wallace, King of the Delawares: Teedyuscung, 1700-1763 (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1949; reprinted, 1990); Lee McCardell, Ill-Starred General: Braddock of the Coldstream Guards (Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1958; reprinted 1986); J. C. Long, Lord Jeffery Amherst: A Soldier of the King (New York: Macmillan, 1933); Stuart Reid, Wolfe: The Career of General James Wolfe from Culloden to Quebec (Rockville Center, N.Y.: Sarpedon Publishers, 2000); Jeremy Black, The Elder Pitt (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992). Meriwether Liston Lewis, Montcalm, the Marvelous Marquis (New York: Vantage, 1961), is unfortunately the nearest approximation of a biography in English; nevertheless, the portrait of Montcalm by his chief aide in Edward P. Hamilton, ed., Adventure in the Wilderness: The American Journals of Louis Antoine de Bougainville, 1756-60 (Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1964), gives a keen notion of his qualities and character. Other memoirs and personal writings similarly animate the experience of war. See especially Andrew Gallup, ed., Memoir of a French and Indian War Soldier: “Jolicoeur” Charles Bonin (Westminster, Md.: Heritage Books, 1993); Christian Frederick Post, Journey on the Forbidden Path: Chronicles of a Diplomatic Mission to the Allegheny Country (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1999); Pierre Pouchot, Memoirs of the Late War in North America Between France and England, ed. Brian Leigh Dunnigan (Youngstown, N.Y.: Old Fort Niagara Association, 1994); Robert Kirk-wood, Through So Many Dangers: The Memoirs and Adventures of Robert Kirk, Late of the Royal Highland Regiment, ed. Ian McCulloch and Timothy Todish (Fleischmanns, N.Y.: Purple Mountain Press, 2004); James E. Seaver, A Narrative of the Life of Mrs. Mary Jemison, ed. June Namias (Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992); Colin Calloway, ed., North Country Captives: Selected Narratives of Indian Captivity from Vermont and New Hampshire (Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1992); Robert Eastburn, A Narrative of the Dangers and Sufferings of Robert Eastburn during His Captivity in the Years 1756-1757 (Fairfield, Wash.: Galleon Press, 1996); and Frederick Drimmer, ed., Captured by Indians: Fifteen Firsthand Accounts, 1750-1870 (New York: Dover, 1985 [contains the memoirs of James Smith, Thomas Brown, and Alexander Henry]). The writings of George Washington can be found in an excellent edition by W. W. Abbot et al., eds., The Papers of George Washington, Colonial Series, 10 vols. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1983-1995). Richard Middleton’s expert selection and annotation make his edition of Amherst’s papers, Amherst and the Conquest of Canada (London: Army Records Society, 2003), particularly valuable. Other worthwhile collections include Alexander C. Flick et al., eds., The Papers of Sir William Johnson, 14 vols. (Albany: University of the State of New York, 1921-1965); Charles Henry Lincoln, ed., Correspondence of William Shirley, Governor of Massachusetts and Military Commander in North America, 1731-1760, 2 vols. (New York: Macmillan, 1912); Gertrude Selwyn Kimball, ed., Correspondence of William Pitt when Secretary of State with Colonial Governors and Military and Naval Commissioners in America, 2 vols. (New York: Macmillan, 1906; reprinted New York: Kraus Reprints, 1969); Stanley M. Pargellis, ed., Military Affairs in North America, 1748-1765 (London: Appleton-Century Company, 1936; reprinted Hamden, Conn.: Archon, 1969); Robert Rogers, The Annotated and Illustrated Journals of Major Robert Rogers, ed. Timothy J. Todish (Fleischmanns, N.Y.: Purple Mountain Press, 2002); and E. B. O’Callaghan et al., eds., Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New York, 15 vols. (Albany: Weed & Parsons, 1853-1887; reprinted New York: AMS, 1969).

Several scholarly articles in addition to those cited above help illuminate aspects of the Seven Years’ War and its significance. Undoubtedly the most provocative and important of all is John M. Murrin, “The French and Indian War, the American Revolution, and the Counterfactual Hypothesis: Reflections on Lawrence Henry Gipson and John Shy,” Reviews in American History, 1 (1973): 307-18; it should be read together with John Shy, “The Empire Remembered: Lawrence Henry Gipson, Historian,” in Shy, A People Numerous and Armed: Reflections on the Military Struggle for American Independence (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976), 109-131, and Jack P. Greene, “The Seven Years’ War and the American Revolution:The Causal Relationship Reconsidered,” in Peter Marshall and Glyn Williams, eds., The British Atlantic Empire before the American Revolution (London: Frank Cass, 1980). Among the rest (and there are hundreds) the following are particularly useful. On disease and its impact, see D. Peter MacLeod, “Microbes and Muskets: Smallpox and the Participation of the Amerindian Allies of New France in the Seven Years’ War,” Ethnohistory, 39 (1992): 42-64; Bernhard Knollenberg, “General Amherst and Germ Warfare,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 41 (1954): 489-95; and Elizabeth Fenn, “Biological Warfare in Eighteenth-Century North America: Beyond Jeffery Amherst,” Journal of American History, 86 (2000): 1552-80. Canada’s food shortages and their impact are admirably explicated in Jean Elizabeth Lunn, “Agriculture and War in Canada, 1740-1760,” Canadian Historical Review, 16 (1935): 123-36. Various aspects of military tactics and logistics are treated in J. M. Hitsman and C. L. J. Bond, “The Assault Landing at Louisbourg, 1758,” Canadian Historical Review, 35 (1954): 314-30; Peter Russell, “Redcoats in the Wilderness: British Officers and Irregular Warfare in Europe and America, 1740-1760,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 35 (1978): 629-52; Leroy V. Eid, “ ‘A Kind of Running Fight’: Indian Battlefield Tactics in the Late Eighteenth Century,” Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine, 71 (1988): 147-71; and Theodore Thayer, “The Army Contractors for the Niagara Campaign, 1755-1756,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 14 (1957): 31-46. John R. Maass, “ ‘All This Poor Province Could Do’: North Carolina and the Seven Years’ War, 1757-1762,” North Carolina Historical Review, 79 (2002), 50-89, scrupulously reconstructs the impact of the war on the politics of public finance in British North America’s poorest colony.

Finally, in addition to the works by Daniel Marston and Seymour Schwartz cited above, numerous works splendidly illustrate the look of contemporary forts, people, clothing, and equipment. Among these the most notable are R. Scott Stephenson, Clash of Empires: The British, French, and Indian War (Pittsburgh: Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania, 2005); Charles Morse Stotz, Outposts of the War for Empire: The French and English in Western Pennsylvania . . . 1749-1764 (Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1985; reprinted 2005); René Chartrand, Colonial American Troops, 1610-1774, 3 vols. (Oxford: Osprey, 2002), Monongahela, 1754-1755: Washington’s Defeat, Braddock’s Disaster (Oxford: Osprey, 2004), Quebec 1759 (Oxford: Osprey, 1999), and French Fortresses in North America, 1535-1763: Quebec, Montreal, Louisbourg, and New Orleans (Oxford: Osprey, 2005); Gary Zaboly, American Colonial Ranger: The Northern Colonies, 1724-1764 (Oxford: Osprey, 2004); Timothy J. Todish, Americas’s First World War: The French and Indian War, 1754-1763 (Fleischmanns, N.Y.: Purple Mountain Press, 2002). Illustrated books shade over into books for children; among these, see especially Christopher Collier and James Lincoln Collier, The French and Indian Wars, 1660-1763 (New York: Benchmark Books, 1998); Joy Hakim, From Colonies to Country (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); Betsy Maestro and Giulio Maestro, Struggle for a Continent: The French and Indian Wars, 1689-1763 (New York: HarperCollins, 2000).