Chapter 1: Origins of Memory Loss
The intervention group, however, improved: S. C. Masley et al., “Efficacy of Exercise and Diet to Modify Markers of Fitness and Wellness,” Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine 14 (2008): 24–29.
People who are vaccinated: R. Verrealt et al., “Past Exposure to Vaccines and Subsequent Risk of Alzheimer’s Disease,” Canadian Medical Association Journal 165 (2001): 1495–98; and A. C. Voordouw et al., “Annual Revaccination Against Influenza and Mortality Risk in Community-Dwelling Elderly Persons,” Journal of the American Medical Association 292 (2004): 2089–95.
a condition called insulin resistance: R. Williamson, A. McNeilly, and C. Sutherland, “Insulin Resistance in the Brain: And Old-Age or New-Age Problem?” Biochemical Pharmacology 84 (2012): 737–45; and S. Cetinkalp, I. Y. Simsir, and S. Ertek, “Insulin Resistance in Brain and Possible Therapeutic Approaches,” Current Vascular Pharmacology 12 (2014): 553–64.
those with the highest levels of insulin: A. A. Willette et al., “Association of Insulin Resistance with Cerebral Glucose Uptake in Late Middle-Aged Adults at Risk for Alzheimer disease,” JAMA Neurology 72 (2015): 1013–20. See also L.D. Baker et al., “Insulin Resistance Is Associated with Alzheimer-like Reductions in Regional Cerebral Glucose Metabolism for Cognitively Normal Adults with Pre-Diabetes or Early Type 2 Diabetes,” Archives of Neurology 68 (2011): 51–57; and T. Matsuzaki et al., “Insulin Resistance Is Associated with the Pathology of Alzheimer’s Disease,” Neurology 75 (2010): 764–70.
uncontrolled blood sugar: P. K. Crane et al., “Glucose Levels and Risk of Dementia,” New England Journal of Medicine 369 (2013): 540–48; and E. Ronnemaa et al., “Impaired Insulin Secretion Increases the Risk of Alzheimer Disease,” Neurology 71 (2008): 1065–71.
Melissa Schilling: M. A. Schilling, “Unraveling Alzheimer’s: Making Sense of the Relationship between Diabetes and Alzheimer’s Disease,” Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease 51 (2016): 961–77.
The Maastricht Aging Study: P. J. Spauwen et al., “Effects of Type 2 Diabetes on 12-Year Cognitive Change,” Diabetes Care 36 (2013): 1554–61.
In animal studies: S. M. De la Monte, “Type 3 Diabetes Is Sporadic Alzheimer’s Disease: Mini-Review,” European Neuropsychopharmacology 24 (2014): 1954–60; and S. M. De la Monte and J. R. Wands, “Alzheimer’s Disease Is Type 3 Diabetes—Evidence Reviewed,” Journal of Diabetes Science and Technology 2 (2008): 1101–13.
Metabolic syndrome reflects: See J. Bajerska et al., “Eating Patterns Are Associated with Cognitive Function in the Elderly at Risk of Metabolic Syndrome from Rural Areas,” European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences 18 (2014): 3234–45; B. Misiak, J. Leszek, and A. Kiejna, “Metabolic Syndrome, Mild Cognitive Impairment and Alzheimer’s Disease—The Emerging Role of Systemic Low-Grade Inflammation and Adiposity,” Brain Research Bulletin 89 (2012): 144–49; G. M. Pasinetti and J. Eberstein, “Metabolic Syndrome and the Role of Dietary Lifestyles in Alzheimer’s Disease,” Journal of Neurochemistry 106 (2008): 1503–14; and C. Raffaitin et al., “Metabolic Syndrome and Risk for Incident Alzheimer’s Disease or Vascular Dementia,” Diabetes Care 32 (2009): 169–74.
Kaiser Permanente study: P. E. Casey et al., “Controlling High Blood Pressure,” Permanente Journal 10 (2006): 13–16.
Honolulu-Asia Aging study: L. J. Launer et al., “Midlife Blood Pressure and Dementia: The Honolulu-Asia Aging Study,” Neurobiology of Aging 21 (2000): 49–55.
The landmark Rotterdam Study: R. F. De Bruijn et al., “The Potential for Prevention of Dementia Across Two Decades: The Prospective, Population-Based Rotterdam Study,” BMC Medicine 13 (2015): 132.
follow-up studies: A. Ott et al., “Association of Diabetes Mellitus and Dementia: The Rotterdam Study,” Diabetologia 39 (1996): 1392–97.
Our clinic database: S. C. Masley, L. V. Masley, and T. Gualtieri, “Cardiovascular Biomarkers and Carotid IMT Scores as Predictors of Cognitive Function,” Journal of the American College of Nutrition 33 (2014): 63–69.
Chapter 2: How Sharp Is Your Brain?
patients in their seventies and eighties: Sandra Levy, “Study: Concussions Lead to Increased Dementia Risk in Older Adults,” HealthLine, October 29, 2014.
In 2014, I published a paper: S. C. Masley, L. V. Masley, and T. Gualtieri, “Cardiovascular Biomarkers and Carotid IMT Scores as Predictors of Cognitive Function,” Journal of the American College of Nutrition 33 (2014): 63–69.
The ApoE2 genotype: R. Chouinard-Watkins and M. Plourde, “Fatty Acid Metabolism in Carriers of Apolipoprotein E Epsilon 4 Allele: Is It Contributing to Higher Risk of Cognitive Decline and Coronary Heart Disease?” Nutrients 6 (2014): 4452–71. See also J. Dose et al., “ApoE Genotype and Stress Response—A Mini Review,” Lipids in Health and Disease 15 (2016): n.p.; and S. Egert, G. Rimbach, and P. Huebbe, “ApoE Genotype: From Geographic Distribution to Function and Responsiveness to Dietary Factors,” Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 71 (2012): 410–24.
controlling blood sugar: A. Hofman et al., “Atherosclerosis, Apolipoprotein E, and Prevalence of Dementia and Alzheimer’s Disease in the Rotterdam Study,” Lancet 349 (1997): 151–54; and M.A. Schilling, “Unraveling Alzheimer’s: Making Sense of the Relationship Between Diabetes and Alzheimer’s Disease,” Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease 51 (2016): 961–77.
simply delaying its onset: R. Brookmeyer, S. Gray, and C. Kawas, “Projections of Alzheimer’s Disease in the United States and the Public Health Impact of Delaying Disease Onset,” American Journal of Public Health 88 (1998): 1337–42.
Part II: The Better Brain Solution
The FINGER study from Finland: T. Ngandu et al., “A 2 Year Multidomain Intervention of Diet, Exercise, Cognitive Training, and Vascular Risk Monitoring Versus Control to Prevent Cognitive Decline in At-Risk Elderly People (FINGER): A Randomised Control Panel,” Lancet 385 (2015): 2255–63.
Dr. Bredesen’s program: D. E. Bredesen, “Reversal of Cognitive Decline: A Novel Therapeutic Program,” Aging 9 (2014): 707–17.
a varied approach shows the most promise: M. Baumgart et al., “Summary of the Evidence on Modifiable Risk Factors for Cognitive Decline and Dementia,” Alzheimer’s and Dementia 11 (2015): 718–26.
food choices that are heart-healthy: “Prevention and Risk of Alzheimer’s and Dementia,” Alzheimer’s Association (n.d.), http://www.alz.org/research/science/alzheimers_prevention_and_risk.asp#exercise.
Chapter 3: Boost Your Brain with 12 Smart Foods
a study performed in Australia: E. L. Wightman et al., “Dietary Nitrate Modulates Cerebral Blood Flow Parameters and Cognitive Performance in Humans: A Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Crossover Investigation,” Physiology and Behavior 149 (2015): 149–58.
greater long-chain omega-3 intake correlates: V. A. Andreeva et al., “Cognitive Function After Supplementation with B Vitamins and Long-Chain Omega-3 Fatty Acids: Ancillary Findings from the SU.FOL.OM3 Randomized Trial,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 94 (2011): 278–86; E. Y. Chew et al., “Effect of Omega-3 Fatty Acids, Lutein/Zeaxanthin, or Other Nutrient Supplementation on Cognitive Function,” JAMA 314 (2015): 791–801; L. K. Lee et al., “Docosahexaenoic Acid-Concentrated Fish Oil Supplementation in Subjects with Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI): A 12-Month Randomised, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial,” Psychopharmacology 225 (2013): 605–12; M. C. Morris et al., “Fish Consumption and Cognitive Decline with Age in a Large Community Study,” Archives of Neurology 62 (2005): 1849–53; K. A. Page et al., “Medium-Chain Fatty Acids Improve Cognitive Function in Intensively Treated Type 1 Diabetic Patients and Support in Vitro Synaptic Transmission During Acute Hypoglycemia,” Diabetes 58 (2009): 1237–44; B. Qin et al., “Fish Intake Is Associated with Slower Cognitive Decline in Chinese Older Adults,” Journal of Nutrition 144 (2014): 1579–85; K. W. Shepard and C. L. Cheatham. “Omega-6 to Omega-3 Fatty Acid Ratio and Higher-Order Cognitive Functions in 7- to 9-Year-Olds: A Cross-Sectional Study,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 98 (2013): 659–67; L. Shinto et al., “A Randomized Placebo-Controlled Pilot Trial of Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Alpha Lipoic Acid in Alzheimer’s Disease,” Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease 38 (2014): n.p.; J. Thomas et al., “Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Early Prevention of Inflammatory Neurodegenerative Disease: A Focus on Alzheimer’s Disease,” BioMed Research International 2015 (2015): n.p.; H. Tokuda et al., “Low Doses of Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Affect Cognitive Function in Elderly Japanese Men: A Randomized Controlled Trial,” Journal of Oleo Science 64 (2015): 633–44; O. Van de Rest et al., “ApoE4 and the Associations of Seafood and Long-Chain Omega-3 Fatty Acids with Cognitive Decline,” Neurology 86 (2016): 2063–70; A. V. Witte et al., “Long-Chain Omega-3 Fatty Acids Improve Brain Function and Structure in Older Adults,” Cerebral Cortex 24 (2013): 3059–68; and Y. Zhang et al., “Intake of Fish and Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Mild-to-Severe Cognitive Impairment Risks: A Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of 21 Cohort Studies,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 103 (2016): 330–40.
Higher-quality pure supplements: D. Swanson, R. Block, and S. A. Mousa, “Omega-3 Fatty Acids EPA and DHA: Health Benefits Throughout Life,” Advances in Nutrition 3 (2012): 1–7; N. Sinn et al., “Effects of n-3 Fatty Acids, EPA v. DHA, on Depressive Symptoms, Quality of Life, Memory and Executive Function in Older Adults with Mild Cognitive Impairment: A 6-Month Randomised Controlled Trial,” British Journal of Nutrition 107 (2012): 1682–93; and J. Allaire et al., “Randomized, Crossover, Head-to-Head Comparison of EPA and DHA Supplementation to Reduce Inflammation Markers in Men and Women: The Comparing EPA to DHA Study,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2016): n.p.
children appear to benefit: W. Stonehouse, “Does Consumption of LC Omega-3 PUFA Enhance Cognitive Performance in Healthy School-Aged Children and Throughout Adulthood? Evidence from Clinical Trials,” Nutrients 6 (2014): 2730–58.
Predimed-Navarra study: E. H. Martinez-Lapiscina et al., “Mediterranean Diet Improves Cognition: The PREDIMED-NAVARRA Randomized Trial,” BMJ 84 (2012): online.
with or without walnuts: S. M. Poulose, M.G. Miller, and B. Shukitt-Hale, “Role of Walnuts in Maintaining Brain Health with Age,” Journal of Nutrition 144 (2014): 5615–65; and P. Pribis et al., “Effects of Walnut Consumption on Cognitive Performance in Young Adults,” British Journal of Nutrition 107 (2012): 1393–401.
Feeding children blueberry-rich: A. R. Whyte et al., “Cognitive Effects Following Acute Wild Blueberry Supplementation in 7- to 10-Year-Old Children,” European Journal of Nutrition 55 (2016): 2151–62.
older adults showed: R. Krikorian et al., “Blueberry Supplementation Improves Memory in Older Adults,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 58 (2010): 3996–4000.
blueberries have been shown to reduce: Y. Zhu et al., “Blueberry Opposes B-Amyloid Peptide-Induced Microglial Activation via Inhibition of p44/42 Mitogen-Activation Protein Kinase,” Rejuvenation Research 11 (2008): 891–901.
cocoa intake improves: Ibid.
eight weeks of daily cocoa: D. Mastroiacovo et al., “Cocoa Flavanol Consumption Improves Cognitive Function, Blood Pressure Control, and Metabolic Profile in Elderly Subjects: The Cocoa, Cognition, and Aging (CoCoA) Study—A Randomized Controlled Trial,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 101 (2015): 538–48.
Dark, unprocessed cocoa: M. Alonso-Alonso, “Cocoa Flavanols and Cognition: Regaining Chocolate in Old Age?” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 101 (2015): 423–24.
Physicians’ Health Study: C. Matsumoto et al., “Chocolate Consumption and Risk of Diabetes Mellitus in the Physicians’ Health Study,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 101 (2015): 362–67.
Caffeine increases information: S. Haller et al., “Acute Caffeine Administration Effect on Brain Activation Patterns in Mild Cognitive Impairment,” Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease 41 (2014): 101–12.
a J-shaped-curve relationship: L. Wu, D. Sun, and Y. He, “Coffee Intake and the Incident Risk of Cognitive Disorders: A Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Nine Prospective Cohort Studies,” Clinical Nutrition 36 (2016): 730–36.
in Japan, a study: K. Sugiyama et al., “Association Between Coffee Consumption and Incident Risk of Disabling Dementia in Elderly Japanese: The Ohsaki Cohort 2006 Study,” Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease 50 (2016): 491–500.
women display less cognitive: M. N. Vercambre et al., “Caffeine and Cognitive Decline in Elderly Women at High Vascular Risk,” Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease 35 (2013): 413–21; and L. Arab, F. Khan, and H. Lam, “Epidemiologic Evidence of a Relationship Between Tea, Coffee, or Caffeine Consumption and Cognitive Decline,” Advances in Nutrition 4 (2013): 115–22.
Even decaf coffee: D. A. Camfield, “A Randomised Placebo-Controlled Trial to Differentiate the Acute Cognitive and Mood Effects of Chlorogenic Acid from Decaffeinated Coffee,” PLoS One, December 9, 2013: online.
If you like drinking coffee: For more information, see L. F. Araujo et al., “Inconsistency of Association Between Coffee Consumption and Cognitive Function in Adults and Elderly in a Cross-Sectional Study (ELSA-Brasil),” Nutrients 7 (2015): 9590–601; F. L. Dodd et al., “A Double-Blinded, Placebo-Controlled Study Evaluating the Effects of Caffeine and L-Theanine Both Alone and in Combination on Cerebral Blood Flow, Cognition and Mood,” Psychopharmacology 232 (2015): 2563–76; and Q. P. Liu et al., “Habitual Coffee Consumption and Risk of Cognitive Decline/Dementia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies,” Nutrition 32 (2016): 628–36.
97 mg of L-theanine: T. Giesbrecht et al., “The Combination of L–theanine and Caffeine Improves Cognitive Performance and Increases Subjective Alertness,” Nutritional Neuroscience 13 (2010): 283–90. See also S. J. Einother and V. E. Martens, “Acute Effects of Tea Consumption on Attention and Mood,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 98 (2013): 17005–85; and D. J. White et al., “Anti-Stress, Behavioural and Magnetoencephalography Effect of an L-Theanine-Based Nutrient Drink: A Randomised, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Crossover Trial,” Nutrients 8 (2016): 53.
slow caffeine metabolizers’ results: JAMA and Archives Journals, “Coffee Consumption Linked to Increased Risk of Heart Attack for Persons with Certain Gene Variation,” Science Daily (2006): online.
those who consume alcohol: M. A. Collins et al., “Alcohol in Moderation, Cardioprotection, and Neuroprotection: Epidemiological Considerations and Mechanistic Studies,” Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 33 (2009): 206–19.
New York City residents: Y. Gu et al., “Alcohol Intake and Brain Structure in a Multiethnic Elderly Cohort,” Clinical Nutrition 33 (2014): 662–67.
In Australia, researchers: O. P. Almeida et al., “Alcohol Consumption and Cognitive Impairment in Older Men,” Neurology 82 (2014): 1038–44.
A study in the Netherlands: A.C.J. Nooyens et al., “Consumption of Alcoholic Beverages and Cognitive Decline at Middle Age: The Doestinchem Cohort Study,” British Journal of Nutrition 111 (2014): 715–23.
In France, researchers: E. Kesse–Guyot et al., “A Healthy Dietary Pattern at Midlife Is Associated with Subsequent Cognitive Performance,” Journal of Nutrition 142 (2012): 909–15.
Garlic: V. B. Gupta, S. S. Indi, and K.S.J. Rao, “Garlic Extract Exhibits Antiamyloidogenic Activity on Amyloid-Beta Fibrillogenesis: Relevance to Alzheimer’s Disease,” Phytotherapy Research 23 (2009): 111–15.
Cinnamon: B. Qin, K. S. Panickar, and R. A. Anderson, “Cinnamon: Potential Role in the Prevention of Insulin Resistance, Metabolic Syndrome, and Type 2 Diabetes,” Journal of Diabetes Science and Technology 4 (2010): 685–93.
They have the highest: H. Wang et al., “Oxygen Radical Absorbing Capacity of Anthocyanins,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 45 (1997): 304–9. See also D. Li et al., “Purified Anthocyanin Supplementation Reduces Dyslipidemia, Enhances Antioxidant Capacity, and Prevents Insulin Resistance in Diabetic Patients,” Journal of Nutrition 145 (2015): 742–48.
eating legumes can even improve: D. J. Jenkins et al., “Rate of Digestion of Foods and Postprandial Glycaemia in Normal and Diabetic Subjects,” BMJ 281 (1980): 14–17; and V. Mohan et al., “Effects of Brown Rice, White Rice, and Brown Rice with Legumes on Blood Glucose and Insulin Responses in Overweight Asian Indians: A Randomized Controlled Trial,” Diabetes Technology and Therapeutics 16 (2014): 317–25.
the gut microbiome: See, for example, B. Caracciolo et al., “Cognitive Decline, Dietary Factors and Gut-Brain Interactions,” Mechanisms of Ageing and Development 136 (2014): 59–69.
weight gain: A.V. Hart, “Insights into the Role of the Microbiome in Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes,” Diabetes Care 38 (2015): 159–65.
stomach acid is essential: http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/858909; and C. Bavishi and H. L. Dupont, “Systematic Review: The Use of Proton Pump Inhibitors and Increased Susceptibility to Enteric Infection,” Alimentary Pharmacology and Therapeutics 34 (2011): 11–12.
Martha Clare Morris: M. C. Morris et al., “MIND Diet Slows Cognitive Decline with Aging,” Alzheimer’s and Dementia 11 (2015): 1015–22.
when you combine saturated fat: A. Chait and F. Kim, “Saturated Fatty Acids and Inflammation: Who Pays the Toll?” Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology 30 (2010): 692–93; M. Funaki, “Saturated Fatty Acids and Insulin Resistance,” Journal of Medical Investigation 56 (2009): 88–92; and M.A.R. Vinolo et al., “Regulation of Inflammation by Short Chain Fatty Acids,” Nutrients 3 (2011): 858–76.
Veterans Affairs Medical Center: A. J. Hanson et al., “Effect of Apolipoprotein E Genotype and Diet on Apolipoprotein E Lipidation and Amyloid Peptides,” JAMA Neurology 70 (2013): 972–80.
eating more saturated fat: D. D. Wang et al., “Association of Specific Dietary Fats with Total and Cause-Specific Mortality,” JAMA Internal Medicine 176 (2016): 1134–45; and S. J. Nicholls et al., “Consumption of Saturated Fat Impairs the Anti-Inflammatory Properties of High-Density Lipoproteins and Endothelial Function,” Journal of the American College of Cardiology 48 (2006): 715–20.
the Mediterranean diet: Y. Gu et al., “Mediterranean Diet and Brain Structure in a Multiethnic Elderly Cohort,” Neurology (October 21, 2015): online; Y. Gu et al., “Mediterranean Diet, Inflammatory and Metabolic Biomarkers, and Risk of Alzheimer’s Disease,” Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease 22 (2010): 483–92; A. Knight, J. Bryan, and K. Murphy, “Is the Mediterranean Diet a Feasible Approach to Preserving Cognitive Function and Reducing Risk of Dementia for Older Adults in Western Countries? New Insights and Future Directions,” Ageing Research Reviews 25 (2016): 85–101; A. Knight et al., “A Randomised Controlled Intervention Trial Evaluating the Efficacy of a Mediterranean Dietary Pattern on Cognitive Function and Psychological Wellbeing in Healthy Older Adults: The Medley Study,” BMC Geriatrics 15 (2015): 55; M. Luciano et al., “Mediterranean-Type Diet and Brain Structural Change from 73 to 76 Years in Scottish Cohort,” Neurology 88 (2017): 1–7; C. Samieri et al., “Mediterranean Diet and Cognitive Function in Older Age: Results from the Women’s Health Study,” Epidemiology 24 (2013): 490–99; C. Valls-Pedret et al., “Mediterranean Diet and Age-Related Cognitive Decline: A Randomized Clinical Trial,” JAMA Internal Medicine 175 (2015): 1094–103; H. Wengreen et al., “Prospective Study of Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension and Mediterranean-Style Dietary Patterns and Age-Related Cognitive Change: The Cache County Study on Memory, Health and Aging,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 98 (2013): 1263–71; and X. Ye et al., “Mediterranean Diet, Health Eating Index–2005, and Cognitive Function in Middle-Aged and Older Puerto Rican Adults,” Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics 113 (2013): 276–81.
Chapter 4: More Ways to Feed Your Brain
middle-aged, overweight women: D. J. Lamport et al., “A Low Glycaemic Load Breakfast Can Attenuate Cognitive Impairments Observed in Middle Aged Obese Females with Impaired Glucose Tolerance,” Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases 24 (2014): 1128–36; and A. Nilsson, K. Radeborg, and I. Bjorck, “Effects of Differences in Postprandial Glycaemia on Cognitive Functions in Healthy Middle-Aged Subjects,” European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 63 (2009): 113–20. See also S. Seetharaman et al., “Blood Glucose, Diet-Based Glycemic Load and Cognitive Aging Among Dementia-Free Older Adults,” Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 70 (2015): 471–79.
blood sugar responses can vary: N. R. Matthan et al., “Estimating the Reliability of Glycemic Index Values and Potential Sources of Methodological and Biological Variability,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2016): online.
partial intermittent fasting: I. Amigo and A. J. Kowaltowski, “Dietary Restriction in Cerebral Bioenergetics and Redox State,” Redox Biology 2 (2014): 296–304.
intermittent fasting in mice: M. P. Mattson, W. Duan, and Z. Guo, “Meal Size and Frequency Affect Neuronal Plasticity and Vulnerability to Disease: Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms,” Journal of Neurochemistry 84 (2003): 417–31; and Amigo and Kowaltowski, “Dietary Restriction”; and G. Pani, “Neuroprotective Effects of Dietary Restriction: Evidence and Mechanisms,” Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology 40 (2015): 106–14.
this method of alternating fasting: M. P. Wegman et al., “Practicality of Intermittent Fasting in Humans and Its Effect on Oxidative Stress and Genes Related to Aging and Metabolism,” Rejuvenation Research 18 (2015): 162–72.
Those on the very-low-carb diet: R. Krikorian et al., “Dietary Ketosis Enhances Memory in Mild Cognitive Impairment,” Neurobiology of Aging 33 (2012): 425.e19–425.e27.
Samuel Henderson: S. T. Henderson and J. Poirier, “Pharmacogenetic Analysis of the Effects of Polymorphisms in APOE, IDE and IL1B on a Ketone Body Based Therapeutic on Cognition in Mild to Moderate Alzheimer’s Disease: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study,” BMC Medical Genetics 12 (2011): 137; and S.T. Henderson et al., “Study of the Ketogenic Agent AC-1202 in Mild to Moderate Alzheimer’s Disease: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Multicenter Trial,” Nutrition and Metabolism (London) 6 (2009): 31.
The primary oil component: Y. Nonaka et al., “Lauric Acid Stimulates Ketone Body Production in the KT-5 Astrocyte Cell Line,” Journal of Oleo Science 65 (2016): 693–99.
Coconut oil generally: W.M.A.D.B. Fernando et al., “The Role of Dietary Coconut for the Prevention and Treatment of Alzheimer’s Disease: Potential Mechanisms of Action,” British Journal of Nutrition 114 (2015): 1–14.
Chapter 5: Key Nutrients for Brain Health
low vitamin D levels are: J. W. Miller et al., “Vitamin D Status and Rates of Cognitive Decline in a Multiethnic Cohort of Older Adults,” JAMA Neurology 72 (2015): 1295–303. See also C. Annweiler et al., “ ‘Vitamin D and Cognition in Older Adults’: Updated International Recommendations,” Journal of Internal Medicine 277 (2015): 45–57; and A. K. Gangwar et al., “Role of Vitamin-D in the Prevention and Treatment of Alzheimer’s Disease,” Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 59 (2015): 94–99.
larger brains: B. Hooshmand et al., “Vitamin D in Relation to Cognitive Impairment, Cerebrospinal Fluid Biomarkers, and Brain Volumes,” Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 69 (2014): 1132–38.
treating adults with vitamin B12: N. L. Van der Zwaluw et al., “Results of 2-Year Vitamin B Treatment on Cognitive Performance,” Neurology 83 (2014): 2158–66. See also E. L. Doets et al., “Vitamin B12 Intake Status and Cognitive Function in Elderly Patients,” Epidemiologic Reviews 35 (2013): 2–21; S. J. Eussen et al., “Effect of Oral Vitamin B-12 with or without Folic Acid on Cognitive Function in Older People with Mild Vitamin B-12 Deficiency: A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 84 (2006): 361–70; C. Castillo-Lancellotti et al., “Serum Folate, Vitamin B12 and Cognitive Impairment in Chilean Older Adults,” Public Health Nutrition 18 (2015): 2600–8; D. Moorthy et al., “Status of B-12 and B-6 but Not of Folate, Homocysteine, and the Methylenetetrahydrofolate Reductase C677T Polymorphism Are Associated with Impaired Cognition and Depression in Adults,” Journal of Nutrition 142 (2012): 1554–60; R. Clarke et al., “Effects of Homocysteine Lowering with B Vitamins on Cognitive Aging: Meta-Analysis of 11 Trials with Cognitive Data on 22,000 Individuals,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 100 (2014): 657–66; and M. S. Morris, “The Role of B Vitamins in Preventing and Treating Cognitive Impairment and Decline,” Advances in Nutrition 3 (2012): 801–12.
Consuming rancid fish oil: B. B. Albert et al., “Fish Oil Supplements in New Zealand Are Highly Oxidised and Do Not Meet Label Content of n-3 PUFA,” Scientific Reports 5 (2014): n.p.
magnesium L-threonate daily: G. Liu et al., “Efficacy and Safety of MMFS–01, a Synapse Density Enhancer, for Treating Cognitive Impairment in Older Adults: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial,” Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease 49 (2016): 971–90. See also U. Grober, J. Schmidt, and K. Kisters, “Magnesium in Prevention and Therapy,” Nutrients 7 (2015): 8199–226.
Dr. Katherine Cox: K.H.M. Cox, A. Pipingas, and A. B. Scholey, “Investigation of the Effects of Solid Lipid Curcumin on Cognition and Mood in a Healthy Older Population,” Journal of Psychopharmacology 29 (2015): 642–51.
giving curcumin decreased: S. J. Kim et al., “Curcumin Stimulates Proliferation of Embryonic Neural Progenitor Cells and Neurogenesis in the Adult Hippocampus,” Journal of Biological Chemistry 283 (2008): 14497–505. See also L. Baum et al., “Six-Month Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Double-Blind, Pilot Clinical Trial of Curcumin in Patients with Alzheimer Disease,” Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 28 (2008): 110–13; N. Brondino et al., “Curcumin as a Therapeutic Agent in Dementia: A Mini Systemic Review of Human Studies,” Scientific World Journal 2014 (2014): n.p.; D. Chin et al., “Neuroprotective Properties of Curcumin in Alzheimer’s Disease—Merits and Limitations,” Current Medicinal Chemistry 20 (2013): 3955–85; R. A. DiSilvestro et al., “Diverse Effects of a Low Dose Supplement of Lipidated Curcumin in Healthy Middle Aged People,” Nutrition Journal 11 (2012): 79; and K. G. Gooze et al., “Examining the Potential Clinical Value of Curcumin in the Prevention and Diagnosis of Alzheimer’s Disease,” British Journal of Nutrition 115 (2016): 449–65.
no memory benefit: J. M. Ringman et al., “Oral Curcumin for Alzheimer’s Disease: Tolerability and Efficacy in a 24-Week Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study,” Alzheimer’s Research and Therapy 4 (2012): 43.
prolonged calorie restriction: G. Pani, “Neuroprotective Effects of Dietary Restriction: Evidence and Mechanisms,” Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology 40 (2015): 106–14.
impact of taking resveratrol: E. L. Wightman et al., “Effects of Resveratrol Alone or in Combination with Piperine on Cerebral Blood Flow Parameters and Cognitive Performance in Human Subjects: A Randomised, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Cross-Over Investigation,” British Journal of Nutrition 112 (2014): 2013–213. See also G. M. Pasinetti et al., “Roles of Resveratrol and Other Grape-Derived Polyphenols in Alzheimer’s Disease Prevention and Treatment,” Biochimica Biophysica Acta 1852 (2015): 1202–8; and A. V. Witte et al., “Effects of Resveratrol on Memory Performance, Hippocampal Function Connectivity, and Glucose Metabolism in Healthy Older Adults,” Journal of Neuroscience 34 (2014): 7862–70.
only one small study: R. S. Turner et al., “A Randomised, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial of Resveratrol for Alzheimer Disease,” Neurology 85 (2015): 1383–91.
this compound as it relates: D. L. Moran et al., “Effects of a Supplement Containing Apoaequorin on Verbal Learning in Older Adults in the Community,” Advances in Mind/Body Medicine 30 (2016): 4–11.
Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10, also called): Y. Momiyama, “Serum Coenzyme Q10 Levels as a Predictor of Dementia in a Japanese General Population,” Atherosclerosis 237 (2014): 433–34; and L. V. Schottlaender et al., “Coenzyme Q10 Levels Are Decreased in the Cerebellum of Multiple-System Atrophy Patients,” PLoS One (February 9, 2016): online.
small study conducted in China: Y. Y. Zhang, L. Q. Yang, and L. M. Geo, “Effect of Phosphatidylserine on Memory in Patients and Rates with Alzheimer’s Disease,” Genetics and Molecular Research 14 (2015): 9325–33. See also M. I. More, U. Freitas, and D. Rutenberg, “Positive Effects of Soy Lecithin–Derived Phosphatidylserine Plus Phosphatidic Acid on Memory, Cognition, Daily Functioning, and Mood in Elderly Patients with Alzheimer’s Disease and Dementia,” Advances in Therapy 31 (2014): 1247–62.
controversy with phosphatidylserine: B. L. Jorissen et al., “The Influence of Soy-Derived Phosphatidylserine on Cognition in Age-Associated Memory Impairment,” Nutrition Neuroscience 4 (2001): 121–34.
Huperzine A: J. Y. Jia et al., “Phase I Study on the Pharmacokinetics and Tolerance of ZT-1, a Prodrug of Huperzine A, for the Treatment of Alzheimer’s Disease,” Acta Pharmacologia Sinica 34 (2013): 976–82.
A twelve-week randomized study: Z. Q. Xu et al., “Treatment with Huperzine A Improves Cognition in Vascular Dementia,” Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics 62 (2012): 55–58.
A review of twenty randomized: G. Yang et al., “Huperzine A for Alzheimer’s Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Clinical Trials,” PLoS One (September 23, 2013): online.
Chapter 6: How to Move Your Body for a Better Brain
exercise and brain function: J. R. Best et al., “Long-Term Effects of Resistance Exercise Training on Cognition and Brain Volume in Older Women,” Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 21 (2015): 745–56; R.T.H. Ho et al., “A 3-Arm Randomized Controlled Trial on the Effects of Dance Movement Intervention and Exercises on Elderly with Early Dementia,” BMC Geriatrics 15 (2015): 127; O. Iyalomhe et al., “A Standardized Randomized 6-Month Aerobic Exercise-Training Down-Regulated Pro-Inflammatory Genes, but Up-Regulated Anti-Inflammatory, Neuron Survival and Axon Growth-Related Genes,” Experimental Gerontology 69 (2015): 159–69; and L. F. Ten Brinke et al., “Aerobic Exercise Increases Hippocampal Volume in Older Women with Probable Mild Cognitive Impairment: A 6-Month Randomized Controlled Trial,” British Journal of Sports Medicine 49 (2015): 248–54.
In research I conducted: S. C. Masley, R. Roetzheim, and T. Gualtieri, “Aerobic Exercise Enhances Cognitive Flexibility,” Journal of Clinical Psychology 16 (2009): 186–93.
daily activity: N. T. Lautenschlager et al., “Effect of Physical Activity on Cognitive Function in Older Adults at Risk for Alzheimer Disease,” JAMA 300 (2008): 1027–37.
Exercise gets your blood pumping: J. N. Barnes, “Exercise, Cognitive Function and Aging,” Advances in Physiology Education 39 (2015): 55–62.
preventing a loss in muscle: J. M. Burns et al., “Lean Mass Is Reduced in Early Alzheimer’s Disease and Associated with Brain Atrophy,” Archives of Neurology 67 (2010): 428–33.
exercise might affect brain size: L. F. Ten Brinke et al., “Aerobic Exercise Increases Hippocampal Volume in Older Women with Probable Mild Cognitive Impairment,” British Journal of Sports Medicine 49 (2015): 248–54.
My own most recent: S. C. Masley et al., “Lifestyle Markers Predict Cognitive Function,” Journal of the American College of Nutrition. Date and volume pending.
In a study in Australia: M.A.F. Singh et al., “The Study of Mental and Resistance Training (SMART) Study-Resistance Training and/or Cognitive Training in Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Double-Sham Controlled Trial,” JAMDA 15 (2014): 873–80.
research conducted by my clinic: S. C. Masley, L. V. Masley, and T. Gualtieri, “Cardiovascular Biomarkers and Carotid IMT Scores as Predictors of Cognitive Function,” Journal of the American College of Nutrition 33 (2014): 63–69.
Two large national studies: T. S. Church et al., “Effects of Aerobic and Resistance Training on HgbA1C in Type 2 Diabetics,” JAMA 304 (2010): 2253–62; and R. J. Sigal et al., “Effects of Aerobic Training, Resistance Training, or Both on Glycemic Control in Type 2 Diabetes,” Annals of Internal Medicine 147 (2007): 357–69.
interval training improves blood sugar: S. M. Madsen et al., “High Intensity Interval Training Improves Glycaemic Control and Pancreatic Beta Cell Function of Type 2 Diabetes Patients,” PLoS One (2015): online; and I. Almenning et al., “Effects of High Intensity Interval Training and Strength Training on Metabolic, Cardiovascular, and Hormonal Outcomes in Women with Polycystic Ovary Syndrome,” PLoS One, September 25, 2015: online.
A study in the United Kingdom: S. O. Shepherd et al., “Low-Volume, High-Intensity Interval Training in a Gym Setting Improves Cardiometabolic and Psychological Health,” PLoS One, September 24, 2015: online.
Dr. Teresa Liu-Ambrose: J. R. Best et al., “Long-Term Effects of Resistance Exercise Training on Cognition and Brain Volume in Older Women,” Journal of International Neuropsychological Society 21 (2015): 745–56.
tai chi has been shown: M. H. Nguyen and A. Kruse, “A Randomized Controlled Trial of Tai Chi for Balance, Sleep Quality and Cognitive Performance in Elderly Vietnamese,” Clinical Interventions in Aging 7 (2012): 185–90.
Chapter 7: Calm Your Brain
people with insomnia: J. C. Chen et al., “Sleep Duration, Cognitive Decline, and Dementia Risk in Older Women,” Alzheimer’s and Dementia 12 (2016): 21–33; and K. Yaffe et al., “Connections Between Sleep and Cognition in Older Adults,” Lancet Neurology 13 (2014): 1017–28.
Meditation can lower: K. E. Innes et al., “Effects of Meditation Versus Music Listening on Perceived Stress, Mood, Sleep, and Quality of Life in Adults with Early Memory Loss: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial,” Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease 52 (2016): 1277–98; N. Wahbeh, E. Goodrich, and B. S. Oken, “Internet Mindfulness Meditation for Cognition and Mood in Older Adults: A Pilot Study,” Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine 22 (2016): 44–53; R. E. Wells et al., “Meditation’s Impact on Default Mode Network and Hippocampus in Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Pilot Study,” Neuroscience Letters 556 (2013): 15–19; and M. Pratzlich et al., “Impact of Short-Term Meditation and Expectation on Executive Brain Functions,” Behavioural Brain Research 297 (2016): 268–76.
Chapter 8: Protecting Your Brain from Toxins
two hundred chemicals: From a report by Sanjay Gupta, a neurosurgeon and CNN’s chief medical correspondent.
BPA has also been shown: Anahad O’Connor, “BPA in Cans and Plastic Bottles Linked to Quick Rise in Blood Pressure,” New York Times, December 8, 2014.
excessive amounts: L. A. Hoffman, A. L. Sklar, and S. J. Nixon, “The Effects of Acute Alcohol on Psychomotor, Set-Shifting, and Working Memory Performance in Older Men and Women,” Alcohol 49 (2015): 185–91; and A. M. Day, “Executive Functioning in Alcohol Use Studies: A Brief Review of Findings and Challenges in Assessment,” Current Drug Abuse Reviews 8 (2015): 26–40.
Dr. Suzanne de la Monte: M. Tong et al., “Nitrosamine Exposure Causes Insulin Resistance Diseases: Relevance to Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus, NASH, and Alzheimer’s Disease,” Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease 17 (2009): 827–44.
harm associated with tobacco: E. Yalcin and S. de la Monte, “Tobacco Nitrosamines as Culprits in Disease,” Journal of Physiology and Biochemistry 72 (2016): 107–20.
a DDT residue: Robin Reese, “Potential Risk Factor for Alzheimer’s: DDT Exposure,” Emory News Center, January 30, 2014; and J. R. Richardson et al., “Elevated Serum Pesticide Levels and Risk for Alzheimer Disease,” JAMA Neurology 71 (2014): 284–90.
In 2012 my colleagues and I: S. C. Masley, L. V. Masley, and T. Gualtieri, “Effect of Mercury Levels and Seafood Intake on Cognitive Function in Middle-Aged Adults,” Integrative Medicine 11 (2012): 32–40.
blood pesticide levels: D. H. Lee et al., “Association Between Background Exposure to Organochlorinpesticides and the Risk of Cognitive Impairment,” Environment International 89–90 (2016): 179–84.
a study in Taiwan: J. N. Lin et al., “Increased Risk of Dementia in Patients with Acute Organophosphate and Carbamate Poisoning,” Medicine 94 (2015): e1187.
Chapter 9: A Better (Happier) Brain for Life
menopause and andropause: T. C. Castanho et al., “The Role of Sex and Sex-Related Hormones in Cognition, Mood and Well-Being in Older Men and Women,” Biological Psychology 103 (2014): 158–66; C. E. Gleason et al., “Effects of Hormone Therapy on Cognition and Mood in Recently Postmenopausal Women: Findings from the Randomized, Controlled KEEPS-Cognitive and Affective Study,” PLoS Medicine, June 2, 2015: n.p.; Y. Hara, “Estrogen Effects on Cognitive and Synaptic Health over the Lifecourse,” Physiological Reviews 95 (2015): 785–807; A. McCarrey and S. M. Resnick, “Postmenopausal Hormone Therapy and Cognition,” Hormones and Behavior 74 (2015): 167–72; H. Pintana, N. Chattipakorn, and S. Chattipakorn, “Testosterone Deficiency, Insulin-Resistant Obesity and Cognitive Function,” Metabolic Brain Disorders 30 (2015): 853–76.
Two studies have shown: J. E. Manson and A. M. Kaunitz, “Menopause Management—Getting Clinical Care Back on Track,” New England Journal of Medicine 374 (2016): 803–6; and H. N. Hodis et al., “Vascular Effects of Early Versus Late Postmenopausal Treatment with Estradiol,” New England Journal of Medicine 374 (2016): 1221–31.
oral estradiol increased: S. Masley, “The Truth About Estrogen Therapy After Menopause,” Healthier Talk, April 14, 2016.
Testosterone therapy appears: R. Sharma et al., “Normalization of Testosterone Level Is Associated with Reduced Incidence of Myocardial Infarction and Mortality in Men,” European Heart Journal 36 (2015): 2706–15.
study at Rush University: K. A. Skarupski et al., “Longitudinal Association of Vitamin B-6, Folate, and Vitamin B-12 with Depressive Symptoms Among Older Adults over Time,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 92 (2010): 330–35.
German researcher: S. Kühn et al., “Playing Super Mario Induces Structural Brain Plasticity: Gray Matter Changes Resulting from Training with a Commercial Video Game,” Molecular Psychiatry 19 (2014): 265–71.
Dr. Susanne Jaeggi: S. M. Jaeggi et al., “The Role of Individual Differences in Cognitive Training and Transfer,” Memory and Cognition 42 (2014): 464–80.
Researchers have found that adults in bilingual households: Judith F. Kroll, Susan C. Bobb, Noriko Hoshino, “Two Languages in Mind. Bilingualism as a Tool to Investigate Language, Cognition, and the Brain,” Sage Journals 23, no. 3 (2014); D. Perani, J. Abutalebi, “Bilingualism, Dementia, Cognitive and Neural Reserve,” Current Opinion in Neurology 28 (2015): 618–25; http://www.alzheimers.net/2013-11-11/speaking-two-languages-delays-dementia/.
craft or artistic activity: R. O. Roberts et al., “Risk and Protective Factors for Cognitive Impairment in Persons Aged 85 Years and Older,” Neurology 84 (2015): 1854–61.
Whether it is a new language: L. C. Lam et al., “Intellectual and Physical Activities, but Not Social Activities, Are Associated with Better Global Cognition: A Multi-Site Evaluation of the Cognition and Lifestyle Activity Study for Seniors in Asia (CLASSA),” Age and Ageing 44 (2015): 835–40.