INTRODUCTION TO

Zechariah

ZECHARIAH is classified as a type of prophetic writing, albeit a later iteration of that literary genre. The preaching of the postexilic prophets (Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, and perhaps Joel) has affinities to the sermons of the earlier classical prophets (e.g., Amos, Hosea, Isaiah) in that they all tend to be narrated in third person, contain oracles alternating between first- and third-person speech, and call their audiences to repentance. Like their earlier counterparts, the postexilic prophets emphasize the ethical teaching of the Torah, but tend to appeal to the rhetorical device of applying earlier Scripture (especially prophetic literature) in an authoritative way to new situations (cf. 1:4). Finally, the postexilic prophets had a predilection to generalize the promises of the earlier prophets and cast them into a less specific, but not far distant, future (cf. Petersen 1977:13-16; Mason 1990:233-234). Mason (1990:234) summarizes the ministry of the postexilic prophets as one of preaching “the hopes of the [earlier] prophets to a people who could have easily become cynical about their lack of fulfillment, assuring them of both the present degree to which they had been and were being fulfilled and the certainty of their ultimate triumph.”

The second half of the book (chs 9–14) is sometimes identified as apocalyptic literature, an offshoot of Old Testament prophetic literature given to the interpretation of current events and the prediction of future events by means of symbolic language, ciphers, and codes—usually accompanied by angelic mediation. The vivid imagery and the angelic mediation (e.g., 1:9) of the night visions (chs 1:7–6:15) give this portion of Zechariah a similar character. It seems best to characterize Zechariah as later Hebrew prophetic literature containing certain proto-apocalyptic features. In this sense, Zechariah may represent a stage of development in the literary shift from prophecy to apocalyptic literature in later Jewish writings of the intertestamental period. (See further “Literary Style” below.)

Three types of messages are usually associated with the visionary literature of the Bible. The first is a message of encouragement to the oppressed; the second, a warning to the oppressor; and the third, a call to faith for those wavering between God’s truth and human wisdom. Zechariah’s message to the oppressed people of God in postexilic Judah assured them of God’s love for Jerusalem and his sure plans to once again live there with his people (1:14; 8:3). Zechariah’s warnings include a word of admonition to his own people not to repeat the sins of the past that led to exile (1:6; 7:11-14). He also pronounced a word of judgment to the oppressing nations that God would repay them in full measure for their mistreatment of Israel (1:18-21; 12:9; 14:12). Finally, Zechariah’s exhortation to those wavering between God’s truth and human wisdom includes a call to repentance and a charge to practice justice in the land by obeying the commandments of Yahweh’s covenant (1:3; 8:15-17).

AUTHOR

The book is silent on the issue of authorship, although it is assumed that the prophetic word formula (“the LORD gave this message to the prophet Zechariah,” 1:1) signifies that Zechariah penned his own oracles. The name “Zechariah” means “Yah(weh) has remembered.” This summarizes Zechariah’s basic message to postexilic Judah: The Lord has remembered his covenant with Israel and plans to restore the fortunes of his people. The title “prophet” classifies Zechariah as a divinely commissioned spokesperson for God (1:1).

We learn from Ezra that Haggai and Zechariah were contemporary prophets of the early postexilic period (Ezra 5:1). The date formulas in the two books indicate that Zechariah began preaching in Jerusalem about two months after Haggai’s brief, four-month ministry began (cf. 1:1; Hag 1:1; 2:20). Haggai and Zechariah were also complementary prophets in that Haggai exhorted the people to rebuild the Jerusalem Temple and Zechariah summoned the community to repentance and spiritual renewal. His task was to prepare the people for proper worship in the Temple once the building project was completed.

The book’s superscription (1:1) identifies Zechariah as the son of Berekiah and the grandson of Iddo. The records of Ezra confirm Zechariah as a descendant of Iddo (Ezra 5:1; 6:14—the word “son” in this context simply designates “a descendant”). Nehemiah informs us that Zechariah’s grandfather, Iddo, returned to Jerusalem from exile in Babylonia with Zerubbabel and Jeshua (Neh 12:4). Nehemiah also lists Zechariah as the head of the priestly family of Iddo (Neh 12:16). This suggests that Zechariah was a member of the tribe of Levi and that he served in Jerusalem as both a priest and a prophet.

DATE AND OCCASION OF WRITING

Three of Zechariah’s speeches are dated to specific years and months (and sometimes days) of the reign of Darius I, king of Persia (cf. NLT mg at 1:1, 7; 7:1). The modern equivalents for the date formulas are listed below:

SPEECH

DATE IN DARIUS’S REIGN

MODERN EQUIVALENT

Zech 1:1-6

Year 2, month 8

Oct/Nov 520 BC

Zech 1:7–6:8

Year 2, month 11, day 24

15 February 519 BC

Zech 7–8

Year 4, month 9, day 4

7 December 518 BC

It seems likely that this first portion of the book (chs 1–8) was written sometime between 520 and 515 BC, since Zechariah makes no reference to the completion and dedication of the Jerusalem Temple in 515 BC (cf. Ezra 6:13-22). Zechariah’s preaching was prompted by the prophet Haggai’s message to begin reconstruction of the Lord’s Temple delivered to Jerusalem on August 29, 520 BC (Hag 1:1).

Scholarly opinion is sharply divided over the authorship and date of the final two oracles in the book of Zechariah (chs 9–11, 12–14). Some biblical scholars assign chapters 9–11 to a “Second Zechariah” and chapters 12–14 to a “Third Zechariah.” These alleged and anonymous writers were supposed to have lived and prophesied in Jerusalem sometime from the fourth to second centuries BC. It is often suggested that these two anonymous oracles, along with the book of Malachi, were added as an appendix to Zechariah 1–8 to complete the sacred number of the Twelve Prophets (i.e., the Minor Prophets; cf. “Canonicity and Textual History” below). According to this view, the final written form of Zechariah is assigned to the Maccabean period (c. 160 BC). The evidence typically offered in support of multiple authorship includes the perceived differences in style, tone, theology, and historical situation between the two parts of the book (chs 1–8 and chs 9–14). Notable among the arguments are the reference to Greece (9:13, which is considered an allusion to the Hellenistic period) and the distinctively apocalyptic character of chapters 12–14.

A remarkable literary continuity between chapters 1–8 and 9–14 exists, however; this can be seen via careful analysis of linguistic and grammatical features in Zechariah (cf. Hill 1982:105-134; Radday and Wickman 1975:30-55). An examination of the literary features in light of archaeological discoveries and socio-political considerations confirms an early Persian period date for Zechariah 9–14 (see Meyers and Meyers 1993:52-55). Finally, both Jewish and Christian tradition concerning the Hebrew Bible or Old Testament clearly associate Zechariah 9–14 with the prophet Zechariah and with chapters 1–8 of his book. The two undated oracles (chs 9–11 and 12–14) were most likely composed by the prophet Zechariah later in his life. Linguistic data retrieved from the Hebrew text of Zechariah suggest that the final draft of the book was probably completed sometime between 500 and 470 BC.

The setting for Zechariah’s preaching, like that of Haggai’s, was the reign of Darius I, king of Persia (522–486 BC). Although the Hebrews had returned to the land of Israel after the Babylonian captivity, the economic situation of the community was bleak; the people languished in apathy, despair, and hopelessness.

In response to this distress, God raised up two prophetic voices for the purpose of initiating programs for the physical rebuilding and the spiritual renewal of postexilic Jerusalem. The prophet Haggai was commissioned to exhort and challenge the Hebrew community to rebuild the Jerusalem Temple. He preached for only four months late in the year 520 BC. The people responded favorably to Haggai’s message, and the reconstruction of the Lord’s Temple began that year (Hag 1:12-15).

The prophet Zechariah complemented Haggai’s message by calling for the spiritual renewal of God’s people (1:3-6; 7:8-14). His ministry began just two months after Haggai’s, and Zechariah’s last dated message was delivered in 518 BC. So Zechariah’s ministry in postexilic Jerusalem lasted at least two years. The reference to Haggai and Zechariah in Ezra 5:1 suggests that they both continued to support and encourage the people until the Temple was completed and rededicated to the worship of Yahweh with the celebration of the Passover Feast in 515 BC (Ezra 6:13-22). The undated oracles of Zechariah (chs 9–14) may indicate that his prophetic ministry in postexilic Jerusalem continued well beyond the completion of the second Temple.

AUDIENCE

As in the case of Haggai’s prophecy, the messages of Zechariah originated in Judah and were intended for the people living in postexilic Jerusalem and its environs (1:12). Embedded within Zechariah’s sermons and visions are words specifically addressed to Zerubbabel, the governor, and to Jeshua, the high priest, along with the rest of the Levitical priesthood (e.g., 3:8-9; 4:6-7; 7:4-5)

CANONICITY AND TEXTUAL HISTORY

Zechariah is the eleventh book in the collection known as the Minor Prophets (or the Book of the Twelve in the Hebrew Bible). The Twelve Prophets are usually grouped with the Latter Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel) and, without exception, are found in the earliest delineations of the Old Testament canon. These twelve prophetic books were always copied on one scroll in the ancient Hebrew manuscript tradition. The order of the Twelve Prophets does vary in some canon traditions, but the sequence of books from Nahum through Malachi seems quite stable in the various canon lists (cf. Jones 1995:54). For example, Amos and Micah follow Hosea in the Septuagint (LXX), and one Qumran fragment places Jonah as the last book in the Twelve Prophets (4QXIIa). On the placement of Jonah at Qumran, see the discussion in Meyers and Meyers (1993:51). The books of Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi form a distinct sub-collection or literary corpus within the Book of the Twelve. All three prophets belong to the early Persian period of postexilic Hebrew history and are unified by literary device (e.g., the rhetorical question) and theological theme (cf. Pierce 1984a).

The Hebrew text of Zechariah is remarkably well preserved and relatively free of textual problems (see the discussion in Meyers and Meyers 1993:50-51). In several instances in Zechariah 1–8, the NLT prefers the reading of the ancient versions (especially the LXX and the Syriac Peshitta) over the Masoretic Text (see the NLT text notes for 1:16; 5:6b; 6:11a, 14). The NLT appeals to the Septuagint in one instance against the Masoretic Text of Zechariah 9–14 (reading “him” for “you” in 14:5b), while the Syriac Peshitta is referenced as an alternative reading in Zechariah 11:13 (reading “treasury” for the “potter” as in the CEV, NRSV).

The Septuagint is generally a reliable (but at times an interpretive and expansive) witness to the Hebrew text of Zechariah (see further the discussion in McComiskey 1998:1009-1011). Portions of the book of Zechariah are attested by fragments of the Dead Sea Scrolls or Qumran manuscripts, including 1:4-6, 9-10, 13-14; 2:6-10; 3:2-10; 4:1-4; 5:8-11; 6:1-5; 8:2-4, 6-7; 10:11-12; 11:1-2; 12:1-3, 7-12; 14:18 (cf. Ulrich 1997:220-318). Meyers and Meyers (1993:50-51) note only three textual variations of significance between the Masoretic Text and the Qumran manuscripts; they conclude that the Qumran manuscripts support the Hebrew text underlying the Masoretic Text.

LITERARY STYLE

Zechariah’s message was one of rebuke, exhortation, and encouragement—a tract for troubled times. The pastoral tone of Zechariah’s messages is set in his exchange with the angel commissioned to relay the “kind and comforting words” from the Lord (1:13). The hortatory character of his sermons is seen in words of encouragement like “be strong” and “don’t be afraid” (8:9, 13, 15). Zechariah’s repeated appeals to the words of the “earlier prophets” authenticated his own ministry and assured his audience that they had not misinterpreted God’s previous revelations (1:4; 7:7, 12).

The book of Zechariah neatly divides into two major units. The first includes the introductory verse (or superscription) with the call to repentance (1:1-6), the seven night visions (1:7–6:15), and two sermons addressing the topic of fasting (chs 7–8). The second part of the book consists of prophetic oracles, subdivided into two sections: the word of the Lord concerning the land of Hadrach (or Aram, chs 9–11), and the word of the Lord concerning Israel (chs 12–14). (On the literary history and structure of Zechariah, see further, Boda 2004:36-45).

Literary analysis of Zechariah’s prophecy has identified an elaborate chiastic structure underlying the two parts of the book (Baldwin 1972:75-81, 85-86; Dorsey 1999:318-319). Although there is no overarching symmetric or parallel design connecting the two halves of the book, repeated themes serve to unify Zechariah’s visions, sermons, and oracles. Prominent among these unifying themes are (1) the promise of divine presence in the midst of Israel, (2) the enabling work of the Holy Spirit, (3) God’s judgment of the nations, (4) the call for social justice, (5) the establishment of divinely appointed leadership, and (6) the ultimate triumph of righteousness and the blessing of peace for Jerusalem (see “Major Themes” below).

Like Haggai and Malachi, the sermons of Zechariah are basically prose set in the third person. The speeches may be formally classified as belonging to the genre of “oracular prose.” The messages are “oracular” in nature because they represent authoritative prophetic speech motivated or inspired by God himself. By “prose” I mean that the literary texture of Zechariah is a blend of prosaic and rhetorical features distinctive of prophetic style. This kind of prophetic speech is usually characterized by formulaic language. Examples of these stylized expressions in Zechariah include the date formula and prophetic word formulas (1:1), the messenger formula (1:3), and the divine validation formula (2:9, 11).

In addition, Zechariah contains a number of literary forms that are rhetorical in nature, including exhortation in the call to repentance (1:1-6), narrative in the form of a series of visions (1:7–6:8), prediction with revelation and interpretation formulas (5:1-4), inquiry with instructional response (6:1-8), symbolic actions (6:9-15), admonition with messenger and date formulas (7:1-7), and divine oracles of judgment and salvation (ch 10).

Portions of Zechariah (especially chs 12–14) are sometimes classified as “proto-apocalyptic” in contrast to the apocalyptic literature that appears in later Jewish writings of the intertestamental period (e.g., 1 Esdras and 1 Enoch). It is true that the book exhibits certain features of apocalyptic writing like divine revelation cast in the form of visions, the presence of angelic messengers who both deliver and interpret the visions, the use of symbolism, and the themes of judgment for the nations and the deliverance of Israel. But other features of apocalyptic writing are notably absent, such as a rigid determinism (with regard to individual and national destinies), pervasive pessimism (with regard to the prospects for humanity in the future), the rewriting of earlier Hebrew history, and pseudonymity (or writing under a false name). In this respect, Zechariah (especially chs 9–14) is similar to a corpus of OT prophetic books that may be considered somewhat proto-apocalyptic in nature since they contain certain features of later apocalyptic literature, including Isa 24–27; Ezek 36–39; Dan 7–12; and Joel 2 (see Boda 2004:203).

Understanding Apocalyptic Literature. Biblical proto-apocalyptic literature and its later offshoot, intertestamental Jewish apocalyptic literature, are visionary genres given to interpretation of current events and prediction of future events in symbols, ciphers, and codes—usually by means of angelic mediation (e.g., 1:9). As such, they represent subcategories of the genre of prophecy in the larger scheme of hermeneutics, or biblical interpretation.

Apocalyptic (or visionary) literature is “crisis” literature, typically conveying specific messages to particular groups of people caught up in a dire situation. Several basic questions are helpful in the interpretation of visionary literature in the Bible: Who is addressed? By whom? When? In what setting? For what reason? What is the relationship of the passage to the rest of the Bible?

Apocalyptic literature announces an end to the way things are and opens up alternative possibilities to the audience as a result of God’s impending intervention in human affairs. Three types of messages are usually associated with the visionary literature of the Bible. The first is a message of encouragement to the oppressed; the second, a warning to the oppressor; and the third, a call to faith for those wavering between God’s truth and human wisdom.

Apocalyptic literature portrays settings, characters, and events in ways different from ordinary reality. While the visions depict literal events, the symbolic descriptions do not necessarily represent the events literally. Ryken (1984:165-174) offers helpful guidelines for reading and understanding visionary literature:

Finally, visionary literature in the Bible has given rise to four major interpretive approaches to the understanding of the time orientation of the divine revelation. The preterist approach views all the events described in the visions as past. By contrast, the futurist sees the events portrayed in the visions as yet to come. The historicist appeals to the visions to trace the ideological or theological development of an age or an era (e.g., the history of Israel or the church age). The idealist understands the vision as a symbolic representation of the timeless conflict between good and evil (cf. Klein, Blomberg, and Hubbard 1993:292-312; 369-374). The commentary that follows will offer brief summaries of both the preterist and the futurist understandings of Zechariah’s visions where appropriate. It should be understood, however, that the visions of Zechariah cannot be reduced simply to an either–or approach. The prophet’s visions are complex and lend themselves to multiple interpretations, as evidenced in the biblical commentaries. The interpretive process is further complicated by the fact that Zechariah only vaguely refers to historical events occurring during the postexilic period of Hebrew history. Beyond this, our knowledge of Persian oversight of the province of Yehud (or Judah) is sketchy, making it more difficult to identify precise fulfillments of many of Zechariah’s prophecies.

MAJOR THEMES

The prophetic ministries of Haggai and Zechariah in postexilic Jerusalem overlapped chronologically and thematically. Haggai’s primary message was a challenge to rebuild the Temple of the Lord. Secondarily, he called for spiritual renewal among the people of God so that they might offer appropriate worship in the new sanctuary.

Zechariah’s primary message, however, was an exhortation to repentance and spiritual renewal—a return to right relationship with God (1:1-6). The central theme of Zechariah’s sermons is encouragement, and he often found his duty was one of comforting (1:13) and strengthening the people (8:9, 13, 15). As a complementary voice to Haggai, Zechariah also reinforced the summons to the people to rebuild the Jerusalem Temple (8:9, 13).

Zechariah’s message of encouragement to a small and discouraged remnant of God’s people (8:6) is cast in the form of visions of the future. This series of visions promised peace to Israel, divine judgment of the nations, the restoration of Jerusalem, responsible government as a result of divinely appointed leadership, and a covenant of righteousness in Zion (1:7–6:15). The theme of social justice is emphasized in lessons about fasting over the Babylonian exile and the destruction of Solomon’s Temple (7:4-12; 8:14-19).

Zechariah’s last two messages are also visions that were designed to instill hope in God by focusing on the future restoration of the people of Israel (chs 9–14). Specifically, the prophet forecasts the return of Yahweh to his Temple (9:8-10), the deliverance of Israel from her enemies (e.g., ch 12), and the establishment of God’s kingdom in Jerusalem (14:9-11).

THEOLOGICAL CONCERNS

Behind Zechariah’s call to repentance was the concern for right relationship with God, a renewal of the covenant established between Yahweh and Israel at Mount Sinai (Exod 19–24). This was a burden Zechariah shared with Haggai (Hag 1:12) and Malachi (Mal 3:7), and the Old Testament prophets generally (e.g., Isa 1:16-20; Hos 6:1-3). The prophet’s interest in Israel’s covenant relationship with Yahweh extended to issues of social justice. Obedience to the stipulations of God’s covenant led to justice, honesty, fairness, mercy, and kindness (7:9-10; 8:16-17). Zechariah warned his audience not to repeat the sins of the past because such covenant violations had sent an earlier generation into exile (7:11-14).

Closely related to Zechariah’s concern for maintaining covenant relationship with Yahweh is his assurance that God will once again live among his people and that the glory of the Lord will rest in Jerusalem (1:16; 2:5, 10-11; 8:3, 23). Zechariah shares this vision of the Lord’s return with other Old Testament prophets (e.g., Isa 52:8; Joel 3:21). The restoration of the divine presence in Israel promised by the prophet seems to have both an immediate and an eschatological fulfillment. The immediate manifestation of the divine presence is associated with the reconstructed Temple, a spiritually restored Israel, and the resurgence of agricultural production (1:17; 4:8-9; 6:15; cf. Hag 2:19). The future manifestation of the divine presence is associated with the deliverance of Jerusalem and the people of Israel from enemy nations, the enthronement of the Lord as king over all the earth, and the universal worship of Yahweh (9:16; 10:6; 12:9; 14:9). In each case, the return of the Lord’s presence to Jerusalem is connected with the enabling work of God’s Spirit (4:6; 12:10; cf. Hag 2:5).

Finally, Zechariah addressed issues of theology proper—the knowledge of God. The emphasis on God’s love for Jerusalem is evidence that he is a covenant-making and covenant-keeping God (1:14; 8:2, 15). The fact of God’s sovereign rule over the nations and the reality of his compassion for Israel as his people mean that divine deliverance and divine judgment will be accomplished in the sphere of human history (12:6-12). The mystery of a Messiah presented by Zechariah as both a suffering shepherd (13:7) and a righteous king (9:9) will result in a redeemed people who testify of their loyalty to God (13:9). The awesome holiness of God will transform the created order, and the long-awaited kingdom of the Lord will be established over all the earth (14:9). As a result, all peoples will worship the King, the Lord Almighty (14:9, 16, 21).

Zechariah admonished the people that God must be given the freedom to accomplish his purposes for the good of Israel in his way and time. This is reflected in his exhortation to the prophet not to “despise . . . small beginnings” (4:10). Zechariah reminded his audience that God had acted in the past for the ultimate good of his people, even in the judgment of Babylonian exile (7:12-14; cf. 14:3). The people of Israel can take courage in the present and have hope for the future because God can be trusted to keep his word and fulfill the promises made through Zechariah the prophet (4:9). For this reason, all humanity is to be silent before the Lord, “for he is springing into action from his holy dwelling” (2:13).

OUTLINE

I.   Prelude: A Call to Return to the Lord (1:1-6)

II.   Zechariah’s Visions (1:7–6:15)

A.   A Man among the Myrtle Trees (1:7-17)

B.   Four Horns and Four Blacksmiths (1:18-21)

C.   Future Prosperity for Jerusalem (2:1-5)

D.   The Exiles Are Called Home (2:6-13)

E.   Cleansing for the High Priest (3:1-10)

F.   A Lampstand and Two Olive Trees (4:1-14)

G.   A Flying Scroll (5:1-4)

H.   A Woman in a Basket (5:5-11)

I.   Four Chariots (6:1-8)

J.   The Crowning of Jeshua (6:9-15)

III.   Zechariah’s Messages (7:1–8:23)

A.   A Call to Justice and Mercy (7:1-14)

B.   Promised Blessing for Jerusalem (8:1-23)

IV.   Zechariah’s Oracles (9:1–14:21)

A.   First Oracle (9:1–11:17)

1.   Judgment against Israel’s enemies (9:1-8)

2.   Zion’s coming king (9:9-17)

3.   The Lord will restore his people (10:1–11:3)

4.   Good and evil shepherds (11:4-17)

B.   Second Oracle (12:1–14:21)

1.   Future deliverance for Jerusalem (12:1-14)

2.   A fountain of cleansing (13:1-6)

3.   The scattering of the sheep (13:7-9)

4.   The Lord will rule the earth (14:1-21)