NOTES

Prologue

The smarter you are: Frank L. Schmidt and John Hunter, “General Mental Ability in the World of Work: Occupational Attainment and Job Performance,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 86 (2004): 162–73.

the faster you can solve them: David C. Geary, “Efficiency of Mitochondrial Functioning as the Fundamental Biological Mechanism of General Intelligence (G),” Psychological Review 15 (2018): 1028–50.

the ability to think and learn: Neel Burton, “What Is Intelligence?,” Psychology Today, November 28, 2018, www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/hide-and-seek/201811/what-is-intelligence; Charles Stangor and Jennifer Walinga, Introduction to Psychology (Victoria, BC: BCcampus, 2014); Frank L. Schmidt, “The Role of Cognitive Ability and Job Performance: Why There Cannot Be a Debate,” Human Performance 15 (2002): 187–210.

“exercise great caution if you decide to change”: A Systematic Approach to the GRE (New York: Kaplan, 1999).

the majority of answer revisions: Ludy T. Benjamin Jr., Timothy A. Cavell, and William R. Shallenberger III, “Staying with Initial Answers on Objective Tests: Is It a Myth?,” Teaching of Psychology 11 (1984): 133–41.

counted eraser marks: Justin Kruger, Derrick Wirtz, and Dale T. Miller, “Counterfactual Thinking and the First Instinct Fallacy,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 88 (2005): 725–35.

those who do rethink their first answers: Yongnam Kim, “Apples to Oranges: Causal Effects of Answer Changing in Multiple-Choice Exams,” arXiv:1808.10577v4, last revised October 14, 2019, arxiv.org/abs/1808.10577.

considering whether you should change it: Justin J. Couchman et al., “The Instinct Fallacy: The Metacognition of Answering and Revising during College Exams,” Metacognition and Learning 11 (2016): 171–85.

The speaker taught them: Charles M. Slem, “The Effects of an Educational Intervention on Answer Changing Behavior,” Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, August 1985, eric.ed.gov/?id=ED266395.

we’re mental misers: Susan T. Fiske and Shelley E. Taylor, Social Cognition: From Brains to Culture, 2nd ed. (Los Angeles: Sage, 2013).

seizing and freezing: Arie W. Kruglanski and Donna M. Webster, “Motivated Closing of the Mind: ‘Seizing’ and ‘Freezing,’” Psychological Review 103 (1996): 263–83.

better off in the slow-boiling pot: James Fallows, “The Boiled-Frog Myth: Stop the Lying Now!,” The Atlantic, September 16, 2006, www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2006/09/the-boiled-frog-myth-stop-the-lying-now/7446/.

“On a big fire”: Norman Maclean, Young Men and Fire, 25th anniversary ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2017); see also www.nifc.gov/safety/mann_gulch/event_timeline/event6.htm.

Under acute stress, people typically revert: Barry M. Staw, Lance E. Sandelands, and Jane E. Dutton, “Threat Rigidity Effects in Organizational Behavior: A Multilevel Analysis,” Administrative Science Quarterly 26 (1981): 501–24; Karl E. Weick, “The Collapse of SenseMaking in Organizations: The Mann Gulch Disaster,” Administrative Science Quarterly 38 (1993): 628–52.

twenty-three wildland firefighters perished: Ted Putnam, “Findings from the Wildland Firefighters Human Factors Workshop,” United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Technology & Development Program, November 1995.

Storm King Mountain: John N. Maclean, Fire on the Mountain: The True Story of the South Canyon Fire (New York: HarperPerennial, 2009).

could have moved 15 to 20 percent faster: Ted Putnam, “Analysis of Escape Efforts and Personal Protective Equipment on the South Canyon Fire,” Wildfire 4 (1995): 34–39.

“Most would have lived”: Ted Putnam, “The Collapse of Decision Making and Organizational Structure on Storm King Mountain,” Wildfire 4 (1995): 40–45.

“dropped their packs”: Report of the South Canyon Fire Accident Investigation Team, August 17, 1994.

“Without my tools, who am I?”: Karl E. Weick, “Drop Your Tools: An Allegory for Organizational Studies,” Administrative Science Quarterly 41 (1996): 301–13.

in an “e-group”: Elizabeth Widdicombe, “Prefrosh E-group Connected Class of ’03,” Harvard Crimson, June 5, 2003, www.thecrimson.com/article/2003/6/5/prefrosh-e-group-connected-class-of-03; Scott A. Golder, “Re: ‘Alone in Annenberg? First-Years Take Heart,’” Harvard Crimson, September 17, 1999, www.thecrimson.com/article/1999/9/17/letters-begroup-an-important-link-connecting.

support for the Black Lives Matter movement: Nate Cohn and Kevin Quealy, “How Public Opinion Has Moved on Black Lives Matter,” New York Times, June 10, 2020, www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/06/10/upshot/black-lives-matter-attitudes.html.

role that wildfires play in the life cycles of forests: Kathryn Schulz, “The Story That Tore Through the Trees,” New York Magazine, September 9, 2014, nymag.com/arts/books/features/mann-gulch-norman-maclean-2014-9/index.html.

Chapter 1. A Preacher, a Prosecutor, a Politician, and a Scientist Walk into Your Mind

“Progress is impossible without change”: George Bernard Shaw, Everybody’s Political What’s What? (London: Constable, 1944).

Mike Lazaridis has had a defining: Jacquie McNish and Sean Silcoff, Losing the Signal: The Untold Story behind the Extraordinary Rise and Spectacular Fall of BlackBerry (New York: Flatiron Books, 2015).

the fastest-growing company: “100 Fastest-Growing Companies,” CNN Money, August 31, 2009, money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortunefastestgrowing/2009/full_list/.

five times as much information: Richard Alleyne, “Welcome to the Information Age—174 Newspapers a Day,” Daily Telegraph, February 11, 2011, www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/8316534/Welcome-to-the-information-age-174-newspapers-a-day.html.

medical knowledge was doubling: Peter Densen, “Challenges and Opportunities Facing Medical Education,” Transactions of the American Clinical and Climatological Association 122 (2011): 48–58.

become more extreme: Joshua J. Clarkson, Zakary L. Tormala, and Christopher Leone, “A Self-Validation Perspective on the Mere Thought Effect,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 47 (2011): 449–54.

and more entrenched: Jamie Barden and Richard E. Petty, “The Mere Perception of Elaboration Creates Attitude Certainty: Exploring the Thoughtfulness Heuristic,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 95 (2008): 489–509.

such subjects as Cleopatra’s roots: W. Ralph Eubanks, “How History and Hollywood Got ‘Cleopatra’ Wrong,” NPR, November 1, 2010, www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=130976125.

tyrannosaurs had colorful feathers: Jason Farago, “T. Rex Like You Haven’t Seen Him: With Feathers,” New York Times, March 7, 2019, www.nytimes.com/2019/03/07/arts/design/t-rex-exhibition-american-museum-of-natural-history.html; Brigit Katz, “T. Rex Was Likely Covered in Scales, Not Feathers,” Smithsonian, June 8, 2017, www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/t-rex-skin-was-not-covered-feathers-study-says-180963603.

sound waves can activate the visual cortex: Alix Spiegel and Lulu Miller, “How to Become Batman,” Invisibilia, NPR, January 23, 2015, www.npr.org/programs/invisibilia/378577902/how-to-become-batman.

“blowing smoke up your arse”: Sterling Haynes, “Special Feature: Tobacco Smoke Enemas,” BC Medical Journal 54 (2012): 496–97.

the Ponzi scheme: Stephen Greenspan, “Why We Keep Falling for Financial Scams,” Wall Street Journal, January 3, 2009, www.wsj.com/articles/SB123093987596650197.

mindsets of three different professions: Philip E. Tetlock, “Social Functionalist Frameworks for Judgment and Choice: Intuitive Politicians, Theologians, and Prosecutors,” Psychological Review 109 (2002): 451–71.

we marshal arguments: Hugo Mercier and Dan Sperber, “Why Do Humans Reason? Arguments from an Argumentative Theory,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 34 (2011): 57–74.

guilty of “knee-jerk cynicism”: Stephen Greenspan, “Fooled by Ponzi (and Madoff): How Bernard Madoff Made Off with My Money,” eSkeptic, December 23, 2008, www.skeptic.com/eskeptic/08-12-23/#feature.

why we get duped: Greg Griffin, “Scam Expert from CU Expertly Scammed,” Denver Post, March 2, 2009, www.denverpost.com/2009/03/02/scam-expert-from-cu-expertly-scammed.

scientist is not just a profession: George A. Kelly, The Psychology of Personal Constructs, vol. 1, A Theory of Personality (New York: Norton, 1955); Brian R. Little, Who Are You, Really? The Surprising Puzzle of Personality (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2017).

view startups through a scientist’s goggles: Arnaldo Camuffo et al., “A Scientific Approach to Entrepreneurial Decision Making: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial,” Management Science 66 (2020): 564–86.

when business executives compete: Mark Chussil, “Slow Deciders Make Better Strategists,” Harvard Business Review, July 8, 2016, hbr.org/2016/07/slow-deciders-make-better-strategists.

“To punish me”: Walter Isaacson, Einstein: His Life and Universe (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2007).

faster at recognizing patterns: David J. Lick, Adam L. Alter, and Jonathan B. Freeman, “Superior Pattern Detectors Efficiently Learn, Activate, Apply, and Update Social Stereotypes,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 147 (2018): 209–27.

the smarter you are: Dan M. Kahan, Ellen Peters, Erica C. Dawson, and Paul Slovic, “Motivated Numeracy and Enlightened Self-Government,” Behavioural Public Policy 1 (2017): 54–86.

One is confirmation bias: Raymond S. Nickerson, “Confirmation Bias: A Ubiquitous Phenomenon in Many Guises,” Review of General Psychology 2 (1998): 175–220.

The other is desirability bias: Ben M. Tappin, Leslie van der Leer, and Ryan T. McKay, “The Heart Trumps the Head: Desirability Bias in Political Belief Revision,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 146 (2017): 1143–49; Ziva Kunda, “The Case for Motivated Reasoning,” Psychological Bulletin 108 (1990): 480–98.

“I’m not biased” bias: Emily Pronin, Daniel Y. Lin, and Lee Ross, “The Bias Blind Spot: Perceptions of Bias in Self versus Others,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 28 (2002): 369–81.

smart people are more likely: Richard F. West, Russell J. Meserve, and Keith E. Stanovich, “Cognitive Sophistication Does Not Attenuate the Bias Blind Spot,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 103 (2012): 506–19.

being actively open-minded: Keith E. Stanovich and Maggie E. Toplak, “The Need for Intellectual Diversity in Psychological Science: Our Own Studies of Actively Open-Minded Thinking as a Case Study,” Cognition 187 (2019): 156–66; Jonathan Baron et al., “Why Does the Cognitive Reflection Test (Sometimes) Predict Utilitarian Moral Judgment (and Other Things)?,” Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition 4 (2015): 265–84.

sharper logic and stronger data: Neil Stenhouse et al., “The Potential Role of Actively Open-Minded Thinking in Preventing Motivated Reasoning about Controversial Science,” Journal of Environmental Psychology 57 (2018): 17–24.

“to move from one extreme”: Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Creativity: Flow and the Psychology of Discovery and Invention (New York: HarperCollins, 1996).

study of highly creative architects: Donald W. Mackinnon, “The Nature and Nurture of Creative Talent,” American Psychologist 17 (1962): 484–95.

Experts assessed American presidents: Dean Keith Simonton, “Presidential IQ, Openness, Intellectual Brilliance, and Leadership: Estimates and Correlations for 42 U.S. Chief Executives,” Political Psychology 27 (2006): 511–26.

the fat-cat syndrome: Jane E. Dutton and Robert B. Duncan, “The Creation of Momentum for Change through the Process of Strategic Issue Diagnosis,” Strategic Management Journal (May/June 1987): 279–95.

“It’s an iconic product”: Jacquie McNish, “RIM’s Mike Lazaridis Walks Out of BBC Interview,” Globe and Mail, April 13, 2011, www.theglobeandmail.com/globe-investor/rims-mike-lazaridis-walks-out-of-bbc-interview/article1322202.

“The keyboard is one of the reasons”: Sean Silcoff, Jacquie McNish, and Steve Laurantaye, “How BlackBerry Blew It,” Globe and Mail, September 27, 2013, www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/the-inside-story-of-why-blackberry-is-failing/article14563602/.

“We laughed and said”: Jonathan S. Geller, “Open Letter to BlackBerry Bosses: Senior RIM Exec Tells All as Company Crumbles Around Him,” BGR, June 30, 2011, bgr.com/2011/06/30/open-letter-to-blackberry-bosses-senior-rim-exec-tells-all-as-company-crumbles-around-him.

what resurrected Apple: Personal interviews with Tony Fadell, June 1, 2020, and Mike Bell, November 14, 2019; Brian Merchant, The One Device: The Secret History of the iPhone (New York: Little, Brown, 2017).

Chapter 2. The Armchair Quarterback and the Impostor

“Ignorance more frequently”: Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man (London: Penguin Classics, 1871/2004).

“mentally blind to her blindness”: Gabriel Anton, “On the Self-Awareness of Focal Drain Diseases by the Patient in Cortical Blindness and Cortical Deafness,” Archiv für Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten 32 (1899): 86–127.

“One of the most striking features”: Frederick C. Redlich and Joseph F. Dorsey, “Denial of Blindness by Patients with Cerebral Disease,” Archives of Neurology & Psychiatry 53 (1945): 407–17.

the Roman philosopher Seneca: Charles André, “Seneca and the First Description of Anton Syndrome,” Journal of Neuro-Ophthalmology 38 (2018): 511–13.

a deficit of self-awareness: Giuseppe Vallar and Roberta Ronchi, “Anosognosia for Motor and Sensory Deficits after Unilateral Brain Damage: A Review,” Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience 24 (2006): 247–57; Howard C. Hughes, Robert Fendrich, and Sarah E. Streeter, “The Diversity of the Human Visual Experience,” in Perception and Its Modalities, ed. Dustin Stokes, Moham Matthen, and Stephen Biggs (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015); David Dunning, Self-Insight: Roadblocks and Detours on the Path to Knowing Thyself (New York: Psychology Press, 2005); Costanza Papagno and Giuseppe Vallar, “Anosognosia for Left Hemiplegia: Babinski’s (1914) Cases,” in Classic Cases in Neuropsychology, vol. 2, ed. Christopher Code et al. (New York: Psychology Press, 2003); Jiann-Jy Chen et al., “Anton-Babinski Syndrome in an Old Patient: A Case Report and Literature Review,” Psychogeriatrics 15 (2015): 58–61; Susan M. McGlynn, “Impaired Awareness of Deficits in a Psychiatric Context: Implications for Rehabilitation,” in Metacognition in Educational Theory and Practice, ed. Douglas J. Hacker, John Dunlosky, and Arthur C. Graesser (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 1998).

“My experience and knowledge”: Agence France Presse, “Iceland’s Crisis-Era Central Bank Chief to Run for President,” Yahoo! News, May 8, 2016, www.yahoo.com/news/icelands-crisis-era-central-bank-chief-run-president-152717120.html.

women typically underestimated: Samantha C. Paustian-Underdahl, Lisa Slattery Walker, and David J. Woehr, “Gender and Perceptions of Leadership Effectiveness: A Meta-analysis of Contextual Moderators,” Journal of Applied Psychology 99 (2014): 1129–45.

competence exceeds confidence: Mark R. Leary et al., “The Impostor Phenomenon: Self-Perceptions, Reflected Appraisals, and Interpersonal Strategies,” Journal of Personality 68 (2000): 725–56; Karina K. L. Mak, Sabina Kleitman, and Maree J. Abbott, “Impostor Phenomenon Measurement Scales: A Systematic Review,” Frontiers in Psychology 10 (2019): 671.

Ig™ Nobel Prize: Improbable, “The 2000 Ig™ Nobel Prize Ceremony,” October 5, 2000, www.improbable.com/ig/2000.

original Dunning-Kruger studies: Justin Kruger and David Dunning, “Unskilled and Unaware of It: How Difficulties in Recognizing One’s Own Incompetence Lead to Inflated Self-Assessments,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77 (1999): 1121–34.

The less intelligent we are: John D. Mayer, A. T. Panter, and David R. Caruso, “When People Estimate Their Personal Intelligence Who Is Overconfident? Who Is Accurate?,” Journal of Personality (May 19, 2020).

when economists evaluated: Nicholas Bloom, Renata Lemos, Raffaella Sadun, Daniela Scur, and John Van Reenen, “JEEA-FBBVA Lecture 2013: The New Empirical Economics of Management,” Journal of the European Economic Association 12 (2014): 835–76, https://doi.org/10.1111/jeea.12094.

it was most rampant: Xavier Cirera and William F. Maloney, The Innovation Paradox (Washington, DC: The World Bank, 2017); Nicholas Bloom et al., “Management Practices across Firms and Countries,” Academy of Management Perspectives 26 (2012): 12–33.

The more superior participants: Michael P. Hall and Kaitlin T. Raimi, “Is Belief Superiority Justified by Superior Knowledge?,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 76 (2018): 290–306.

“The first rule of the Dunning-Kruger club”: Brian Resnick, “Intellectual Humility: The Importance of Knowing You Might Be Wrong,” Vox, January 4, 2019, www.vox.com/science-and-health/2019/1/4/17989224/intellectual-humility-explained-psychology-replication.

claim knowledge about fictional topics: John Jerrim, Phil Parker, and Nikki Shure, “Bullshitters. Who Are They and What Do We Know about Their Lives?,” IZA Institute of Labor Economics, DP No. 12282, April 2019, ftp.iza.org/dp12282.pdf; Christopher Ingraham, “Rich Guys Are Most Likely to Have No Idea What They’re Talking About, Study Suggests,” Washington Post, April 26, 2019, www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/04/26/rich-guys-are-most-likely-have-no-idea-what-theyre-talking-about-study-finds.

“giving a tidy demonstration”: Nina Strohminger (@NinaStrohminger), January 8, 2019, twitter.com/NinaStrohminger/status/1082651708617039875?s=20.

On the questions above: Mark L. Wolraich, David B. Wilson, and J. Wade White, “The Effect of Sugar on Behavior and Cognition in Children: A Meta-analysis,” Journal of the American Medical Association 274 (1995): 1617–21; see also Konstantinos Mantantzis et al., “Sugar Rush or Sugar Crash? A Meta-analysis of Carbohydrate Effects on Mood,” Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 101 (2019): 45–67.

people who scored the lowest: Oliver J. Sheldon, David Dunning, and Daniel R. Ames, “Emotionally Unskilled, Unaware, and Uninterested in Learning More: Reactions to Feedback about Deficits in Emotional Intelligence,” Journal of Applied Psychology 99 (2014): 125–37.

Yet motivation is only part: Gilles E. Gignac and Marcin Zajenkowski, “The Dunning-Kruger Effect Is (Mostly) a Statistical Artefact: Valid Approaches to Testing the Hypothesis with Individual Differences Data,” Intelligence 80 (2020): 101449; Tal Yarkoni, “What the Dunning-Kruger Effect Is and Isn’t,” July 7, 2010, www.talyarkoni.org/blog/2010/07/07/what-the-dunning-kruger-effect-is-and-isnt.

when they’re offered a $100 bill: Joyce Ehrlinger et al., “Why the Unskilled Are Unaware: Further Explorations of (Absent) Self-Insight among the Incompetent,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 105 (2008): 98–121.

We tend to overestimate ourselves: Spencer Greenberg and Seth Stephens-Davidowitz, “You Are Not as Good at Kissing as You Think. But You Are Better at Dancing,” New York Times, April 6, 2019, www.nytimes.com/2019/04/06/opinion/sunday/overconfidence-men-women.html.

simulated zombie apocalypse: Carmen Sanchez and David Dunning, “Overconfidence among Beginners: Is a Little Learning a Dangerous Thing?,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 114 (2018): 10–28.

patient mortality rates: John Q. Young et al., “‘July Effect’: Impact of the Academic Year-End Changeover on Patient Outcomes,” Annals of Internal Medicine 155 (2011): 309–15; Sarah Kliff, “The July Effect Is Real: New Doctors Really Do Make Hospitals More Dangerous,” Vox, July 13, 2014, www.vox.com/2014/7/13/5893653/the-july-effect-is-real-new-doctors-really-do-make-hospitals-more.

“fiercely loyal henchmen”: Roger Boyes, Meltdown Iceland: Lessons on the World Financial Crisis from a Small Bankrupt Island (New York: Bloomsbury, 2009).

“arrogance, his absolute conviction”: Boyes, Meltdown Iceland; “Cracks in the Crust,” Economist, December 11, 2008, www.economist.com/briefing/2008/12/11/cracks-in-the-crust; Heather Farmbrough, “How Iceland’s Banking Collapse Created an Opportunity,” Forbes, December 23, 2019, www.forbes.com/sites/heatherfarmbrough/2019/12/23/how-icelands-banking-collapse-created-an-opportunity/#72693f035e97; “25 People to Blame for the Financial Crisis,” Time, February 10, 2009, content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1877351_1877350_1877340,00.html; John L. Campbell and John A. Hall, The Paradox of Vulnerability: States, Nationalism & the Financial Crisis (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2017); Robert H. Wade and Silla Sigurgeirsdottir, “Iceland’s Meltdown: The Rise and Fall of International Banking in the North Atlantic,” Brazilian Journal of Political Economy 31 (2011): 684–97; Report of the Special Investigation Commission, April 12, 2010, www.rna.is/eldri-nefndir/addragandi-og-orsakir-falls-islensku-bankanna-2008/skyrsla-nefndarinnar/english; Daniel Chartier, The End of Iceland’s Innocence: The Image of Iceland in the Foreign Media during the Financial Crisis (Ottawa, ON: University of Ottawa Press, 2011); “Excerpts: Iceland’s Oddsson,” Wall Street Journal, October 17, 2008, www.wsj.com/articles/SB122418335729241577; Geir H. Haarde, “Icelandic Leaders Accused of Negligence,” Financial Times, April 12, 2010, www.ft.com/content/82bb2296-4637-11df-8769-00144feab49a; “Report on Iceland’s Banking Collapse Blasts Ex-Officials,” Wall Street Journal, April 13, 2010, www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303828304575179722049591754.

“Arrogance is ignorance plus conviction”: Tim Urban, “The Thinking Ladder,” Wait but Why (blog), September 27, 2019, waitbutwhy.com/2019/09/thinking-ladder.html.

that’s distinct from how much you believe in your methods: Dov Eden, “Means Efficacy: External Sources of General and Specific Subjective Efficacy,” in Work Motivation in the Context of a Globalizing Economy, ed. Miriam Erez, Uwe Kleinbeck, and Henk Thierry (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2001); Dov Eden et al., “Augmenting Means Efficacy to Boost Performance: Two Field Experiments,” Journal of Management 36 (2008): 687–713.

Spanx founder Sara Blakely: Personal interview with Sara Blakely, September 12, 2019; see also Clare O’Connor, “How Sara Blakely of Spanx Turned $5,000 into $1 Billion,” Forbes, March 26, 2012, www.forbes.com/global/2012/0326/billionaires-12-feature-united-states-spanx-sara-blakely-american-booty.html; “How Spanx Got Started,” Inc., January 20, 2012, www.inc.com/sara-blakely/how-sara-blakley-started-spanx.html.

Confident humility can be taught: Tenelle Porter, “The Benefits of Admitting When You Don’t Know,” Behavioral Scientist, April 30, 2018, behavioralscientist.org/the-benefits-of-admitting-when-you-dont-know.

In college and graduate school: Thomas Gatzka and Benedikt Hell, “Openness and PostSecondary Academic Performance: A Meta-analysis of Facet-, Aspect-, and Dimension-Level Correlations,” Journal of Educational Psychology 110 (2018): 355–77.

In high school: Tenelle Porter et al., “Intellectual Humility Predicts Mastery Behaviors When Learning,” Learning and Individual Differences 80 (2020): 101888.

contributing more to their teams: Bradley P. Owens, Michael D. Johnson, and Terence R. Mitchell, “Expressed Humility in Organizations: Implications for Performance, Teams, and Leadership,” Organization Science 24 (2013): 1517–38.

more attention to how strong evidence is: Mark R. Leary et al., “Cognitive and Interpersonal Features of Intellectual Humility,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 43 (2017): 793–813.

more time reading material that contradicts: Samantha A. Deffler, Mark R. Leary, and Rick H. Hoyle, “Knowing What You Know: Intellectual Humility and Judgments of Recognition Memory,” Personality and Individual Differences 96 (2016): 255–59.

most effective leaders score high in both: Bradley P. Owens, Angela S. Wallace, and David A. Waldman, “Leader Narcissism and Follower Outcomes: The Counterbalancing Effect of Leader Humility,” Journal of Applied Psychology 100 (2015): 1203–13; Hongyu Zhang et al., “CEO Humility, Narcissism and Firm Innovation: A Paradox Perspective on CEO Traits,” Leadership Quarterly 28 (2017): 585–604.

Halla Tómasdóttir was polling: Personal interview with Halla Tómasdóttir, February 27, 2019.

more than half the people you know have felt like impostors: Jaruwan Sakulku, “The Impostor Phenomenon,” International Journal of Behavioral Science 6 (2011): 75–97.

common among women and marginalized groups: Dena M. Bravata et al., “Prevalence, Predictors, and Treatment of Impostor Syndrome: A Systematic Review,” Journal of General Internal Medicine 35 (2020): 1252–75.

the more often they felt like impostors: Basima Tewfik, “Workplace Impostor Thoughts: Theoretical Conceptualization, Construct Measurement, and Relationships with Work-Related Outcomes,” Publicly Accessible Penn Dissertations (2019): 3603.

I’ve found that confidence can: Adam M. Grant and Amy Wrzesniewski, “I Won’t Let You Down . . . or Will I? Core Self-Evaluations, Other-Orientation, Anticipated Guilt and Gratitude, and Job Performance,” Journal of Applied Psychology 95 (2010): 108–21.

we have something to prove: See Christine L. Porath and Thomas S. Bateman, “Self-Regulation: From Goal Orientation to Job Performance,” Journal of Applied Psychology 91 (2006): 185–92; Samir Nurmohamed, “The Underdog Effect: When Low Expectations Increase Performance,” Academy of Management Journal (July 26, 2020), doi.org/10.5465/amj.2017.0181.

make us better learners: See Albert Bandura and Edwin A. Locke, “Negative Self-Efficacy and Goal Effects Revisited,” Journal of Applied Psychology 88 (2003): 87–99.

“Learning requires the humility”: Elizabeth J. Krumrei-Mancuso et al., “Links between Intellectual Humility and Acquiring Knowledge,” Journal of Positive Psychology 15 (2020): 155–70.

seek out second opinions: Danielle V. Tussing, “Hesitant at the Helm: The Effectiveness-Emergence Paradox of Reluctance to Lead” (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 2018).

the result of progress: Edwin A. Locke and Gary P. Latham, “Building a Practically Useful Theory of Goal Setting and Task Motivation: A 35-Year Odyssey,” American Psychologist 57 (2002): 705–17; M. Travis Maynard et al., “Modeling Time-Lagged Psychological Empowerment-Performance Relationships,” Journal of Applied Psychology 99 (2014): 1244–53; Dana H. Lindsley, Daniel J. Brass, and James B. Thomas, “Efficacy-Performance Spirals: A Multilevel Perspective,” Academy of Management Review 20 (1995): 645–78.

Chapter 3. The Joy of Being Wrong

“I have a degree”: Frasier, season 2, episode 12, “Roz in the Doghouse,” January 3, 1995, NBC.

a wildly unethical study: Henry A. Murray, “Studies of Stressful Interpersonal Disputations,” American Psychologist 18 (1963): 28–36.

“Some may have found the experience”: Richard G. Adams, “Unabomber,” The Atlantic, September 2000, “Letters,” www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2000/09/letters/378379.

events as “highly agreeable”: Alston Chase, A Mind for Murder: The Education of the Unabomber and the Origins of Modern Terrorism (New York: W. W. Norton, 2004).

What makes an idea interesting: Murray S. Davis, “That’s Interesting!: Toward a Phenomenology of Sociology and a Sociology of Phenomenology,” Philosophy of Social Science 1 (1971): 309–44.

moon might originally have formed: Sarah T. Stewart, “Where Did the Moon Come From? A New Theory,” TED Talks, February 2019, www.ted.com/talks/sarah_t_stewart_where_did_the_moon_come_from_a_new_theory.

narwhal’s tusk is actually a tooth: Lesley Evans Ogden, “The Tusks of Narwhals Are Actually Teeth That Are Inside-Out,” BBC, October 26, 2015, www.bbc.com/earth/story/20151026-the-tusks-of-narwhals-are-actually-teeth-that-are-inside-out.

miniature dictator living inside our heads: Anthony G. Greenwald, “The Totalitarian Ego: Fabrication and Revision of Personal History,” American Psychologist 35 (1980): 603–18.

“You must not fool yourself”: Richard P. Feynman, “Surely You’re Joking, Mr. Feynman!”: Adventures of a Curious Character (New York: W. W. Norton, 1985), and “Cargo Cult Science,” Caltech Commencement, 1974, calteches.library.caltech.edu/51/2/CargoCult.htm.

“The Industrial Revolution and its consequences”: “Text of Unabomber Manifesto,” New York Times, May 26, 1996, archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/library/national/unabom-manifesto-1.html.

when our core beliefs are challenged: Jonas T. Kaplan, Sarah I. Gimbel, and Sam Harris, “Neural Correlates of Maintaining One’s Political Beliefs in the Face of Counterevidence,” Scientific Reports 6 (2016): 39589.

trigger the amygdala, the primitive “lizard brain”: Joseph LeDoux, The Emotional Brain: The Mysterious Underpinnings of Emotional Life (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998); Joseph Cesario, David J. Johnson, and Heather L. Eisthen, “Your Brain Is Not an Onion with a Tiny Reptile Inside,” Current Directions in Psychological Science 29 (2020): 255–60.

“Presented with someone else’s argument”: Elizabeth Kolbert, “Why Facts Don’t Change Our Minds,” New Yorker, February 27, 2017, www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/02/27/why-facts-dont-change-our-minds.

First, our wrong opinions: Eli Pariser, The Filter Bubble: How the New Personalized Web Is Changing What We Read and How We Think (New York: Penguin, 2011).

I gave a speech: ideas42 Behavioral Summit, New York, NY, October 13, 2016.

He told me afterward: Personal interview with Daniel Kahneman, June 13, 2019.

Even positive changes: Corey Lee M. Keyes, “Subjective Change and Its Consequences for Emotional Well-Being,” Motivation and Emotion 24 (2000): 67–84.

evolving your identity: Anthony L. Burrow et al., “Derailment: Conceptualization, Measurement, and Adjustment Correlates of Perceived Change in Self and Direction,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 118 (2020): 584–601.

you can tell a coherent story: Michael J. Chandler et al., “Personal Persistence, Identity Development, and Suicide: A Study of Native and Non-Native North American Adolescents,” Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 68 (2003): 1–138.

when people felt detached: Kaylin Ratner et al., “Depression and Derailment: A Cyclical Model of Mental Illness and Perceived Identity Change,” Clinical Psychological Science 7 (2019): 735–53.

“If you don’t look back”: Personal interview with Ray Dalio, October 11, 2017; “How to Love Criticism,” WorkLife with Adam Grant, February 28, 2018.

meet Jean-Pierre Beugoms: Personal interviews with Jean-Pierre Beugoms, June 26 and July 22, 2019.

only 6 percent: Nate Silver, “How I Acted Like a Pundit and Screwed Up on Donald Trump,” FiveThirtyEight, May 18, 2016, fivethirtyeight.com/features/how-i-acted-like-a-pundit-and-screwed-up-on-donald-trump.

Trump had a 68 percent chance: Andrew Sabisky, “Just-World Bias Has Twisted Media Coverage of the Donald Trump Campaign,” International Business Times, March 9, 2016, www.ibtimes.co.uk/just-world-bias-has-twisted-media-coverage-donald-trump-campaign-1547151.

It’s possible to change: Daryl R. Van Tongeren et al., “Religious Residue: Cross-Cultural Evidence That Religious Psychology and Behavior Persist Following Deidentification,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (March 12, 2020).

“Mastery at manipulating the media”: Jean-Pierre Beugoms, “Who Will Win the Republican Party Nomination for the U.S. Presidential Election?,” Good Judgment Open, November 18, 2015, www.gjopen.com/comments/44283.

forecasting skill is less: Philip E. Tetlock and Dan Gardner, Superforecasting: The Art and Science of Prediction (New York: Random House, 2015); Philip E. Tetlock, Expert Political Judgment: How Good Is It? How Can We Know? (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005).

grit and ambition: Uriel Haran, Ilana Ritov, and Barbara A. Mellers, “The Role of Actively Open-Minded Thinking in Information Acquisition, Accuracy, and Calibration,” Judgment and Decision Making 8 (2013): 188–201.

The single most important driver: Barbara Mellers et al., “The Psychology of Intelligence Analysis: Drivers of Prediction Accuracy in World Politics,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied 21 (2015): 1–14.

The superforecasters updated their predictions: Barbara Mellers et al., “Identifying and Cultivating Superforecasters as a Method of Improving Probabilistic Predictions,” Perspectives on Psychological Science 10 (2015): 267–81.

“Although small amounts of evidence”: Kathryn Schulz, Being Wrong: Adventures in the Margin of Error (New York: HarperCollins, 2010).

They saw their opinions: Keith E. Stanovich and Richard F. West, “Reasoning Independently of Prior Belief and Individual Differences in Actively Open-Minded Thinking,” Journal of Educational Psychology 89 (1997): 342–57.

“It’s not a lie”: Seinfeld, season 6, episode 16, “The Beard,” February 9, 1995, NBC.

world’s top forecasters is Kjirste Morrell: Personal interview with Kjirste Morrell, May 21, 2019.

identifying even a single reason why: Asher Koriat, Sarah Lichtenstein, and Baruch Fischhoff, “Reasons for Confidence,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 6 (1980): 107–18.

the more frequently we make fun of ourselves: “Self-Defeating Humor Promotes Psychological Well-Being, Study Reveals,” ScienceDaily, February 8, 2018, www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/02/180208104225.htm.

“People who are right a lot”: Mark Sullivan, “Jeff Bezos at re:MARS,” Fast Company, June 6, 2019, www.fastcompany.com/90360687/jeff-bezos-business-advice-5-tips-from-amazons-remars?_ga=2.101831750.679949067.1593530400-358702464.1558396776.

When men make self-deprecating jokes: Jonathan B. Evans et al., “Gender and the Evaluation of Humor at Work,” Journal of Applied Psychology 104 (2019): 1077–87.

British physicist Andrew Lyne: John Noble Wilford, “Astronomer Retracts His Discovery of Planet,” New York Times, January 16, 1992, www.nytimes.com/1992/01/16/us/astronomer-retracts-his-discovery-of-planet.html.

“the most honorable thing I’ve ever seen”: Michael D. Lemonick, “When Scientists Screw Up,” Slate, October 15, 2012, slate.com/technology/2012/10/scientists-make-mistakes-how-astronomers-and-biologists-correct-the-record-when-theyve-screwed-up.html.

admitting we were wrong: Adam K. Fetterman and Kai Sassenberg, “The Reputational Consequences of Failed Replications and Wrongness Admission Among Scientists,” PLoS ONE 10 (2015): e0143723.

display of honesty: Adam K. Fetterman et al., “On the Willingness to Admit Wrongness: Validation of a New Measure and an Exploration of Its Correlates,” Personality and Individual Differences 138 (2019): 193–202.

“whose fault it is”: Will Smith, “Fault vs Responsibility,” YouTube, January 31, 2018, www.youtube.com/watch?v=USsqkd-E9ag.

“It was a highly unpleasant experience”: Chase, A Mind for Murder.

unsettled by the content or the structure: See James Q. Wilson, “In Search of Madness,” New York Times, January 15, 1998, www.nytimes.com/1998/01/15/opinion/in-search-of-madness.html.

Chapter 4. The Good Fight Club

“Arguments are extremely vulgar”: Oscar Wilde, “The Remarkable Rocket,” in The Happy Prince and Other Stories, ed. L. Carr (London: Heritage Illustrated Publishing, 1888/2014).

Wilbur and Orville Wright: David McCullough, The Wright Brothers (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2015); Tom D. Crouch, The Bishop’s Boys: A Life of Wilbur and Orville Wright (New York: W. W. Norton, 2003); James Tobin, To Conquer the Air (New York: Free Press, 2003); Peter L. Jakab and Rick Young, eds., The Published Writings of Wilbur and Orville Wright (Washington, DC: Smithsonian, 2000); Fred Howard, Wilbur and Orville: A Biography of the Wright Brothers (New York: Ballantine, 1988).

Tina Fey and Amy Poehler: Jesse David Fox, “The History of Tina Fey and Amy Poehler’s Best Friendship,” Vulture, December 15, 2015, www.vulture.com/2013/01/history-of-tina-and-amys-best-friendship.html.

Paul McCartney was teaching: Michael Gallucci, “The Day John Lennon Met Paul McCartney,” Ultimate Classic Rock, July 6, 2015, ultimateclassicrock.com/john-lennon-meets-paul-mccartney.

Ben & Jerry’s Ice Cream: Rosanna Greenstreet, “How We Met: Ben Cohen and Jerry Greenfield,” Independent, May 28, 1995, www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/how-we-met-ben-cohen-and-jerry-greenfield-1621559.html.

what Etty calls relationship conflict: Karen A. Jehn, “A Multimethod Examination of the Benefits and Detriments of Intragroup Conflict,” Administrative Science Quarterly 40 (1995): 256–82.

I hate your stinking guts: Penelope Spheeris et al., The Little Rascals, directed by Penelope Spheeris, Universal Pictures, 1994.

you warthog-faced buffoon: William Goldman, The Princess Bride, directed by Rob Reiner, 20th Century Fox, 1987.

You bob for apples in the toilet: David Mickey Evans and Robert Gunter, The Sandlot, directed by David Mickey Evans, 20th Century Fox, 1993.

more than a hundred studies: Frank R. C. de Wit, Lindred L. Greer, and Karen A. Jehn, “The Paradox of Intragroup Conflict: A Meta-analysis,” Journal of Applied Psychology 97 (2012): 360–90.

more original ideas in Chinese technology companies: Jiing-Lih Farh, Cynthia Lee, and Crystal I. C. Farh, “Task Conflict and Creativity: A Question of How Much and When,” Journal of Applied Psychology 95 (2010): 1173–80.

innovate more in Dutch delivery services: Carsten K. W. De Dreu, “When Too Little or Too Much Hurts: Evidence for a Curvilinear Relationship between Task Conflict and Innovation in Teams,” Journal of Management 32 (2006): 83–107.

make better decisions in American hospitals: Robert S. Dooley and Gerald E. Fryxell, “Attaining Decision Quality and Commitment from Dissent: The Moderating Effects of Loyalty and Competence in Strategic Decision-Making Teams,” Academy of Management Journal 42 (1999): 389–402.

“The absence of conflict”: Kathleen M. Eisenhardt, Jean L. Kahwajy, and L. J. Bourgeois III, “How Management Teams Can Have a Good Fight,” Harvard Business Review, July–August 1997, 77–85.

Kids whose parents clash constructively: Kathleen McCoy, E. Mark Cummings, and Patrick T. Davies, “Constructive and Destructive Marital Conflict, Emotional Security and Children’s Prosocial Behavior,” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 50 (2009): 270–79.

architects were more likely: Donald W. Mackinnon, “Personality and the Realization of Creative Potential,” American Psychologist 20 (1965): 273–81.

“tense but secure”: Paula Olszewski, Marilynn Kulieke, and Thomas Buescher, “The Influence of the Family Environment on the Development of Talent: A Literature Review,” Journal for the Education of the Gifted 11 (1987): 6–28.

“The creative person-to-be”: Robert S. Albert, ed., Genius & Eminence (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1992).

It’s called agreeableness: Lauri A. Jensen-Campbell, Jennifer M. Knack, and Haylie L. Gomez, “The Psychology of Nice People,” Social and Personality Psychology Compass 4 (2010): 1042–56; Robert R. McCrae and Antonio Terraciano, “National Character and Personality,” Current Directions in Psychological Science 15 (2006): 156–61.

analysis of over 40 million tweets: Bryor Snefjella, Daniel Schmidtke, and Victor Kuperman, “National Character Stereotypes Mirror Language Use: A Study of Canadian and American Tweets,” PLoS ONE 13 (2018): e0206188.

to become engineers and lawyers: Henk T. van der Molen, Henk G. Schmidt, and Gerard Kruisman, “Personality Characteristics of Engineers,” European Journal of Engineering Education 32 (2007): 495–501; Gidi Rubinstein, “The Big Five among Male and Female Students of Different Faculties,” Personality and Individual Differences 38 (2005): 1495–503.

If you’re highly disagreeable: Stéphane Côté and D. S. Moskowitz, “On the Dynamic Covariation between Interpersonal Behavior and Affect: Prediction from Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Agreeableness,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 75 (1998): 1032–46.

When I studied Pixar: Personal interviews with Brad Bird, November 8, 2018, and April 28, 2020; Nicole Grindle, October 19, 2018, and March 17, 2020; and John Walker, November 21, 2018, and March 24, 2020; “The Creative Power of Misfits,” WorkLife with Adam Grant, March 5, 2019; Hayagreeva Rao, Robert Sutton, and Allen P. Webb, “Innovation Lessons from Pixar: An Interview with Oscar-Winning Director Brad Bird,” McKinsey Quarterly, April 1, 2008, www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/strategy-and-corporate-finance/our-insights/innovation-lessons-from-pixar-an-interview-with-oscar-winning-director-brad-bird; The Making of “The Incredibles,” directed by Rick Butler, Pixar, 2005; Alec Bojalad, “The Incredibles 2: Brad Bird on Family, Blu-Ray Extras, and More,” Den of Geek, October 24, 2018, www.denofgeek.com/tv/the-incredibles-2-brad-bird-on-family-blu-ray-extras-and-more.

disagreeable people speak up more frequently: Jeffery A. LePine and Linn Van Dyne, “Voice and Cooperative Behavior as Contrasting Forms of Contextual Performance: Evidence of Differential Relationships with Big Five Personality Characteristics and Cognitive Ability,” Journal of Applied Psychology 86 (2001): 326–36.

especially when leaders aren’t receptive: Samuel T. Hunter and Lily Cushenbery, “Is Being a Jerk Necessary for Originality? Examining the Role of Disagreeableness in the Sharing and Utilization of Original Ideas,” Journal of Business and Psychology 30 (2015): 621–39.

foster more task conflict: Leslie A. DeChurch and Michelle A. Marks, “Maximizing the Benefits of Task Conflict: The Role of Conflict Management,” International Journal of Conflict Management 12 (2001): 4–22.

dissatisfaction promotes creativity only: Jing Zhou and Jennifer M. George, “When Job Dissatisfaction Leads to Creativity: Encouraging the Expression of Voice,” Academy of Management Journal 44 (2001): 682–96.

cultural misfits are: Amir Goldberg et al., “Fitting In or Standing Out? The Tradeoffs of Structural and Cultural Embeddedness,” American Sociological Review 81 (2016): 1190–222.

In building a team: Joeri Hofmans and Timothy A. Judge, “Hiring for Culture Fit Doesn’t Have to Undermine Diversity,” Harvard Business Review, September 18, 2019, hbr.org/2019/09/hiring-for-culture-fit-doesnt-have-to-undermine-diversity.

CEOs who indulge flattery: Sun Hyun Park, James D. Westphal, and Ithai Stern, “Set Up for a Fall: The Insidious Effects of Flattery and Opinion Conformity toward Corporate Leaders,” Administrative Science Quarterly 56 (2011): 257–302.

when employees received tough feedback: Francesca Gino, “Research: We Drop People Who Give Us Critical Feedback,” Harvard Business Review, September 16, 2016, hbr.org/2016/09/research-we-drop-people-who-give-us-critical-feedback.

“murder boards” to stir up: William Safire, “On Language: Murder Board at the Skunk Works,” New York Times, October 11, 1987, www.nytimes.com/1987/10/11/magazine/on-language-murder-board-at-the-skunk-works.html.

At X, Google’s “moonshot factory”: Derek Thompson, “Google X and the Science of Radical Creativity,” The Atlantic, November 2017, www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2017/11/x-google-moonshot-factory/540648.

“The most essential gift”: The Cambridge Companion to Hemingway, ed. Scott Donaldson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).

How well we take criticism: David Yeager et al., “Breaking the Cycle of Mistrust: Wise Interventions to Provide Critical Feedback across the Racial Divide,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 143 (2014): 804–24.

people who lack power or status: Elizabeth W. Morrison, “Employee Voice Behavior: Integration and Directions for Future Research,” Academy of Management Annals 5 (2011): 373–412; Charlan Jeanne Nemeth, In Defense of Troublemakers: The Power of Dissent in Life and Business (New York: Basic Books, 2018).

Agreeable people were significantly more: Jennifer A. Chatman and Sigal G. Barsade, “Personality, Organizational Culture, and Cooperation: Evidence from a Business Simulation,” Administrative Science Quarterly 40 (1995): 423–43.

A major problem with task conflict: De Wit, Greer, and Jehn, “The Paradox of Intragroup Conflict.”

framing a dispute as a debate: Ming-Hong Tsai and Corinne Bendersky, “The Pursuit of Information Sharing: Expressing Task Conflicts as Debates vs. Disagreements Increases Perceived Receptivity to Dissenting Opinions in Groups,” Organization Science 27 (2016): 141–56.

why they favor particular policies: Philip M. Fernbach et al., “Political Extremism Is Supported by an Illusion of Understanding,” Psychological Science 24 (2013): 939–46.

illusion of explanatory depth: Leonid Rozenblit and Frank Keil, “The Misunderstood Limits of Folk Science: An Illusion of Explanatory Depth,” Cognitive Science 26 (2002): 521–62.

surprised by how much they struggle: Matthew Fisher and Frank Keil, “The Curse of Expertise: When More Knowledge Leads to Miscalibrated Explanatory Insight,” Cognitive Science 40 (2016): 1251–69.

how little they actually know: Dan R. Johnson, Meredith P. Murphy, and Riley M. Messer, “Reflecting on Explanatory Ability: A Mechanism for Detecting Gaps in Causal Knowledge,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 145 (2016): 573–88.

Chapter 5. Dances with Foes

“Exhausting someone in argument”: Tim Kreider, We Learn Nothing: Essays (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2012).

introduced to Harish: Personal interview with Harish Natarajan, May 23, 2019; “Live Debate: IBM Project Debater,” IntelligenceSquared Debates, YouTube, February 11, 2019, www.youtube.com/watch?v=m3u-1yttrVw.

evidence that early access to education: Nicholas Kristof, “Too Small to Fail,” New York Times, June 2, 2016, www.nytimes.com/2016/06/02/opinion/building-childrens-brains.html.

It’s more like a dance: George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live By (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980).

what expert negotiators do differently: Neil Rackham, “The Behavior of Successful Negotiators,” in Negotiation: Readings, Exercises, and Cases, ed. Roy Lewicki, Bruce Barry, and David Saunders (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980/2007).

having even one negotiator who brings: Femke S. Ten Velden, Bianca Beersma, and Carsten K. W. De Dreu, “It Takes One to Tango: The Effects of Dyads’ Epistemic Motivation Composition in Negotiations,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 36 (2010): 1454–66.

We can demonstrate openness: Maria Popova, “How to Criticize with Kindness: Philosopher Daniel Dennett on the Four Steps to Arguing Intelligently,” BrainPickings, March 28, 2014, www.brainpickings.org/2014/03/28/daniel-dennett-rapoport-rules-criticism.

When we concede that someone else: Fabrizio Butera, Nicolas Sommet, and Céline Darnon, “Sociocognitive Conflict Regulation: How to Make Sense of Diverging Ideas,” Current Directions in Psychological Science 28 (2019): 145–51.

Her official name is Project Debater: IBM Research Editorial Staff, “Think 2019 Kicks Off with Live Debate between Man and Machine,” IBM Research Blog, February 12, 2019, www.ibm.com/blogs/research/2019/02/ai-debate-recap-think-2019; Paul Teich, “IBM Project Debater Speaks to the Future of AI,” The Next Platform, March 27, 2019, www.nextplatform.com/2019/03/27/ibm-project-debater-speaks-to-the-future-of-ai; Dieter Bohn, “What It’s Like to Watch an IBM AI Successfully Debate Humans,” The Verge, June 18, 2018, www.theverge.com/2018/6/18/17477686/ibm-project-debater-ai.

the steel man: Conor Friedersdorf, “The Highest Form of Disagreement,” The Atlantic, June 26, 2017, www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2017/06/the-highest-form-of-disagreement/531597.

people tend to see quantity: Kate A. Ranganath, Barbara A. Spellman, and Jennifer A. Joy-Gaba, “Cognitive ‘Category-Based Induction’ Research and Social ‘Persuasion’ Research Are Each about What Makes Arguments Believable: A Tale of Two Literatures,” Perspectives on Psychological Science 5 (2010): 115–22.

the quality of reasons matters: Richard E. Petty and Duane T. Wegener, “The Elaboration Likelihood Model: Current Status and Controversies,” in Dual-Process Theories in Social Psychology, ed. Shelly Chaiken and Yaacov Trope (New York: Guilford, 1999).

piling on justifications: John Biondo and A. P. MacDonald Jr., “Internal-External Locus of Control and Response to Influence Attempts,” Journal of Personality 39 (1971): 407–19.

convince thousands of resistant alumni: Daniel C. Feiler, Leigh P. Tost, and Adam M. Grant, “Mixed Reasons, Missed Givings: The Costs of Blending Egoistic and Altruistic Reasons in Donation Requests,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 48 (2012): 1322–28.

are you planning to attend?: Rachel (Penny) Breuhaus, “Get in the Game: Comparing the Effects of Self-Persuasion and Direct Influence in Motivating Attendance at UNC Men’s Basketball Games” (honors thesis, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2009).

the person most likely to persuade you: Elliot Aronson, “The Power of Self-Persuasion,” American Psychologist 54 (1999): 875–84.

paying them more: David G. Allen, Phillip C. Bryant, and James M. Vardaman, “Retaining Talent: Replacing Misconceptions with Evidence-Based Strategies,” Academy of Management Perspectives 24 (2017): 48–64.

hierarchy of disagreement: Paul Graham, “How to Disagree,” PaulGraham.com, March 2008, www.paulgraham.com/disagree.html.

Beethoven and Mozart: Aaron Kozbelt, “Longitudinal Hit Ratios of Classical Composers: Reconciling ‘Darwinian’ and Expertise Acquisition Perspectives on Lifespan Creativity,” Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts 2 (2008): 221–35; Adam Grant, “The Surprising Habits of Original Thinkers,” TED Talk, February 2016, www.ted.com/talks/adam_grant_the_surprising_habits_of_original_thinkers.

If we hold an: See Michael Natkin, “Strong Opinions Loosely Held Might Be the Worst Idea in Tech,” The Glowforge Blog, May 1, 2019, blog.glowforge.com/strong-opinions-loosely-held-might-be-the-worst-idea-in-tech.

in courtrooms, expert witnesses: Robert J. Cramer, Stanley L. Brodsky, and Jamie DeCoster, “Expert Witness Confidence and Juror Personality: Their Impact on Credibility and Persuasion in the Courtroom,” Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and Law 37 (2009) 63–74; Harvey London, Dennis McSeveney, and Richard Tropper, “Confidence, Overconfidence and Persuasion,” Human Relations 24 (1971): 359–69.

woman named Michele Hansen: Personal interview with Michele Hansen, February 23, 2018; “The Problem with All-Stars,” WorkLife with Adam Grant, March 14, 2018.

two-sided messages were more convincing: Mike Allen, “Meta-analysis Comparing the Persuasiveness of One-Sided and Two-Sided Messages,” Western Journal of Speech Communication 55 (1991): 390–404.

“I work too hard, I care too much”: The Office, season 3, episode 23, “Beach Games,” May 10, 2007, NBC.

“My name is George”: Seinfeld, season 5, episode 22, “The Opposite,” May 19, 1994, NBC.

candidates who acknowledge legitimate weaknesses: Ovul Sezer, Francesca Gino, and Michael I. Norton, “Humblebragging: A Distinct—and Ineffective—Self-Presentation Strategy,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 114 (2018): 52–74.

Chapter 6. Bad Blood on the Diamond

“I hated the Yankees with all my heart, even to the point”: Doris Kearns Goodwin, MLB Pro Blog, doriskearnsgoodwin.mlblogs.com.

Daryl Davis arrived: Personal communications with Daryl Davis, April 10, 2020; Daryl Davis, “What Do You Do When Someone Just Doesn’t Like You?,” TEDxCharlottesville, November 2017, www.ted.com/talks/daryl_davis_what_do_you_do_when_someone_just_doesn_t_like_you; Dwane Brown, “How One Man Convinced 200 Ku Klux Klan Members to Give Up Their Robes,” NPR, August 20, 2017, www.npr.org/transcripts/544861933; Craig Phillips, “Reformed Racists: Is There Life after Hate for Former White Supremacists?,” PBS, February 9, 2017, www.pbs.org/independentlens/blog/reformed-racists-white-supremacists-life-after-hate; The Joe Rogan Experience, #1419, January 30, 2020; Jeffrey Fleishman, “A Black Man’s Quixotic Quest to Quell the Racism of the KKK, One Robe at a Time,” Los Angeles Times, December 8, 2016, www.latimes.com/entertainment/movies/la-ca-film-accidental-courtesy-20161205-story.html.

most popular T-shirts: Amos Barshad, “Yankees Suck! Yankees Suck!” Grantland, September 1, 2015, http://grantland.com/features/yankees-suck-t-shirts-boston-red-sox.

When asked how much money: Steven A. Lehr, Meghan L. Ferreira, and Mahzarin R. Banaji, “When Outgroup Negativity Trumps Ingroup Positivity: Fans of the Boston Red Sox and New York Yankees Place Greater Value on Rival Losses Than Own-Team Gains,” Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 22 (2017): 26–42.

when Red Sox fans see the Yankees fail: Mina Cikara and Susan T. Fiske, “Their Pain, Our Pleasure: Stereotype Content and Schadenfreude,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1299 (2013): 52–59.

well beyond Boston: Eduardo Gonzalez, “Most Hated Baseball Team on Twitter?,” Los Angeles Times, July 1, 2019, www.latimes.com/sports/mlb/la-sp-most-hated-mlb-teams-twitter-yankees-cubs-dodgers-20190701-story.html.

families self-segregated: Hannah Schwär, “Puma and Adidas’ Rivalry Has Divided a Small German Town for 70 Years—Here’s What It Looks Like Now,” Business Insider Deutschland, October 1, 2018; Ellen Emmerentze Jervell, “Where Puma and Adidas Were Like Hatfields and McCoys,” Wall Street Journal, December 30, 2014, www.wsj.com/articles/where-adidas-and-pumas-were-like-hatfields-and-mccoys-1419894858; Allan Hall, “Adidas and Puma Bury the Hatchet after 60 Years of Brothers’ Feud after Football Match,” Daily Telegraph, September 22, 2009, www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/germany/6216728/Adidas-and-Puma-bury-the-hatchet-after-60-years-of-brothers-feud-after-football-match.html.

we disidentify with our adversaries: Kimberly D. Elsbach and C. B. Bhattacharya, “Defining Who You Are by What You’re Not: Organizational Disidentification and the National Rifle Association,” Organization Science 12 (2001): 393–413.

if they were willing to lie: Gavin J. Kilduff et al., “Whatever It Takes to Win: Rivalry Increases Unethical Behavior,” Academy of Management Journal 59 (2016): 1508–34.

even when the boundaries between them are trivial: Michael Diehl, “The Minimal Group Paradigm: Theoretical Explanations and Empirical Findings,” European Review of Social Psychology 1 (1990): 263–92.

a seemingly innocuous question: is a hot dog a sandwich?: Dave Hauser (@DavidJHauser), December 5, 2019, twitter.com/DavidJHauser/status/1202610237934592000.

Identifying with a group: Philip Furley, “What Modern Sports Competitions Can Tell Us about Human Nature,” Perspectives on Psychological Science 14 (2019): 138–55.

after their team won a football game: Robert B. Cialdini et al., “Basking in Reflected Glory: Three (Football) Field Studies,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 34 (1976): 366–75.

Rivalries are most likely to develop: Gavin J. Kilduff, Hillary Anger Elfenbein, and Barry M. Staw, “The Psychology of Rivalry: A Relationally Dependent Analysis of Competition,” Academy of Management Journal 53 (2010): 943–69.

The two teams also have more fans: Seth Stephens-Davidowitz, “They Hook You When You’re Young,” New York Times, April 19, 2014, www.nytimes.com/2014/04/20/opinion/sunday/they-hook-you-when-youre-young.html; J. Clement, “Major League Baseball Teams with the Most Facebook Fans as of June 2020,” Statista, June 16, 2020, www.statista.com/statistics/235719/facebook-fans-of-major-league-baseball-teams.

subject of extensive debate: John K. Ashton, Robert Simon Hudson, and Bill Gerrard, “Do National Soccer Results Really Impact on the Stock Market?,” Applied Economics 43 (2011): 3709–17; Guy Kaplanski and Haim Levy, “Exploitable Predictable Irrationality: The FIFA World Cup Effect on the U.S. Stock Market,” Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis 45 (2010): 535–53; Jerome Geyer-Klingeberg et al., “Do Stock Markets React to Soccer Games? A Meta-regression Analysis,” Applied Economics 50 (2018): 2171–89.

when their favorite soccer team loses: Panagiotis Gkorezis et al., “Linking Football Team Performance to Fans’ Work Engagement and Job Performance: Test of a Spillover Model,” Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 89 (2016): 791–812.

pairs of reality goggles: George A. Kelly, The Psychology of Personal Constructs, vol. 1, A Theory of Personality (New York: Norton, 1955).

phenomenon is called group polarization: Daniel J. Isenberg, “Group Polarization: A Critical Review and Meta-analysis,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50 (1986): 1141–51.

Juries with authoritarian beliefs: Robert M. Bray and Audrey M. Noble, “Authoritarianism and Decision in Mock Juries: Evidence of Jury Bias and Group Polarization,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 36 (1978): 1424–30.

Corporate boards are more likely: Cass R. Sunstein and Reid Hastie, Wiser: Getting Beyond Groupthink to Make Groups Smarter (Boston: Harvard Business Review Press, 2014).

Polarization is reinforced: Liran Goldman and Michael A. Hogg, “Going to Extremes for One’s Group: The Role of Prototypicality and Group Acceptance,” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 46 (2016): 544–53; Michael A. Hogg, John C. Turner, and Barbara Davidson, “Polarized Norms and Social Frames of Reference: A Test of the Self-Categorization Theory of Group Polarization,” Basic and Applied Social Psychology 11 (1990): 77–100.

when teams try to downplay: Johannes Berendt and Sebastian Uhrich, “Rivalry and Fan Aggression: Why Acknowledging Conflict Reduces Tension between Rival Fans and Downplaying Makes Things Worse,” European Sport Management Quarterly 18 (2018): 517–40.

Upon returning from space: Peter Suedfeld, Katya Legkaia, and Jelena Brcic, “Changes in the Hierarchy of Value References Associated with Flying in Space,” Journal of Personality 78 (2010): 1411–36.

“From out there on the moon”: “Edgar Mitchell’s Strange Voyage,” People, April 8, 1974, people.com/archive/edgar-mitchells-strange-voyage-vol-1-no-6.

“On Earth, astronauts look to the stars”: Personal interview with Jeff Ashby, January 12, 2018; “How to Trust People You Don’t Like,” WorkLife with Adam Grant, March 28, 2018.

Manchester United soccer fans: Mark Levine et al., “Identity and Emergency Intervention: How Social Group Membership and Inclusiveness of Group Boundaries Shape Helping Behavior,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 31 (2005): 443–53.

Kelman set out to challenge: Herbert C. Kelman, “Group Processes in the Resolution of International Conflicts: Experiences from the Israeli-Palestinian Case,” American Psychologist 52 (1997): 212–20.

we asked UNC students to help: Alison R. Fragale, Karren Knowlton, and Adam M. Grant, “Feeling for Your Foes: Empathy Can Reverse the In-Group Helping Preference” (working paper, 2020).

establishes her as different: Myron Rothbart and Oliver P. John, “Social Categorization and Behavioral Episodes: A Cognitive Analysis of the Effects of Intergroup Contact,” Journal of Social Issues 41 (1985): 81–104.

“Without sports, this wouldn’t be disgusting”: ESPN College Football, www.espn.com/video/clip/_/id/18106107.

“You’re actually rooting for the clothes”: Seinfeld, season 6, episode 12, “The Label Maker,” January 19, 1995, NBC.

A fun but arbitrary ritual: Tim Kundro and Adam M. Grant, “Bad Blood on the Diamond: Highlighting the Arbitrariness of Acrimony Can Reduce Animosity toward Rivals” (working paper, 2020).

counterfactual thinking involves: Kai Epstude and Neal J. Roese, “The Functional Theory of Counterfactual Thinking,” Personality and Social Psychology Review 12 (2008): 168–92.

many stereotypes match up: Lee Jussim et al., “The Unbearable Accuracy of Stereotypes,” in Handbook of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination, ed. Todd D. Nelson (New York: Psychology Press, 2009).

stereotypes become consistently and increasingly inaccurate: Lee Jussim, Jarret T. Crawford, and Rachel S. Rubinstein, “Stereotype (In)accuracy in Perceptions of Groups and Individuals,” Current Directions in Psychological Science 24 (2015): 490–97.

“if you’re a Virgo in China”: Jackson G. Lu et al., “Disentangling Stereotypes from Social Reality: Astrological Stereotypes and Discrimination in China,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (2020), psycnet.apa.org/record/2020-19028-001.

our beliefs are cultural truisms: Gregory R. Maio and James M. Olson, “Values as Truisms: Evidence and Implications,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 (1998): 294–311.

there are more similarities: Paul H. P. Hanel, Gregory R. Maio, and Antony S. R. Manstead, “A New Way to Look at the Data: Similarities between Groups of People Are Large and Important,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 116 (2019): 541–62.

interacting with members of another group: Thomas F. Pettigrew and Linda R. Tropp, “A Meta-analytic Test of Intergroup Contact Theory,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 90 (2006): 751–83.

more likely to privilege their own perspectives: Jennifer R. Overbeck and Vitaliya Droutman, “One for All: Social Power Increases Self-Anchoring of Traits, Attitudes, and Emotions,” Psychological Science 24 (2013): 1466–76.

their perspectives are more likely to go unquestioned: Leigh Plunkett Tost, Francesca Gino, and Richard P. Larrick, “When Power Makes Others Speechless,” Academy of Management Journal 56 (2013): 1465–86.

Chapter 7. Vaccine Whisperers and Mild-Mannered Interrogators

Marie-Hélène Étienne-Rousseau went into labor: See Eric Boodman, “The Vaccine Whisperers: Counselors Gently Engage New Parents Before Their Doubts Harden into Certainty,” STAT, August 5, 2019, www.statnews.com/2019/08/05/the-vaccine-whisperers-counselors-gently-engage-new-parents-before-their-doubts-harden-into-certainty.

its mortality rate: Nick Paumgarten, “The Message of Measles,” New Yorker, August 26, 2019, www.newyorker.com/magazine/2019/09/02/the-message-of-measles; Leslie Roberts, “Why Measles Deaths Are Surging—and Coronavirus Could Make It Worse,” Nature, April 7, 2020, www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-01011-6.

tried to prosecute the problem: Helen Branswell, “New York County, Declaring Emergency over Measles, Seeks to Ban Unvaccinated from Public Places,” STAT, March 26, 2019, www.statnews.com/2019/03/26/rockland-county-ny-declares-emergency-over-measles; Tyler Pager, “‘Monkey, Rat and Pig DNA’: How Misinformation Is Driving the Measles Outbreak among Ultra-Orthodox Jews,” New York Times, April 9, 2019, www.nytimes.com/2019/04/09/nyregion/jews-measles-vaccination.html.

The results were often disappointing: Matthew J. Hornsey, Emily A. Harris, and Kelly S. Fielding, “The Psychological Roots of Anti-Vaccination Attitudes: A 24-Nation Investigation,” Health Psychology 37 (2018): 307–15.

introducing people to the research: Cornelia Betsch and Katharina Sachse, “Debunking Vaccination Myths: Strong Risk Negations Can Increase Perceived Vaccination Risks,” Health Psychology 32 (2013): 146–55.

their interest in vaccination didn’t rise at all: Brendan Nyhan et al., “Effective Messages in Vaccine Promotion: A Randomized Trial,” Pediatrics 133 (2014): e835–42.

what doesn’t sway us: Zakary L. Tormala and Richard E. Petty, “What Doesn’t Kill Me Makes Me Stronger: The Effects of Resisting Persuasion on Attitude Certainty,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83 (2002): 1298–313.

the act of resistance fortifies: William J. McGuire, “Inducing Resistance to Persuasion: Some Contemporary Approaches,” Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 1 (1964): 191–229.

Refuting a point of view: John A. Banas and Stephen A. Rains, “A Meta-analysis of Research on Inoculation Theory,” Communication Monographs 77 (2010): 281–311.

clinical psychologist named Bill Miller: Personal communications with Bill Miller, September 3 and 6, 2019.

core principles of a practice called motivational interviewing: William R. Miller and Stephen Rollnick, Motivational Interviewing: Helping People Change, 3rd ed. (New York: Guilford, 2012).

a neonatologist and researcher named: Personal interview with Arnaud Gagneur, October 8, 2019.

In Arnaud’s first study: Arnaud Gagneur et al., “A Postpartum Vaccination Promotion Intervention Using Motivational Interviewing Techniques Improves Short-Term Vaccine Coverage: PromoVac Study,” BMC Public Health 18 (2018): 811.

In Arnaud’s next experiment: Thomas Lemaître et al., “Impact of a Vaccination Promotion Intervention Using Motivational Interview Techniques on Long-Term Vaccine Coverage: The PromoVac Strategy,” Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics 15 (2019): 732–39.

help people stop smoking: Carolyn J. Heckman, Brian L. Egleston, and Makary T. Hofmann, “Efficacy of Motivational Interviewing for Smoking Cessation: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis,” Tobacco Control 19 (2010): 410–16.

abusing drugs and alcohol: Brad W. Lundahl et al., “A Meta-analysis of Motivational Interviewing: Twenty-Five Years of Empirical Studies,” Research on Social Work Practice 20 (2010): 137–60.

improve their diets and exercise habits: Brian L. Burke, Hal Arkowitz, and Marisa Menchola, “The Efficacy of Motivational Interviewing: A Meta-analysis of Controlled Clinical Trials,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 71 (2003): 843–61.

overcome eating disorders: Pam Macdonald et al., “The Use of Motivational Interviewing in Eating Disorders: A Systematic Review,” Psychiatry Research 200 (2012): 1–11.

and lose weight: Marni J. Armstrong et al., “Motivational Interviewing to Improve Weight Loss in Overweight Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials,” Obesity Reviews 12 (2011): 709–23.

build grit in professional soccer players: Jonathan Rhodes et al., “Enhancing Grit through Functional Imagery Training in Professional Soccer,” Sport Psychologist 32 (2018): 220–25.

teachers to nudge students: Neralie Cain, Michael Gradisar, and Lynette Moseley, “A Motivational School-Based Intervention for Adolescent Sleep Problems,” Sleep Medicine 12 (2011): 246–51.

consultants to prepare teams: Conrado J. Grimolizzi-Jensen, “Organizational Change: Effect of Motivational Interviewing on Readiness to Change,” Journal of Change Management 18 (2018): 54–69.

public health workers: Angelica K. Thevos, Robert E. Quick, and Violet Yanduli, “Motivational Interviewing Enhances the Adoption of Water Disinfection Practices in Zambia,” Health Promotion International 15 (2000): 207–14.

and environmental activists: Florian E. Klonek et al., “Using Motivational Interviewing to Reduce Threats in Conversations about Environmental Behavior,” Frontiers in Psychology 6 (2015): 1015; Sofia Tagkaloglou and Tim Kasser, “Increasing Collaborative, Pro-Environmental Activism: The Roles of Motivational Interviewing, Self-Determined Motivation, and Self-Efficacy,” Journal of Environmental Psychology 58 (2018): 86–92.

opened the minds of prejudiced voters: Joshua L. Kalla and David E. Broockman, “Reducing Exclusionary Attitudes through Interpersonal Conversation: Evidence from Three Field Experiments,” American Political Science Review 114 (2020): 410–25.

help separated parents resolve disputes: Megan Morris, W. Kim Halford, and Jemima Petch, “A Randomized Controlled Trial Comparing Family Mediation with and without Motivational Interviewing,” Journal of Family Psychology 32 (2018): 269–75.

a body of evidence this robust: Sune Rubak et al., “Motivational Interviewing: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis,” British Journal of General Practice 55 (2005): 305–12.

When people ignore advice: Anna Goldfarb, “How to Give People Advice They’ll Be Delighted to Take,” New York Times, October 21, 2019, www.nytimes.com/2019/10/21/smarter-living/how-to-give-better-advice.html.

sustain talk and change talk: Molly Magill et al., “A Meta-analysis of Motivational Interviewing Process: Technical, Relational, and Conditional Process Models of Change,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 86 (2018): 140–57; Timothy R. Apodaca et al., “Which Individual Therapist Behaviors Elicit Client Change Talk and Sustain Talk in Motivational Interviewing?,” Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 61 (2016): 60–65; Molly Magill et al., “The Technical Hypothesis of Motivational Interviewing: A Meta-analysis of MI’s Key Causal Model,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 82 (2014): 973–83.

“Change talk is a golden thread”: Theresa Moyers, “Change Talk,” Talking to Change with Glenn Hinds & Sebastian Kaplan.

when people detect an attempt at influence: Marian Friestad and Peter Wright, “The Persuasion Knowledge Model: How People Cope with Persuasion Attempts,” Journal of Consumer Research 21 (1994): 1–31.

Betty Bigombe had already hiked: Personal interviews with Betty Bigombe, March 19 and May 8, 2020; see also “Betty Bigombe: The Woman Who Befriended a Warlord,” BBC, August 8, 2019, www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49269136.

Joseph Kony was the leader: David Smith, “Surrender of Senior Aide to Joseph Kony Is Major Blow to Lord’s Resistance Army,” Guardian, January 7, 2015, www.theguardian.com/global-development/2015/jan/07/surrender-aide-joseph-kony-blow-lords-resistance-army.

“truly curious questions”: Kate Murphy, “Talk Less. Listen More. Here’s How,” New York Times, January 9, 2010, www.nytimes.com/2020/01/09/opinion/listening-tips.html.

an empathetic, nonjudgmental, attentive listener: Guy Itzchakov et al., “The Listener Sets the Tone: High-Quality Listening Increases Attitude Clarity and Behavior-Intention Consequences,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 44 (2018): 762–78; Guy Itzchakov, Avraham N. Kluger, and Dotan R. Castro, “I Am Aware of My Inconsistencies but Can Tolerate Them: The Effect of High Quality Listening on Speakers’ Attitude Ambivalence,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 43 (2017): 105–20.

people’s attitudes became more complex: Guy Itzchakov and Avraham N. Kluger, “Can Holding a Stick Improve Listening at Work? The Effect of Listening Circles on Employees’ Emotions and Cognitions,” European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology 26 (2017): 663–76.

working on being better listeners: Guy Itzchakov and Avraham N. Kluger, “The Power of Listening in Helping People Change,” Harvard Business Review, May 17, 2018, hbr.org/2018/05/the-power-of-listening-in-helping-people-change.

“How can I tell what I think”: E. M. Forster, Aspects of the Novel (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1927/1956); see also Graham Wallas, The Art of Thought (Kent, England: Solis Press, 1926/2014).

“an inverse charisma”: Wendy Moffat, E. M. Forster: A New Life (London: Bloomsbury, 2011).

managers rated as the worst listeners: Judi Brownell, “Perceptions of Effective Listeners: A Management Study,” International Journal of Business Communication 27 (1973): 401–15.

their pets were better listeners: “Poll: 1 in 3 Women Say Pets Listen Better Than Husbands,” USA Today, April 30, 2010, usatoday30.usatoday.com/life/lifestyle/pets/2010-04-30-pets-vs-spouses_N.htm.

doctors to interrupt their patients: Naykky Singh Ospina et al., “Eliciting the Patient’s Agenda: Secondary Analysis of Recorded Clinical Encounters,” Journal of General Internal Medicine 34 (2019): 36–40.

29 seconds to describe their symptoms: M. Kim Marvel et al., “Soliciting the Patient’s Agenda: Have We Improved?,” Journal of the American Medical Association 281 (1999): 283–87.

Chapter 8. Charged Conversations

“When conflict is cliché”: Amanda Ripley, “Complicating the Narratives,” Solutions Journalism, June 27, 2018, thewholestory.solutionsjournalism.org/complicating-the-narratives-b91ea06ddf63.

Difficult Conversations Lab: Peter T. Coleman, The Five Percent: Finding Solutions to Seemingly Impossible Conflicts (New York: PublicAffairs, 2011).

the article framed the debate: Katharina Kugler and Peter T. Coleman, “Get Complicated: The Effects of Complexity on Conversations over Potentially Intractable Moral Conflicts,” Negotiation and Conflict Management Research (2020), onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/ncmr.12192.

simplifying a complex continuum: Matthew Fisher and Frank C. Keil, “The Binary Bias: A Systematic Distortion in the Integration of Information,” Psychological Science 29 (2018): 1846–58.

the humorist Robert Benchley: “The Most Popular Book of the Month,” Vanity Fair, February 1920, babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015032024203&view=1up&seq=203&q1=divide%20the%20world.

a phrase from Walt Whitman: Walt Whitman, Leaves of Grass, in Walt Whitman: The Complete Poems, ed. Francis Murphy (London: Penguin Classics, 1855/2005).

“read less like a lawyer’s opening statement”: Ripley, “Complicating the Narratives.”

Yet polls show bipartisan consensus: Mike DeBonis and Emily Guskin, “Americans of Both Parties Overwhelmingly Support ‘Red Flag’ Laws, Expanded Background Checks for Gun Buyers, Washington Post–ABC News Poll Finds,” Washington Post, September 9, 2019, www.washingtonpost.com/politics/americans-of-both-parties-overwhelmingly-support-red-flag-laws-expanded-gun-background-checks-washington-post-abc-news-poll-finds/2019/09/08/97208916-ca75-11e9-a4f3-c081a126de70_story.html; Domenico Montanaro, “Poll: Most Americans Want to See Congress Pass Gun Restrictions,” NPR, September 10, 2019, www.npr.org/2019/09/10/759193047/poll-most-americans-want-to-see-congress-pass-gun-restrictions.

only 59 percent of Americans: Moira Fagan and Christine Huang, “A Look at How People around the World View Climate Change,” Pew Research Center, April 18, 2019, www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/04/18/a-look-at-how-people-around-the-world-view-climate-change.

In the past decade in the United States: “Environment,” Gallup, news.gallup.com/poll/1615/environment.aspx; “About Six in Ten Americans Think Global Warming Is Mostly Human-Caused,” Yale Program on Climate Change, December 2018, climatecommunication.yale.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/climate_change_american_mind_december_2018_1-3.png.

What we believe depends: Ben Tappin, Leslie Van Der Leer, and Ryan Mckay, “You’re Not Going to Change Your Mind,” New York Times, May 27, 2017, www.nytimes.com/2017/05/27/opinion/sunday/youre-not-going-to-change-your-mind.html.

higher levels of education predict: Lawrence C. Hamilton, “Education, Politics and Opinions about Climate Change: Evidence for Interaction Effects,” Climatic Change 104 (2011): 231–42.

“Some still doubt”: Al Gore, “The Case for Optimism on Climate Change,” TED, February 2016, www.ted.com/talks/al_gore_the_case_for_optimism_on_climate_change.

he was called the Elvis: Steven Levy, “We Are Now at Peak TED,” Wired, February 19, 2016, www.wired.com/2016/02/we-are-now-at-peak-ted.

contrasted scientists with “climate deniers”: Al Gore, “We Can’t Wish Away Climate Change,” New York Times, February 27, 2010, www.nytimes.com/2010/02/28/opinion/28gore.html.

six camps of thought: “Global Warming’s Six Americas,” Yale Program on Climate Change Communication, climatecommunication.yale.edu/about/projects/global-warmings-six-americas.

climate contrarians received disproportionate coverage: Alexander Michael Petersen, Emmanuel M. Vincent, and Anthony LeRoy Westerling, “Discrepancy in Scientific Authority and Media Visibility of Climate Change Scientists and Contrarians,” Nature Communications 10 (2019): 3502.

overestimating how common denial is: Matto Mildenberger and Dustin Tingley, “Beliefs about Climate Beliefs: The Importance of Second-Order Opinions for Climate Politics,” British Journal of Political Science 49 (2019): 1279–307.

within denial there are at least six different categories: Philipp Schmid and Cornelia Betsch, “Effective Strategies for Rebutting Science Denialism in Public Discussions,” Nature Human Behavior 3 (2019): 931–39.

when journalists acknowledge the uncertainties: Anne Marthe van der Bles et al., “The Effects of Communicating Uncertainty on Public Trust in Facts and Numbers,” PNAS 117 (2020): 7672–83.

when experts express doubt: Uma R. Karmarkar and Zakary L. Tormala, “Believe Me, I Have No Idea What I’m Talking About: The Effects of Source Certainty on Consumer Involvement and Persuasion,” Journal of Consumer Research 36 (2010): 1033–49.

media reported on a study: Tania Lombrozo, “In Science Headlines, Should Nuance Trump Sensation?,” NPR, August 3, 2015, www.npr.org/sections/13.7/2015/08/03/428984912/in-science-headlines-should-nuance-trump-sensation.

The actual study showed: Vincenzo Solfrizzi et al., “Coffee Consumption Habits and the Risk of Mild Cognitive Impairment: The Italian Longitudinal Study on Aging,” Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease 47 (2015): 889–99.

jolt of instant complexity: Ariana Eunjung Cha, “Yesterday’s Coffee Science: It’s Good for the Brain. Today: Not So Fast . . .*” Washington Post, August 28, 2015, www.washingtonpost.com/news/to-your-health/wp/2015/07/30/yesterdays-coffee-science-its-good-for-the-brain-today-not-so-fast.

Scientists overwhelmingly agree: “Do Scientists Agree on Climate Change?,” NASA, https://climate.nasa.gov/faq/17/do-scientists-agree-on-climate-change; John Cook et al., “Consensus on Consensus: A Synthesis of Consensus Estimates on Human-Caused Global Warming,” Environmental Research Letters 11 (2016): 048002; David Herring, “Isn’t There a Lot of Disagreement among Climate Scientists about Global Warming?,” ClimateWatch Magazine, February 3, 2020, www.climate.gov/news-features/climate-qa/isnt-there-lot-disagreement-among-climate-scientists-about-global-warming.

a range of views on the actual effects: Carolyn Gramling, “Climate Models Agree Things Will Get Bad. Capturing Just How Bad Is Tricky,” ScienceNews, January 7, 2020, www.sciencenews.org/article/why-climate-change-models-disagree-earth-worst-case-scenarios.

people are more motivated to act: Paul G. Bain et al., “Co-Benefits of Addressing Climate Change Can Motivate Action around the World,” Nature Climate Change 6 (2016): 154–57.

preserving the purity of nature: Matthew Feinberg and Robb Willer, “The Moral Roots of Environmental Attitudes,” Psychological Science 24 (2013): 56–62.

protecting the planet as an act of patriotism: Christopher Wolsko, Hector Ariceaga, and Jesse Seiden, “Red, White, and Blue Enough to Be Green: Effects of Moral Framing on Climate Change Attitudes and Conservation Behaviors,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 65 (2016): 7–19.

people will ignore or even deny: Troy H. Campbell and Aaron C. Kay, “Solution Aversion: On the Relation between Ideology and Motivated Disbelief,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 107 (2014): 809–24.

examples of headlines: Mary Annaise Heglar, “I Work in the Environmental Movement. I Don’t Care If You Recycle,” Vox, May 28, 2019, www.vox.com/the-highlight/2019/5/28/18629833/climate-change-2019-green-new-deal; Bob Berwyn, “Can Planting a Trillion Trees Stop Climate Change? Scientists Say It’s a Lot More Complicated,” Inside Climate News, May 27, 2020, insideclimatenews.org/news/26052020/trillion-trees-climate-change?gclid=EAIaIQobChMIrb6n1qHF6gIVFInICh2kggWNEAAYAiAAEgI-sPD_BwE.

when news reports about science included caveats: Lewis Bott et al., “Caveats in Science-Based News Stories Communicate Caution without Lowering Interest,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied 25 (2019): 517–42.

diversity of background and thought: See, for example, Ute Hülsheger, Neil R. Anderson, and Jesus F. Salgado, “Team-Level Predictors of Innovation at Work: A Comprehensive Meta-analysis Spanning Three Decades of Research,” Journal of Applied Psychology 94 (2009): 1128–45; Cristian L. Dezsö and David Gaddis Ross, “Does Female Representation in Top Management Improve Firm Performance? A Panel Data Investigation,” Strategic Management Journal 33 (2012): 1072–89; Samuel R. Sommers, “On Racial Diversity and Group Decision Making: Identifying Multiple Effects of Racial Composition on Jury Deliberations,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 90 (2006): 597–612; Denise Lewin Loyd et al., “Social Category Diversity Promotes Premeeting Elaboration: The Role of Relationship Focus,” Organization Science 24 (2013): 757–72.

potential is realized in some situations: Elizabeth Mannix and Margaret A. Neale, “What Differences Make a Difference? The Promise and Reality of Diverse Teams in Organizations,” Psychological Science in the Public Interest 6 (2005): 31–55.

(and more accurate): “Diversity is good, but it isn’t easy”: Lisa Leslie, “What Makes a Workplace Diversity Program Successful?,” Center for Positive Organizations, January 22, 2020, positiveorgs.bus.umich.edu/news/what-makes-a-workplace-diversity-program-successful.

“The Mixed Effects”: Edward H. Chang et al., “The Mixed Effects of Online Diversity Training,” PNAS 116 (2019): 7778–83.

“maintain a consistent narrative”: Julian Matthews, “A Cognitive Scientist Explains Why Humans Are So Susceptible to Fake News and Misinformation,” NiemanLab, April 17, 2019, www.niemanlab.org/2019/04/a-cognitive-scientist-explains-why-humans-are-so-susceptible-to-fake-news-and-misinformation.

divide around emotional intelligence: Daniel Goleman, Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ (New York: Bantam Books, 1995) and “What Makes a Leader?,” Harvard Business Review, January 2004; Jordan B. Peterson, “There Is No Such Thing as EQ,” Quora, August 22, 2019, www.quora.com/What-is-more-beneficial-in-all-aspects-of-life-a-high-EQ-or-IQ-This-question-is-based-on-the-assumption-that-only-your-EQ-or-IQ-is-high-with-the-other-being-average-or-below-this-average.

the comprehensive meta-analyses: Dana L. Joseph and Daniel A. Newman, “Emotional Intelligence: An Integrative Meta-analysis and Cascading Model,” Journal of Applied Psychology 95 (2010): 54–78; Dana L. Joseph et al., “Why Does Self-Reported EI Predict Job Performance? A Meta-analytic Investigation of Mixed EI,” Journal of Applied Psychology 100 (2015): 298–342.

when people embrace paradoxes: Ella Miron-Spektor, Francesca Gino, and Linda Argote, “Paradoxical Frames and Creative Sparks: Enhancing Individual Creativity through Conflict and Integration,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 116 (2011): 229–40; Dustin J. Sleesman, “Pushing Through the Tension While Stuck in the Mud: Paradox Mindset and Escalation of Commitment,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 155 (2019): 83–96.

beneficial in jobs that involve dealing with emotions: Joseph and Newman, “Emotional Intelligence.”

a thousand comments poured in: Adam Grant, “Emotional Intelligence Is Overrated,” LinkedIn, September 30, 2014, www.linkedin.com/pulse/20140930125543-69244073-emotional-intelligence-is-overrated.

Some teachers are determined: Olga Khazan, “The Myth of ‘Learning Styles,’” The Atlantic, April 11, 2018, www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2018/04/the-myth-of-learning-styles/557687.

they don’t actually learn better that way: Harold Pashler et al., “Learning Styles: Concepts and Evidence,” Psychological Science in the Public Interest 9 (2008): 105–19.

meditation isn’t the only way: Adam Grant, “Can We End the Meditation Madness?,” New York Times, October 9, 2015, www.nytimes.com/2015/10/10/opinion/can-we-end-the-meditation-madness.html.

the Myers-Briggs personality tool: Adam Grant, “MBTI, If You Want Me Back, You Need to Change Too,” Medium, November 17, 2015, medium.com/@AdamMGrant/mbti-if-you-want-me-back-you-need-to-change-too-c7f1a7b6970; Adam Grant, “Say Goodbye to MBTI, the Fad That Won’t Die,” LinkedIn, September 17, 2013, www.linkedin.com/pulse/20130917155206-69244073-say-goodbye-to-mbti-the-fad-that-won-t-die.

being more authentic: Adam Grant, “The Fine Line between Helpful and Harmful Authenticity,” New York Times, April 10, 2020, www.nytimes.com/2020/04/10/smarter-living/the-fine-line-between-helpful-and-harmful-authenticity.html; Adam Grant, “Unless You’re Oprah, ‘Be Yourself’ Is Terrible Advice,” New York Times, June 4, 2016, www.nytimes.com/2016/06/05/opinion/sunday/unless-youre-oprah-be-yourself-is-terrible-advice.html.

the veil of ignorance: John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1971).

randomly assigning people to reflect: Rhia Catapano, Zakary L. Tormala, and Derek D. Rucker, “Perspective Taking and Self-Persuasion: Why ‘Putting Yourself in Their Shoes’ Reduces Openness to Attitude Change,” Psychological Science 30 (2019): 424–35.

imagining other people’s perspectives: Tal Eyal, Mary Steffel, and Nicholas Epley, “Perspective Mistaking: Accurately Understanding the Mind of Another Requires Getting Perspective, Not Taking Perspective,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 114 (2018): 547–71.

Polls show that Democrats: Yascha Mounk, “Republicans Don’t Understand Democrats—and Democrats Don’t Understand Republicans,” The Atlantic, June 23, 2019, www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2019/06/republicans-and-democrats-dont-understand-each-other/592324.

even if we disagree strongly: Julian J. Zlatev, “I May Not Agree with You, but I Trust You: Caring about Social Issues Signals Integrity,” Psychological Science 30 (2019): 880–92.

“I have a lot of respect”: Corinne Bendersky, “Resolving Ideological Conflicts by Affirming Opponents’ Status: The Tea Party, Obamacare and the 2013 Government Shutdown,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 53 (2014): 163–68.

People get trapped in emotional simplicity: Patti Williams and Jennifer L. Aaker, “Can Mixed Emotions Peacefully Coexist?,” Journal of Consumer Research 28 (2002): 636–49.

Japanese gives us koi no yokan: Beca Grimm, “11 Feelings There Are No Words for in English,” Bustle, July 15, 2015, www.bustle.com/articles/97413-11-feelings-there-are-no-words-for-in-english-for-all-you-emotional-word-nerds-out.

The Inuit have iktsuarpok: Bill Demain et al., “51 Wonderful Words with No English Equivalent,” Mental Floss, December 14, 2015, www.mentalfloss.com/article/50698/38-wonderful-foreign-words-we-could-use-english.

kummerspeck, the extra weight: Kate Bratskeir, “‘Kummerspeck,’ or Grief Bacon, Is the German Word for What Happens When You Eat When You’re Sad,” Mic, December 19, 2017, www.mic.com/articles/186933/kummerspeck-or-grief-bacon-is-the-german-word-for-eating-when-sad.

“Racist and antiracist are not fixed identities”: Ibram X. Kendi, How to Be an Antiracist (New York: One World, 2019).

Christian Cooper refused: Don Lemon, “She Called Police on Him in Central Park. Hear His Response,” CNN, May 27, 2020, www.cnn.com/videos/us/2020/05/27/christian-cooper-central-park-video-lemon-ctn-sot-intv-vpx.cnn.

Chapter 9. Rewriting the Textbook

“No schooling was allowed to interfere”: Grant Allen [pseud. Olive Pratt Rayner], Rosalba: The Story of Her Development (London: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1899).

Wisconsin’s Teacher of the Year: Personal interview with Erin McCarthy, January 14, 2020; Scott Anderson, “Wisconsin National Teacher of the Year Nominee Is from Greendale,” Patch, August 20, 2019, patch.com/wisconsin/greendale/wisconsin-national-teacher-year-nominee-greendale.

It’s “a task that”: Deborah Kelemen, “The Magic of Mechanism: Explanation-Based Instruction on Counterintuitive Concepts in Early Childhood,” Perspectives on Psychological Science 14 (2019): 510–22.

don’t have a single right answer: Sam Wineburg, Daisy Martin, and Chauncey Monte-Sano, Reading Like a Historian (New York: Teachers College Press, 2013).

curriculum developed at Stanford: “Teacher Materials and Resources,” Historical Thinking Matters, http://historicalthinkingmatters.org/teachers/.

even send students out to interview: Elizabeth Emery, “Have Students Interview Someone They Disagree With,” Heterodox Academy, February 11, 2020, heterodoxacademy.org/viewpoint-diversity-students-interview-someone.

think like fact-checkers: Annabelle Timsit, “In the Age of Fake News, Here’s How Schools Are Teaching Kids to Think Like Fact-Checkers,” Quartz, February 12, 2019, qz.com/1533747/in-the-age-of-fake-news-heres-how-schools-are-teaching-kids-to-think-like-fact-checkers.

King Tut: Rose Troup Buchanan, “King Tutankhamun Did Not Die in Chariot Crash, Virtual Autopsy Reveals,” Independent, October 20, 2014, www.independent.co.uk/news/science/king-tutankhamun-did-not-die-in-chariot-crash-virtual-autopsy-reveals-9806586.html.

when sloths do their version: Brian Resnick, “Farts: Which Animals Do, Which Don’t, and Why,” Vox, October 19, 2018, www.vox.com/science-and-health/2018/4/3/17188186/does-it-fart-book-animal-farts-dinosaur-farts.

delivered by lecture: Louis Deslauriers et al., “Measuring Actual Learning versus Feeling of Learning in Response to Being Actively Engaged in the Classroom,” PNAS 116 (2019): 19251–57.

students scored half a letter grade worse under traditional lecturing: Scott Freeman et al., “Active Learning Increases Student Performance in Science, Engineering, and Mathematics,” PNAS 111 (2014): 8410–15.

the awestruck effect: Jochen I. Menges et al., “The Awestruck Effect: Followers Suppress Emotion Expression in Response to Charismatic but Not Individually Considerate Leadership,” Leadership Quarterly 26 (2015): 626–40.

the dumbstruck effect: Adam Grant, “The Dark Side of Emotional Intelligence,” The Atlantic, January 2, 2014, www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2014/01/the-dark-side-of-emotional-intelligence/282720.

In North American universities: M. Stains et al., “Anatomy of STEM Teaching in North American Universities,” Science 359 (2018): 1468–70.

half of teachers lecture: Grant Wiggins, “Why Do So Many HS History Teachers Lecture So Much?,” April 24, 2015, grantwiggins.wordpress.com/2015/04/24/why-do-so-many-hs-history-teachers-lecture-so-much.

middle schoolers score higher: Guido Schwerdt and Amelie C. Wupperman, “Is Traditional Teaching Really All That Bad? A Within-Student Between-Subject Approach,” Economics of Education Review 30 (2011): 365–79.

enter an “experience machine”: Robert Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia (New York: Basic Books, 1974).

“I do my thinking through the courses I give”: Asahina Robert, “The Inquisitive Robert Nozick,” New York Times, September 20, 1981, www.nytimes.com/1981/09/20/books/the-inquisitive-robert-nozick.html.

“Presenting a completely polished”: Ken Gewertz, “Philosopher Nozick Dies at 63,” Harvard Gazette, January 17, 2002, news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2002/01/philosopher-nozick-dies-at-63; see also Hilary Putnam et al., “Robert Nozick: Memorial Minute,” Harvard Gazette, May 6, 2004, news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2004/05/robert-nozick.

most of us would ditch the machine: Felipe De Brigard, “If You Like It, Does It Matter If It’s Real?,” Philosophical Psychology 23 (2010): 43–57.

perfectionists are more likely: Joachim Stoeber and Kathleen Otto, “Positive Conceptions of Perfectionism: Approaches, Evidence, Challenges,” Personality and Social Psychology Review 10 (2006): 295–319.

they don’t perform any better: Dana Harari et al., “Is Perfect Good? A Meta-analysis of Perfectionism in the Workplace,” Journal of Applied Psychology 103 (2018): 1121–44.

grades are not a strong predictor: Philip L. Roth et al., “Meta-analyzing the Relationship between Grades and Job Performance,” Journal of Applied Psychology 81 (1996): 548–56.

Achieving excellence in school: Adam Grant, “What Straight-A Students Get Wrong,” New York Times, December 8, 2018, www.nytimes.com/2018/12/08/opinion/college-gpa-career-success.html.

the most creative ones graduated: Donald W. Mackinnon, “The Nature and Nurture of Creative Talent,” American Psychologist 17 (1962): 484–95.

“Valedictorians aren’t likely”: Karen Arnold, Lives of Promise: What Becomes of High School Valedictorians (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1995).

Dear Penn Freshmen: Mike Kaiser, “This Wharton Senior’s Letter Writing Project Gets Global Attention,” Wharton School, February 17, 2016, www.wharton.upenn.edu/story/wharton-seniors-letter-writing-project-gets-global-attention.

one of the best ways to learn is to teach: Aloysius Wei Lun Koh, Sze Chi Lee, and Stephen Wee Hun Lim, “The Learning Benefits of Teaching: A Retrieval Practice Hypothesis,” Applied Cognitive Psychology 32 (2018): 401–10; Logan Fiorella and Richard E. Mayer, “The Relative Benefits of Learning by Teaching and Teaching Expectancy,” Contemporary Educational Psychology 38 (2013): 281–88; Robert B. Zajonc and Patricia R. Mullally, “Birth Order: Reconciling Conflicting Effects,” American Psychologist 52 (1997): 685–99; Peter A. Cohen, James A. Kulik, and Chen-Lin C. Kulik, “Educational Outcomes of Tutoring: A Meta-analysis of Findings,” American Educational Research Journal 19 (1982): 237–48.

an ethic of excellence: Personal interview with Ron Berger, October 29, 2019; Ron Berger, An Ethic of Excellence: Building a Culture of Craftsmanship with Students (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2003); Ron Berger, Leah Rugen, and Libby Woodfin, Leaders of Their Own Learning: Transforming Schools through Student-Engaged Assessment (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2014).

hallmarks of an open mind: Kirill Fayn et al., “Confused or Curious? Openness/Intellect Predicts More Positive Interest-Confusion Relations,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 117 (2019): 1016–33.

“I need time for my confusion”: Eleanor Duckworth, The Having of Wonderful Ideas (New York: Teachers College Press, 2006).

Confusion can be a cue: Elisabeth Vogl et al., “Surprised-Curious-Confused: Epistemic Emotions and Knowledge Exploration,” Emotion 20 (2020): 625–41.

scientifically accurate drawing of a butterfly: Ron Berger, “Critique and Feedback—The Story of Austin’s Butterfly,” December 8, 2012, www.youtube.com/watch?v=hqh1MRWZjms.

Chapter 10. That’s Not the Way We’ve Always Done It

“If only it weren’t for the people”: Kurt Vonnegut, Player Piano (New York: Dial Press, 1952/2006).

“scariest wardrobe malfunction in NASA history”: Tony Reichhardt, “The Spacewalk That Almost Killed Him,” Air & Space Magazine, May 2014, www.airspacemag.com/space/spacewalk-almost-killed-him-180950135/?all.

in learning cultures, organizations innovate more: Matej Černe et al., “What Goes Around Comes Around: Knowledge Hiding, Perceived Motivational Climate, and Creativity,” Academy of Management Journal 57 (2014): 172–92; Markus Baer and Michael Frese, “Innovation Is Not Enough: Climates for Initiative and Psychological Safety, Process Innovations, and Firm Performance,” Journal of Organizational Behavior 24 (2003): 45–68.

make fewer mistakes: Anita L. Tucker and Amy C. Edmondson, “Why Hospitals Don’t Learn from Failures: Organizational and Psychological Dynamics That Inhibit System Change,” California Management Review 45 (2003): 55–72; Amy C. Edmondson, “Learning from Mistakes Is Easier Said Than Done: Group and Organizational Influences on the Detection and Correction of Human Error,” Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 40 (1996): 5–28.

the more psychological safety: William A. Kahn, “Psychological Conditions of Personal Engagement and Disengagement at Work,” Academy of Management Journal 33 (1990): 692–724.

What mattered most was psychological safety: Julia Rozovsky, “The Five Keys to a Successful Google Team,” re:Work, November 17, 2015, rework.withgoogle.com/blog/five-keys-to-a-successful-google-team.

psychological safety is not: Amy C. Edmondson, “How Fearless Organizations Succeed,” strategy+business, November 14, 2018, www.strategy-business.com/article/How-Fearless-Organizations-Succeed.

foundation of a learning culture: Amy Edmondson, “Psychological Safety and Learning Behavior in Work Teams,” Administrative Science Quarterly 44 (1999): 350–83.

engage in self-limiting behavior: Paul W. Mulvey, John F. Veiga, and Priscilla M. Elsass, “When Teammates Raise a White Flag,” Academy of Management Perspectives 10 (1996): 40–49.

some engineers did raise red flags: Howard Berkes, “30 Years after Explosion, Challenger Engineer Still Blames Himself,” NPR, January 28, 2016, www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2016/01/28/464744781/30-years-after-disaster-challenger-engineer-still-blames-himself.

an engineer asked for clearer photographs: Joel Bach, “Engineer Sounded Warnings for Columbia,” ABC News, January 7, 2006, abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=97600&page=1.

prevent this kind of disaster from ever happening again: Personal interview with Ellen Ochoa, December 12, 2019.

How do you know?: Personal interview with Chris Hansen, November 12, 2019.

gains in psychological safety a full year later: Constantinos G. V. Coutifaris and Adam M. Grant, “Taking Your Team Behind the Curtain: The Effects of Leader Feedback-Sharing, Feedback-Seeking, and Humility on Team Psychological Safety Over Time” (working paper, 2020).

harsh comments from student course evaluations: Wharton Follies, “Mean Reviews: Professor Edition,” March 22, 2015, www.youtube.com/watch?v=COOaEVSu6ms&t=3s.

Sharing our imperfections: Celia Moore et al., “The Advantage of Being Oneself: The Role of Applicant Self-Verification in Organizational Hiring Decisions,” Journal of Applied Psychology 102 (2017): 1493–513.

people who haven’t yet proven their competence: Kerry Roberts Gibson, Dana Harari, and Jennifer Carson Marr, “When Sharing Hurts: How and Why Self-Disclosing Weakness Undermines the Task-Oriented Relationships of Higher-Status Disclosers,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 144 (2018): 25–43.

Focusing on results: Itamar Simonson and Barry M. Staw, “Deescalation Strategies: A Comparison of Techniques for Reducing Commitment to Losing Courses of Action,” Journal of Applied Psychology 77 (1992): 419–26; Jennifer S. Lerner and Philip E. Tetlock, “Accounting for the Effects of Accountability,” Psychological Bulletin 125 (1999): 255–75.

we create a learning zone: Amy C. Edmondson, “The Competitive Imperative of Learning,” Harvard Business Review, July-August 2008, hbr.org/2008/07/the-competitive-imperative-of-learning.

“will you gamble with me on it?”: Jeff Bezos, “2016 Letter to Shareholders,” www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1018724/000119312517120198/d373368dex991.htm.

a study of California banks: Barry M. Staw, Sigal G. Barsade, and Kenneth W. Koput, “Escalation at the Credit Window: A Longitudinal Study of Bank Executives’ Recognition and Write-Off of Problem Loans,” Journal of Applied Psychology 82 (1997): 130–42.

Chapter 11. Escaping Tunnel Vision

“A malaise set in”: Jack Handey, “My First Day in Hell,” New Yorker, October 23, 2006, www.newyorker.com/magazine/2006/10/30/my-first-day-in-hell.

the combination of blurting and flirting: William B. Swann Jr. and Peter J. Rentfrow, “Blirtatiousness: Cognitive, Behavioral, and Physiological Consequences of Rapid Responding,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81 (2001): 1160–75.

inspire us to set bolder goals: Locke and Latham, “Building a Practically Useful Theory.”

guide us toward a path: Peter M. Gollwitzer, “Implementation Intentions: Strong Effects of Simple Plans,” American Psychologist 54 (1999): 493–503.

they can give us tunnel vision: James Y. Shah and Arie W. Kruglanski, “Forgetting All Else: On the Antecedents and Consequences of Goal Shielding,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83 (2002): 1261–80.

escalation of commitment: Barry M. Staw and Jerry Ross, “Understanding Behavior in Escalation Situations,” Science 246 (1989): 216–20.

entrepreneurs persist with failing strategies: Dustin J. Sleesman et al., “Putting Escalation of Commitment in Context: A Multilevel Review and Analysis,” Academy of Management Annals 12 (2018): 178–207.

NBA general managers: Colin F. Camerer and Roberto A. Weber, “The Econometrics and Behavioral Economics of Escalation of Commitment: A Re-examination of Staw and Hoang’s NBA Data,” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 39 (1999): 59–82.

politicians continue sending soldiers to wars: Glen Whyte, “Escalating Commitment in Individual and Group Decision Making: A Prospect Theory Approach,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 54 (1993): 430–55.

searching for self-justifications for our prior beliefs: Joel Brockner, “The Escalation of Commitment to a Failing Course of Action: Toward Theoretical Progress,” Academy of Management Review 17 (1992): 39–61.

soothe our egos: Dustin J. Sleesman et al., “Cleaning Up the Big Muddy: A Meta-analytic Review of the Determinants of Escalation of Commitment,” Academy of Management Journal 55 (2012): 541–62.

Grit is the combination: Jon M. Jachimowicz et al., “Why Grit Requires Perseverance and Passion to Positively Predict Performance,” PNAS 115 (2018): 9980–85; Angela Duckworth and James J. Gross, “Self-Control and Grit: Related but Separable Determinants of Success,” Current Directions in Psychological Science 23 (2014): 319–25.

more likely to overplay their hands in roulette: Larbi Alaoui and Christian Fons-Rosen, “Know When to Fold ’Em: The Grit Factor,” Universitat Pompeu Fabra: Barcela GSE Working Paper Series (2018).

more willing to stay the course: Gale M. Lucas et al., “When the Going Gets Tough: Grit Predicts Costly Perseverance,” Journal of Research in Personality 59 (2015): 15–22; see also Henry Moon, “The Two Faces of Conscientiousness: Duty and Achievement Striving in Escalation of Commitment Dilemmas,” Journal of Applied Psychology 86 (2001): 533–40.

gritty mountaineers are more likely to die: Lee Crust, Christian Swann, and Jacquelyn Allen-Collinson, “The Thin Line: A Phenomenological Study of Mental Toughness and Decision Making in Elite High-Altitude Mountaineers,” Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 38 (2016): 598–611.

what psychologists call identity foreclosure: Wim Meeus et al., “Patterns of Adolescent Identity Development: Review of Literature and Longitudinal Analysis,” Developmental Review 19 (1999): 419–61.

settle prematurely on a sense of self: Otilia Obodaru, “The Self Not Taken: How Alternative Selves Develop and How They Influence Our Professional Lives,” Academy of Management Review 37 (2017): 523–53.

“one of the most useless questions”: Michelle Obama, Becoming (New York: Crown, 2018).

lack the talent to pursue our callings: Shoshana R. Dobrow, “Dynamics of Callings: A Longitudinal Study of Musicians,” Journal of Organizational Behavior 34 (2013): 431–52.

leaving them unanswered: Justin M. Berg, Adam M. Grant, and Victoria Johnson, “When Callings Are Calling: Crafting Work and Leisure in Pursuit of Unanswered Occupational Callings,” Organization Science 21 (2010): 973–94.

“Tell the kids”: Chris Rock, Tamborine, directed by Bo Burnham, Netflix, 2018.

introducing them to science differently: Ryan F. Lei et al., “Children Lose Confidence in Their Potential to ‘Be Scientists,’ but Not in Their Capacity to ‘Do Science,’” Developmental Science 22 (2019): e12837.

prekindergarten students express more interest: Marjorie Rhodes, Amanda Cardarelli, and Sarah-Jane Leslie, “Asking Young Children to ‘Do Science’ Instead of ‘Be Scientists’ Increases Science Engagement in a Randomized Field Experiment,” PNAS 117 (2020): 9808–14.

holding a dozen different jobs: Alison Doyle, “How Often Do People Change Jobs during a Lifetime?,” The Balance Careers, June 15, 2020, www.thebalancecareers.com/how-often-do-people-change-jobs-2060467.

tuned out their mentors: Shoshana R. Dobrow and Jennifer Tosti-Kharas, “Listen to Your Heart? Calling and Receptivity to Career Advice,” Journal of Career Assessment 20 (2012): 264–80.

we develop compensatory conviction: Ian McGregor et al., “Compensatory Conviction in the Face of Personal Uncertainty: Going to Extremes and Being Oneself,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 80 (2001): 472–88.

graduates of universities in England and Wales: Ofer Malamud, “Breadth Versus Depth: The Timing of Specialization in Higher Education,” Labour 24 (2010): 359–90.

as people consider career choices and transitions: Herminia Ibarra, Working Identity: Unconventional Strategies for Reinventing Your Career (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2003).

entertain possible selves: Herminia Ibarra, “Provisional Selves: Experimenting with Image and Identity in Professional Adaptation,” Administrative Science Quarterly 44 (1999): 764–91.

the more people value happiness: Iris B. Mauss et al., “Can Seeking Happiness Make People Unhappy? Paradoxical Effects of Valuing Happiness,” Emotion 11 (2011): 807–15.

a risk factor for depression: Brett Q. Ford et al., “Desperately Seeking Happiness: Valuing Happiness Is Associated with Symptoms and Diagnosis of Depression,” Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 33 (2014): 890–905.

ruminate about why our lives aren’t more joyful: Lucy McGuirk et al., “Does a Culture of Happiness Increase Rumination Over Failure?,” Emotion 18 (2018): 755–64.

happiness depends more on the frequency: Ed Diener, Ed Sandvik, and William Pavot, “Happiness Is the Frequency, Not the Intensity, of Positive versus Negative Affect,” in Subjective Well-Being: An Interdisciplinary Perspective, ed. Fritz Strack, Michael Argyle, and Norbert Schwartz (New York: Pergamon, 1991).

meaning is healthier than happiness: Barbara L. Fredrickson et al., “A Functional Genomic Perspective on Human Well-Being,” PNAS 110 (2013): 13684–89; Emily Esfahani Smith, “Meaning Is Healthier Than Happiness,” The Atlantic, August 1, 2013, www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2013/08/meaning-is-healthier-than-happiness/278250.

meaning tends to last: Jon M. Jachimowicz et al., “Igniting Passion from Within: How Lay Beliefs Guide the Pursuit of Work Passion and Influence Turnover,” PsyArXiv 10.31234/osf.io/qj6y9, last revised July 2, 2018, https://psyarxiv.com/qj6y9/.

people prioritize social engagement: Brett Q. Ford et al., “Culture Shapes Whether the Pursuit of Happiness Predicts Higher or Lower Well-Being,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 144 (2015): 1053–62.

“you’re still gonna be you on vacation”: Saturday Night Live, season 44, episode 19, “Adam Sandler,” May 4, 2019, NBC.

joy that those choices bring about is typically temporary: Elizabeth W. Dunn, Timothy D. Wilson, and Daniel T. Gilbert, “Location, Location, Location: The Misprediction of Satisfaction in Housing Lotteries,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 29 (2003): 1421–32; Kent C. H. Lam et al., “Cultural Differences in Affective Forecasting: The Role of Focalism,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 31 (2005): 1296–309.

“You can’t get away from yourself”: Ernest Hemingway, The Sun Also Rises (New York: Scribner, 1926/2014).

students who changed their actions: Kennon M. Sheldon and Sonja Lyubomirsky, “Achieving Sustainable Gains in Happiness: Change Your Actions, Not Your Circumstances,” Journal of Happiness Studies 7 (2006): 55–86; Kennon M. Sheldon and Sonja Lyubomirsky, “Change Your Actions, Not Your Circumstances: An Experimental Test of the Sustainable Happiness Model,” in Happiness, Economics, and Politics: Towards a Multi-disciplinary Approach, ed. Amitava Krishna Dutt and Benjamin Radcliff (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2009).

built their own microcommunity: Jane E. Dutton and Belle Rose Ragins, Exploring Positive Relationships at Work: Building a Theoretical and Research Foundation (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2007).

passions are often developed, not discovered: Paul A. O’Keefe, Carol S. Dweck, and Gregory M. Walton, “Implicit Theories of Interest: Finding Your Passion or Developing It?,” Psychological Science 29 (2018): 1653–64.

Their passion grew as they gained momentum: Michael M. Gielnik et al., “‘I Put in Effort, Therefore I Am Passionate’: Investigating the Path from Effort to Passion in Entrepreneurship,” Academy of Management Journal 58 (2015): 1012–31.

actions that benefit others: Adam M. Grant, “The Significance of Task Significance: Job Performance Effects, Relational Mechanisms, and Boundary Conditions,” Journal of Applied Psychology 93 (2008): 108–24; Stephen E. Humphrey, Jennifer D. Nahrgang, and Frederick P. Morgeson, “Integrating Motivational, Social, and Contextual Work Design Features: A Meta-analytic Summary and Theoretical Extension of the Work Design Literature,” Journal of Applied Psychology 92 (2007): 1332–56; Brent D. Rosso, Kathryn H. Dekas, and Amy Wrzesniewski, “On the Meaning of Work: A Theoretical Integration and Review,” Research in Organizational Behavior 30 (2010): 91–127.

we feel we have more to give: Dan P. McAdams, “Generativity in Midlife,” Handbook of Midlife Development, ed. Margie E. Lachman (New York: Wiley, 2001).

“they find happiness by the way”: John Stuart Mill, Autobiography (New York: Penguin Classics, 1883/1990).

what scientists call open systems: Ludwig von Bertalanffy, General System Theory: Foundations, Development, Applications (New York: Braziller, 1969).

open systems are governed: Arie W. Kruglanski et al., “The Architecture of Goal Systems: Multifinality, Equifinality, and Counterfinality in Means-Ends Relations,” Advances in Motivation Science 2 (2015): 69–98; Dante Cicchetti and Fred A. Rogosch, “Equifinality and Multifinality in Developmental Psychopathology,” Development and Psychopathology 8 (1996): 597–600.

“you can make the whole trip that way”: Nancy Groves, “EL Doctorow in Quotes: 15 of His Best,” Guardian, July 21, 2015, www.theguardian.com/books/2015/jul/22/el-doctorow-in-quotes-15-of-his-best.

rethink their roles through job crafting: Amy Wrzesniewski and Jane E. Dutton, “Crafting a Job: Revisioning Employees as Active Crafters of Their Work,” Academy of Management Review 26 (2001): 179–201.

how grateful they were for Candice Walker: Amy Wrzesniewski and Jane Dutton, “Having a Calling and Crafting a Job: The Case of Candice Billups,” William Davidson Institute, University of Michigan, November 12, 2009.

ended up rethinking their roles: Amy Wrzesniewski, Jane E. Dutton, and Gelaye Debebe, “Interpersonal Sensemaking and the Meaning of Work,” Research in Organizational Behavior 25 (2003): 93–135.

“No, it’s not part of my job”: “A World without Bosses,” WorkLife with Adam Grant, April 11, 2018.

Epilogue

“‘What I believe’”: Candace Falk, Barry Pateman, and Jessica Moran, eds., Emma Goldman, vol. 2, A Documentary History of the American Years (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2008).

“write a book that ended with the word Mayonnaise”: Richard Brautigan, Trout Fishing in America (New York: Delta, 1967).

“A new scientific truth”: Max K. Planck, Scientific Autobiography and Other Papers (New York: Greenwood, 1950/1968).

generations are replaced: “Societies Change Their Minds Faster Than People Do,” Economist, October 31, 2019, www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2019/10/31/societies-change-their-minds-faster-than-people-do.

the word scientist is relatively new: William Whewell, The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences (New York: Johnson, 1840/1967); “William Whewell,” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, December 23, 2000, last revised September 22, 2017, plato.stanford.edu/entries/whewell.

“above all, try something”: Franklin D. Roosevelt, “Address at Oglethorpe University,” May 22, 1932, www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/address-oglethorpe-university-atlanta-georgia.

“something unspecified is no better than nothing”: “Hoover and Roosevelt,” New York Times, May 24, 1932, www.nytimes.com/1932/05/24/archives/hoover-and-roosevelt.html.

act of political stupidity: Paul Stephen Hudson, “A Call for ‘Bold Persistent Experimentation’: FDR’s Oglethorpe University Commencement Address, 1932,” Georgia Historical Quarterly (Summer 1994), https://georgiainfo.galileo.usg.edu/topics/history/related_article/progressive-era-world-war-ii-1901-1945/background-to-fdrs-ties-to-georgia/a-call-for-bold-persistent-experimentation-fdrs-oglethorpe-university-comme.