“Man lives for the day. What is he?
What is he not? A shadow in a dream
Is man; but when god sheds a brightness
Shining light is on men, And life is as sweet as honey.” (Pindar, P. 8.95–7,
trans. C. M. Bowra)
It can be argued that no other literary text garners together so many terms on light and vision as the Homeric one. These terms are mainly found in formulaic expressions, and the language of the epic often emphasizes the contrast between life, light and vision and death and the loss of sight.2 A heroic situation may be reflected in the description of the ferocious glare with which a hero accompanies his fierce attack (e.g., Iliad 15. 607ff.). Eyes flashing like fire, together with other elements of fire imagery, especially in the Iliad, in some contexts have a symbolic function as they imply future events and particularly destructive and poignant situations. For example, at the end of Iliad book 19 (lines 364ff.) the arming of Achilles is illustrated by light similes (a light created by fire, by the moon, by a star, by the sun), which form an impressive and splendid image dominated by an idea of brightness.
The aim of this chapter, however, is to focus attention on the imagery of light associated with divine appearances in the Homeric poems. Such an imagery characterizes gods’ permanent residence on Mount Olympos, a residence (ἕδος) that is not shaken by winds, nor rain wets it or snow approaches it, but only bright and cloudless air and a white radiance of sunlight is diffused about it; there, the blessed gods live in delight all their days (Od. 6.41–46).3 Here light could be identified with the stability and the eternity of the divine world, their secure and tranquil life (ἕδος ἀσφαλὲς αἰεί, τέρπονταιμάκαρες θεοί), the same light that illuminates the power of the gods in epiphanies and reveals divine identity.4 It has been suggested that divine statues, too, reflect the brightness of the epiphany, especially those made of precious materials like the chryselephantine. The whiteness of ivory and the glitter of gold were as appropriate for evoking feelings of surprise and admiration as they were “recalling the luminous epiphanies of the gods.”5
Certain instances of divine appearance in Homer become evident by the visual forces deployed, especially by the gods’—and goddesses’—brilliant eyes that can reveal their identity even under disguise.6 Such is the case of Aphrodite in Iliad 3, who appears to Helen as an aged wool-worker from Sparta but her eyes are those of the goddess, her ὄμματα μαρμαίροντα (3.397), “her sparkling eyes” that create the feeling of ἔκπληξις.7 Other divine features are recognizable here like Aphrodite’s “beautiful skin and her desirable breasts” (περικαλλέα δειρὴν/ στήθεά θ’ ἱμερόεντα), both forces of sexual attraction that Aphrodite represents. Helen’s reaction is “amazement”: θάμβησεν (3.396–8). A similar case is that of Athena in Iliad book 1 (l99–200) who is recognized by Achilles by the flash of her eyes.8 Her epithet oxuderkes (ὀξυδερκής) refers to the acuteness of her gaze, to the goddess’ ocular powers, but also to her wisdom and cleverness as the eyes are the media for acquiring knowledge of the best quality due to the autopsia; it is understood that visual functions are directly linked to the mental ones since eyes and their nerves directly communicate with the mind.9 Even in art, Athena’s eyes are made so as to resemble her literary descriptions as well as to exhibit the specific features of her divine manifestation; such is the sparkling effect of the precious stones used for the representation of the eyes of the Parthenos chryselephantine statues in the fifth century.10
Anchises, too, reacts by turning his head aside when Aphrodite manifests her divine power in the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite (5.181–4).11 He averts his gaze in fear at the revelation of the goddess who casts off her mortal disguise and assumes her real divine form. The signs of her recognition here are the resplendence of her beauty (174–5: κάλλος δὲ παρειάων ἀπέλαμπεν/ἄμβροτον) and particularly her complexion—obviously its whiteness—as well as her beautiful eyes (181). Light is predominant in the seduction scene earlier in the Hymn, created by Aphrodite’s gleaming clothes and ornaments (lines 84–90), when she appears as an innocent maiden. Her charming appearance deceives and persuades, and the superhuman beauty described with“words for brightness and light”12 overwhelms Anchises seized with eros the moment he sets eyes on the goddess. Likewise, Demeter’s epiphany to Metaneira in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter presents the same characteristics of divine radiance as well as supernatural stature: ἡ δ’ ἄρ’ ἐπ’ οὐδὸν ἔβη ποσὶκαί ῥα μελάθρου/ κῦρε κάρη, πλῆσεν δὲ θύρας σέλαος θείοιο./ τὴν δ’ αἰδώςτε σέβας τε ἰδὲ χλωρὸν δέος εἷλεν: “ ‘her head reached up to the roof-beams, and she filled the doorway with a divine light.’ Then awe and reverence and pale fear (αἰδώς τε ἰδὲ χλωρὸν δέος) took hold of Metaneira” (187–90; cf. 275–83).13 Divine radiance is also created by the gleaming of gold which covered the island of Delos at the first steps of Apollo soon after Leto gives birth to him (Homeric Hymn to Apollo 133–8).14
Gods live in pure realms where there is no darkness but always light, and in that glorious light they often appear to men, usually at moments of crisis. That the narrative is intensified or heightened by divine action is a matter that has been given much scholarly attention. However, this is more obvious when light imagery is involved, for it creates more intense human reaction of shock and astonishment, of ἔκπληξις, or even of fear.15 For example, in the case of Achilles’ appearance in Iliad 18 (225–7), the charioteers were dumbfounded as they saw the terrible fire blazing above the head of the hero, a fire kindled by γλαυκῶπις Ἀθήνη (notice here the verb ἔκπληγεν).
Lightning, accompanied by thunderbolt, is one of Zeus’ main powers with which he threatens those mortals and immortals who do not obey his orders (Il. 8.7–27; cf. 8.402–5, 455f.); besides, he is the supreme god to whose status and power cosmic order is connected.16 When this order is threatened, the god intervenes, as in the case of Helios’ anger against all the gods and his threat to descend to the House of Hades and “shine” (φαείνω) among the dead rather than the living if Odysseus’ men are not punished for killing his cattle (Od. 12.377–83).17 But Zeus appeals to him to carry on shining on the immortals, as well as mortals, and himself will undertake the punishment of Odysseus’ crew by smashing their ship into small pieces with a thunderbolt, and burning it in the middle of the ocean.18 Obviously, here, it is not only a matter of respect for Helios’ right to punish those who have offended him, but also of fear of upsetting the cosmic order of which the supreme god is guardian.19 Zeus’anxiety about Helios’ fulfilling his threat, that is depriving gods and men of light, is expressed by the imperative tone of his request: “Ἠέλι,’ … σὺ …φάεινε …,” “Helios … you … do shine” (12.385).
Zeus combines both qualities, Jasper Griffin points out, as the “god of the bright sky and god of the dark clouds and thunder”: Il. 22.178: ὦ πάτερ ἀργικέραυνε, κελαινεφές (“O Father, Lord of the bright lightning and of the dark cloud”). He covered Ida with clouds but at the same time “he made lightning and mighty thunder and shook the mountain; and he gave victory to the Trojans and turned the Achaeans to flight” (17.594–6).20 In its context this scene is impressive, especially for the manifestation of Zeus’ power in both ways, in light and darkness, at a crucial point when Patroklos is dead. It is possible to suggest that light and darkness here correspond to the victory of the Trojansand the fear of the Achaeans, respectively.21 The darkness will dispel and light will prevail when Zeus grants Aias’ prayer later in the same book of the Iliad (17.645–7). The hero is praying for the supreme god to lift the mist he has cast over the dead Patroklos as a sign of affection and honor. Instead Zeus creates αἴθρην, “bright air” for the Achaeans so that sight returns to their eyes; and if they have to die, Aias prays, may Zeus let them die in light: “Zεῦ πάτερ, ἀλλὰ σὺ ῥῦσαι ὑπ’ ἠέρος υἶας Ἀχαιω῀ν,/ ποίησον δ’ αἴθρην, δὸς δ’ὀφθαλμοῖσιν ἰδέσθαι·/ ἐν δὲ φάει καὶ ὄλεσσον, ἐπεί νὑ τοι εὔαδεν οὕτως”: “Father Zeus, draw free from the mist the sons of the Achaians,/ make bright the air, and give sight back to our eyes; in shining/ daylight destroy us, if to destroy us be now your pleasure.”22 So he spoke and Father Zeus scattered the mist and pushed the darkness away, and the sun “shone out and the whole battle was covered with the sudden brightness” (ἠέλιος δ’ ἐπέλαμψε, μάχη δ’ ἐπὶ πᾶσα φαάνθη). “Aias’ prayer was much admired in antiquity”23 for the hero’s ethos, not asking for protection but for light so that he and his comrades might meet a heroic death.
Therefore, the manipulation of light is, after Helios, under the jurisdiction of Zeus although he assigns part of it to his beloved daughter Athena, who generally assists her father in the creation and management of natural phenomena: she is a projection of his meteorological powers.24 My next example is taken from Iliad 15 (592ff.) and Hektor’s attack against the Achaeans. In accordance with Zeus’ plan, as well as his help, the hero drives the Greeks back behind the first row of ships, in a passage where the unity of action between the god and hero is emphasized. However, at the same time “their ultimate goals diverge,”25 since Zeus’ plan in response to Thetis’ wish, and Hektor’s imminent death set the hero’s ferocious attack in a tragic context. At this crucial moment there is an intervention both from the mortal and the divine world. Nestor’s appeal to the Greeks to stand firm and not panic is supported by Athena’s action, who removed the mist from the Greeks’ eyes on both sides, that of the ships and that of the battle, so that they could see the peril as “the light came out hard against them on both sides.”26
Thus light should be considered as an important dimension of the experience of a divine appearance. Divine radiance prevails in other Homeric epiphanies like Iliad book 4.75ff., when Athena, provoked by Zeus, descends Olympos at the speed of a shooting star, showering thrown by the son of Kronos, a portent to sailors or to armies. Like this she plunged into the midst of “the Trojans and the Achaeans who looked at her with amazement” (79–80: θάμβος δ’ ἔχεν εἰσορόωντας Tρω῀ας θ’ ἱπποδάμους καὶ ἐϋκνήμιδας Ἀχαιούς). Although within the context of a simile, this epiphany presents all the features of a divine manifestation, like radiance and the astonishment of the onlookers caused by the energy and force with which Athena descends from the sky.
There has been much discussion among modern scholars as to whether this bright star that the goddess resembled was a comet in space or a meteor in the atmosphere, and whether she was actually seen in the form described in the simile. Whatsoever, the idea of her comparison to a star is impressive and symbolic, since the trail of fire marking its trajectory would naturally be taken as a portent.27
Again, in a simile, Athena—or rather the cloud she is enveloped in—is compared to a rainbow as she descends from the sky, sent by Zeus to stir the Danaans fighting over Patroklos (Il. 17.547–52): “As when in the sky Zeus strings for mortals the shimmering rainbow [πορφυρέην ἰριν], to be a portent and sign of war, or of wintry storm, when heat perishes, such storm as stops mortals’ work upon the face of the earth, and afflicts their cattle, so Athena shrouded in the shimmering cloud [πορφυρέηι νεφέληι] about her merged among the swarming Achaians, and wakened each man.”28 We may not have here the amazement factor, for Athena eventually assumes a human form, that of Phoinix, however her epiphany is implied by Menelaos’ address to her and his appeal to give him strength and deflect the missiles away from him: “So he spoke, and the goddess grey-eyed Athene was happy that first among all the divinities his prayer had bespoken her.”29 In both similes, where she is perceived probably as a comet, or as a rainbow, Athena is associated with natural phenomena taken as portents—at least in the second case it is more obvious (see 17.548–50)— and this lies within Zeus’ mind as he sends her down to earth. It seems, therefore, that the goddess functions as her father’s amanuensis concerning nature and weather phenomena and that her action is subjected to his βουλή, “his will.”Nevertheless, Zeus reserves for himself lightning and thunderbolts.30
Odyssey book 19 (33ff.) provides, in my view, a striking example of light imagery in divine manifestation. Here, Telemachos feels the presence of Athena in his astonishment at the glow of the various parts of the palace, like the walls, the beams, and the columns. There are many appearances of the goddess in the previous books, like her deceptive one in 13.221ff., disguised as a young shepherd, whereas soon after in the same book (lines 286ff.) she appears as “a beautiful, tall woman, skilled in glorious tasks”; she touches Odysseus’ hand and reveals her identity by promising him support, for he had yet much suffering to endure. In Odyssey 16.159 Athena appears to Odysseus although invisible to Telemachos; the dogs, however, sense her presence. During this last epiphany Odysseus is transformed from a beggar into a young man by the goddess, unrecognizable even by his son who has the impression that his father is a god.31 In the case of book 19 (33ff.) Athena is holding a lamp for Odysseus and Telemachos to remove the weapons and armor from the hall: “Pallas Athena made bright light before them, holding a golden lamp. Then Telemachus at once addressed his father: ‘My father, I see a great mar-vel; to my eyes at least the walls, the main beams, the cross-beams and the pillars are bright as if with burning fire. In truth some god is here, one of those who keep the wide heaven.’ To him in answer spoke wily Odysseus: ‘Be silent and keep your thought in check and ask no questions. This is the way of the gods who dwell on Olympus.’”32 Although the source of light, the golden lamp, could be a real item, the φάος, “the light,” that is diffused everywhere and the impression it gives, that of fire, reveals the divine presence.33 Nevertheless, this passage was taken as a late interpolation and on the basis, among other reasons, of the mention of a lamp, something not in use from the end of the Mycenaean period until the latter half of the seventh century.34 The supernaturally created light here may symbolize the forthcoming victory of Odysseus, like other examples in the epic where bright radiance functions as a portent of the impending victory of a hero (see Il. 22.133–6 for Achilles).35
Light is thus an important feature of Athena’s manifestation in both epics, and she manifests herself in spectacular ways (e.g., she descends from Olympus as a shooting star or like a rainbow). However, gods do not appear ἐναργεῖς, “bright” or “visible” or “clear” to all, according to Odyssey 16.161 (οὐγάρ πως πάντεσσι θεοὶ φαίνονται ἐναργεῖς).36 An etymology of ἐναργεῖς from ἐν and ἀργός, “white,” “bright,” involves light.37 Hera’s statement in the Iliad (20.131) that “the gods are terrible in the appearance of their forms, in their true shape” (χαλεποὶ δὲ θεοὶ φαίνεσθαι ἐναργεῖς), suggests that the gods appear as their recognizable divine figures.38 In other cases, however, in the Odyssey the expression phainesthai enarges means “becomes visible” rather than “in an undisguised form”; therefore, it seems that the epithet enarges in divine epiphanies has not always the same, but contradictory meanings.39 A very important passage, from my point of view, in the Odyssey (18.353ff.), could be taken as a reference to an epiphany, a sort of definition or description, presented not by the narrator but by Penelope’s suitor Eurymachos. The suitors are making fun of Odysseus and the slave Melantho mocks him in a contemptuous way. Then he, standing “by the flaring lamps, himself illuminating the room (φαείνων) as if he were a light, offers a forceful image, suggestive of his growing power and forthcoming triumph. This description achieves the bright clarity of an epiphany.”40 And indeed, as an epiphany it is ironically evaluated by the suitors, especially by Eurymachos who mocks the idea of a divine presence by saying that the light which comes from Odysseus is because his bald head: “At least our torch-light seems to come from the sheen of the man’s own head—there’s not a hair on his bald pate, not a wisp!’” (lines 354–5).41 Modern commentators have emphasized the symbolic function of light here, even in the form of mockery. As Homer often emphasizes the “symbolic equation of light with victory,”42 likewise the mocking of the gods’ appearances among mortals here, as well as the previ-ous hostile encounter of Odysseus with Melantho, are all parts of the plan, of the impending victory of the hero who is already behaving like a master.43
Let us go back to Athena’s first appearance to Achilles in Iliad book one (193ff.). The goddess takes the hero by his golden hair while he is contemplating whether he should kill Agamemnon or not. He recognizes her by the terrible shine of her eyes and reacts in wonder and amazement (1.199: θάμβησεν δ’ Ἀχιλλεύς). The goddess’ presence mollifies his anger and soothes his inner conflict. What is remarkable, however, is that Athena is identified by her gaze, by the dazzling flash of her eyes (line 200: δεινὼ δὲ οἱ ὄσσεφάανθεν). It has been argued that the intervention of a divine power is necessary here, for Achilles seems to have already decided to kill Agamemnon, his sword drawn ready. Therefore, Athena’s appearance should be understood according to the structure and the economy of book one, as well as the poem as a whole.44 Nevertheless, the religious character of the scene should not be underestimated. That we have a supernatural incident here is supported not only by the style but also by the content, according to Griffin.45 Athena’s intervention is as sudden as the hero’s response (αὐτίκα δ’ ἔγνω: line 199), and this is underlined by the short phrases and many verbs (στῆ, ἕλε, ὁρᾶτο, θάμβησεν, ἐτράπετ,’ ἔγνω, φάανθεν: 7 verbs in four verses). Δεινὼ δὲ οἱὄσσε φάανθεν, which is aetiological, in my view gives the supernatural color of this appearance: Achilles recognized her “for her eyes gleamed terribly.”46Moreover, the participle φαινομένη, “appearing, visible,” (and she is “visible” only to the chosen here, οἴωι, and to nobody else), as well as the verb ἔγνω (“he recognized, he realized it was she”), are key-words of the semiology of this epiphany.47 Nevertheless, we cannot deny that the focus is on the protagonist hero, Achilles, and the action itself; the fact that he is the subject of the four verbs (out of seven) is sufficient to assert that he is the central figure and the focus of attention. Therefore, the epiphany signs are briefly described as well as the reaction of the onlooker hero, then attentions immediately shifts to the action.48
Athena’s brilliant eyes, although the most distinctive, are not the only distinguishing sign of her manifestation in or outside the epic. Her appearance in myth (of her birth for example) and art, as a warrior goddess arrayed in bronze or gold armor is also associated with light and brightness.49 Her warrior function links her with the awe and the fear that bronze weaponry can create in battle not only by the sound as they clash, but mainly by their dazzling glare and radiance. Thus, Athena’s manifestation is usually associated with an atmosphere of brilliance and light created either by her shining eyes or the radiance that her whole appearance involves.50 In Iliad 2 (446ff.) the dazzling presence of Athena among the Achaeans, filling them with strength and bearing the aegis wherefrom gold tassels were hung, corresponds to theflash of their armor reaching the sky as they advance (lines 455–8); divine intervention is in a way metaphorical here.51
Homeric heroes may also assume a godlike appearance, like Achilles in Iliad book 18, where the hero exhibits the features of the god who inspires his menos, i.e. Athena. The goddess takes up human action and crowns him with a golden cloud thus creating a supernatural atmosphere full of light and fire (18.202ff.). Mark W. Edwards52 rightly argues that “In this splendid passage the ‘arming’ of Akhilleus becomes a kind of epiphany, decorated with ornamental epithets and two vivid and apposite similes.” Indeed, not only the divine presence but also Athena’s glorifying gestures lend the scene a special divine color. Even the phrase αὐτὰρ Ἀχιλλεὺς ὦρτο (line 203) and the quick shift to Athena (ἀμφὶ δ’ Ἀθήνη … βάλ’: lines 203–4) whose epiphany is manifested via godlike Achilles, add more to the impression of a sudden and supernatural event.53 The imagery of light here intermingles with the imagery of fire (notice the parechesis of Διὶ … δὲ … δῖα … δ’… δαῖε);54 Achilles’ appearance strikes fear into the Trojans and enables Patroklos’ corpse to be carried back to the Greek camp. The hero’s arms are divine too, for instead of corselet and shield Athena honors him with the aegis that she puts round his shoulders and in place of a helmet she crowns him with a golden cloud and makes a far-shining flame coming out of it (Il. 18.214).55 The whole scene of the hero’s apotheosis functions symbolically for the fate of Troy and is obviously linked to the narrative and the forthcoming events.56 What is noteworthy here is that it is Athena who creates Achilles’ bright image, whereas the hero remains inactive during the frenetic action surrounding his metamorphosis into a godlike figure.
A similar light and fire imagery to that of Iliad book 18.202ff. is created in relation to Diomedes’ “surrogate arming-scene before his aristeia (Iliad 5.4–7),”57 where Athena is again involved. Here, not only does the goddess inspire Diomedes with might and confidence but she herself participates in a scene where the hero appears as a god. Her intention is to make him conspicuous among the Argives, therefore she creates the imagery of light and fire around him suggestive of aristeia and kleos (5.3: ἰδὲ κλέος ἐσθλὸν ἄροιτο); fire blazes from his shield and helmet, comparable to the autumn star which is the most bright, “for it is bathed in the ocean so that its reflection makes it brighter” (lines 5–6: ὅς τε μάλιστα/ λαμπρὸν παμφαίνησι λελουμένος Ὠκεανοῖο).58 There is a parallelism here between the enhanced power of Diomedes and the strengthening of the brightness of the star. The armorgleaming-like-fire motif,59 which is common in other arming-scenes in the epic where Athena is also involved, is in my view the goddess’ sign of epiphany, the sign of her warlike character. This is a metonymic epiphany revealed by the gleaming of the objects of war.60
All these arming-scenes have shown that light imagery is associated with the aristeia of the Homeric heroes when they are indeed proved to be godlike.61 As Homeric gods often reveal their power in an atmosphere of light, thus declaring their superiority, likewise in human action the imagery of light—that of fire, too—exalts mortal status and delineates the heroes’ godlike nature. The lens of the poet focuses on the center of the action and illuminates the event so as to be seen in the perspective of heaven and not of earth. On the other hand limitations of divine power in manifestation scenes where light is involved are intended to present the power of the gods in human terms.62
Thus, the poetic devices related to light imagery in the epic divine manifestations bring out and underline the nature and superiority of divine power.63 They also create symbolic images and allegorical interpretations of the Homeric gods who are sometimes identified with natural elements. However, their details, as well as the rules which govern them, aim at bringing to completion the poet’s plan these manifestations form part of. Or, we may put it in another way: the gods are interfering and directing the plot. Light images in general seem to group themselves around leading ideas, such as those of heroism, victory or defeat, as well as around epic characters, divine or human. As such, they seem to develop as symbols of the larger movements of the poems and are organically integrated into the Homeric text.64 Light imagery is a unifying theme/motif throughout the epic poems, especially the Iliad, either with human or divine associations: a chain which connects divine action with the plan of Zeus, and heroes with gods;65 it also emphasizes their passion and energy, instruments of immediate and more effective action.66
The sudden appearance of light itself creates ἔκπληξις and fear that are characteristic features of divine appearances.67 I will end this paper with an interesting passage from the Iliad where Zeus announces to the Achaeans that their death-day was heavier than that of the Trojans in his balancing of his golden scales, with lightning that flashed over the people of the Achaeans.68
Their reaction was astonishment and fear, an apt reaction to the manifestation of the power of the supreme god:
Αὐτὸς δ’ ἐξ Ἴδης μεγάλ’ ἔκτυπε, δαιόμενον δὲ
ἧκε σέλας μετὰ λαὸν Ἀχαιῶν· οἱ δὲ ἰδόντες
θάμβησαν, καὶ πάντας ὑπὸ χλωρὸν δέος εἷλεν (8.75–7)
“and he himself crashed a great stroke from Ida, and a kindling/
flash shot over the people of the Achaians; seeing it/ they were
stunned, and pale terror took hold of all of them.”69
1. I would like to thank Evanthia Tsitsibakou-Vasalos and Stella Georgoudi for their comments at the presentation of this paper as well as Nanno Marinatos who provoked more speculation on the meaning of ἐναργὴς in Homer.
2. See S. Constantinidou, “Aὐγή/αὐγαί: Some Observations on the Homeric Perception of Light and Vision,” Δωδώνη 22.2 (1993): 95–107; “Homeric Eyes in a Ritual Context,” Δωδώνη 23.2 (1994): 9–23; “The Vision of Homer: The Eyes of Heroes and Gods,” Antichthon 28 (1994): 1–15. A metaphoric “language of light”—I owe this expression to C. M. Bowra, Pindar (Oxford, 1964), 36—is widely employed by Homer in various literal and figurative uses, as for example φάος or φόως could mean “pride” or “comfort” (Od. 16.23: Tηλέμαχε γλυκερὸν φάος) but also “help” or“salvation” (Il. 6.6: φόως δ’ ἑτάροισιν ἔθηκεν). Likewise, σκότος in its metaphorical use refers to the darkness that death brings to human beings (Il. 4.461: τὸν δὲ σκότοςὄσσε κάλυψεν): for the Homeric examples of light metaphors see D. Tarrant, “Greek Metaphors of Light,” CQ n.s. 10 (1960): 181–2. On light terms see also C. Mugler, Dictionnaire historique de la terminologie optique des grecs: douze siècles de dialo- gues avec la lumière, Études et commentaire LIII (Paris, 1964). See also J. Bechert, Die Diathesen von ἰδεῑν und δρᾶν bei Homer, vols I–II (München, 1964); D. Bremer, Licht und Dunkel in der frühgriechischen Dichtung (Bonn, 1976).
3. Cf. J. Griffin, Homer on Life and Death (Oxford, 1980), 162, 167–8. See also Il. 18.369ff., for Hephaistos’ shining house (δόμον … ἀστερόεντα, a formulaic expression), but also as M.W. Edwards, The Iliad: A Commentary, vol. V: books 17–20(Cambridge, 1991), 190, points out: “one may also think of decorative ornaments or of the stars themselves.” See also Sappho 1. 7–10 L.-P., where there is an antithesis between gods’ residence (δόμον) which is golden (χρύσιον; cf. Pindar, N. 10.88: οὐρανοῦ ἐν χρυσέοις δόμοισιν) and the earth which is black (γᾶς μελαίνας). Moreover, light is what distinguishes the living from the dead as light and dark succeed each other for the living whereas the dead are in eternal darkness.
4. Apart from being a natural phenomenon, light also appears as a concept with many symbolisms and is related to Greek religious rituals and beliefs: E. Parisinou, The Light of the Gods. The Role of Light in Archaic and Classical Greek Cult (London, 2000), esp. 162.
5. B. Sismondo Ridgway, “‘Periklean’ Cult Images and their Media,” in Periklean Athens and its Legacy, ed. J. M. Barringer and J. M. Hurwit (University of Texas, Austin, 2005), 113; A. Stewart, Greek Sculpture: An Exploration (New Haven and London, 1990), 36. In the scene of the besieged city on Achilles’ shield in Iliad book 18.516–9, Ares and Athena are represented leading the people of a city to an ambush against their besiegers. Here the two gods are gold and wear golden clothes but they are also huge and beautiful and conspicuous from afar—the rest of the people on this scene are smaller (18.516–9). In my view, this is one of the most representative divine manifestations in the epic as it refers to a double epiphany.
6. Even divine images are sometimes envisaged with remarkable powers of sight, like their divine prototypes, and the materials used by the artists, especially for the creation of the eyes, help to render the radiant look and the power of sight of theirarchetypes: see D. T. Steiner, Images in Mind: Statues in Archaic and Classical Greek Literature and Thought (Princeton and Oxford, 2001), 156–7, 173–8; see also P. E. Corbett, “Greek Temples and Greek Worshippers: The Literary and Archaeological Evidence,” BICS 17 (1970): 149–58.
7. See G. S. Kirk, The Iliad: A Commentary, vol. I: books 1–4 (Cambridge, 1985), 322–3; Steiner (n. 6), 168ff.
8. Cf. Il. 13.435, where Poseidon’s look reveals his presence and displays his power: the god intervenes and bewitches (θέλξας: 435) Alkathoös’ shining eyes (ὄσσεφαεινά: 435) putting him into a trance. The hero is paralyzed, fixed to the spot like a gravestone or a tree; Poseidon’s magical intervention here focuses on the eyes and their visual weakness. A similar impact is exercised by Apollo’s charming stare straight into the eyes of the Danaans in Iliad 15.318–22, thus driving terror upon them and giving glory to the Trojans and Hektor. In this case Apollo’s bewitching visual power is reinforced by the aegis which he is brandishing: see Steiner (n. 6), 169; see also R. Janko, The Iliad: A Commentary, vol. IV: books 13–16 (Cambridge, 1992), 101–2, 262.
9. On the association of vision with “perceiving and knowing” in the Homeric poems see Constantinidou, “Homeric Eyes in a Ritual Context” (n. 2), 59–60. Hermes, too, was ascribed a special power of sight (see Il. 24.343: ὄμματα θέλγει) linked to wit. In the Homeric Hymn to Hermes the god makes a lyre from a tortoise shell at such a speed that is compared to the beams that whirl from one’s eyes, i.e., the sparkling look which reflects intelligence (lines 43–6: “As when a swift thought pierces through the breast of a man whom dense cares whirl about,/ and then beams whirl from his eyes: so did glorious Hermes devise both word and deed”: trans. J.S. Clay, The Politics of Olympus. Form and Meaning in the Major Homeric Hymns (Bristol Classical Press, 20062), 107). On the impressive mechanics of vision see Γ. Γραμματικάκης, H Aυτοβιογραφία του φωτός (Herakleion: Πανεπιστημιακές EκδόσειςKρήτης, 2005), 303–14.
10. The artistically emphasized gaze of an image—or rather of a seemingly animated image—conveys incredible powers and is capable of producing the same impact as the divine epiphany: see Steiner (n.6), 173–6.
11. Ed. T. W. Allen, ed., Homeri Opera V (Oxford, 1912), 64–75.
12. Clay (n. 9), 173; see also ibid., 170–7. Megethos, “grandeur,” is also involved in Aphrodite’s epiphany here (lines 173–4: εὐποιήτοιο μελάθρου/ κῡρε κάρη: “And the head of the goddess reached the ceiling of Anchises’ house.” “Grandeur and beauty,” κάλλος καὶ μέγεθος, are terms for gods’ descriptions from the Homeric poems onward (see Il. 18.516–9, καλώ καὶ μεγάλω); although they look like mortals in their form the Homeric gods differ in their size and beauty: see J. Tanner, The Inven- tion of Art History in Ancient Greece (Cambridge, 2006), 51–2; W. J. Verdenius, “κάλλος καὶ μέγεθος,” Mnemosyne 2 (1949): 294–8. For an emphasis on the light imagery created at the two epiphanies in the Homeric Hymns to Aphrodite and Deme- ter see M. Lefkowitz, Greek Gods, Human Lives. What we can learn from Myths (Yale University Press, 2003), 35–8, 43–4.
13. Tanner (n. 12), 51–2. See also H. P. Foley, ed., The Homeric Hymn to Demeter: Translation, Commentary, and Interpretive Essays (Princeton, 1994), 12. This is a typical epiphany at the arrival of the goddess with some common features with Homeric divine epiphanies. But the most important here is the divine radiance that was created, which caused the viewer’s reaction of reverence, awe, and fear (line 190: τὴνδ’ αἰδώς τε σέβας τε ἰδὲ χλωρὸν δέος εἷλεν); see N. J. Richardson, The Homeric Hymn to Demeter (Oxford, 1974), 207–10. Nevertheless, Demeter’s epiphany here is sudden and lasts for a short time unlike her second epiphany in the same hymn which occurs at her departure (275ff.). During this second epiphany the following characteristics appear: a larger than life stature and supernatural appearance created not only by Demeter’s rejuvenation and metamorphosis into a beautiful woman (γῆρας ἀπωσαμένη, περί τ’ ἀμφί τε κάλλος ἄητο: 276), but also by the radiance her body sends out reinforced by her golden hair which flowed down her shoulders (lines 278–80: τῆλε δὲ φέγγος ἀπὸ χροὸς ἀθανάτοιο/ λάμπε θεᾶς, ξανθαὶ δὲ κόμαι κατενήνοθεν ὤμους,/ αὺγῆς δ’ ἐπλήσθη πυκινὸς δόμος ἀστεροπῆς ὥς): see Richardson, The Homeric Hymn to Demeter, 252. As in the case of Odyssey 19.33ff. with Athena’s lamp, here too the house “is flooded with radiance like lightning” (trans. Foley, The Homeric Hymn to Demeter: Translation, Commentary, and Interpretive Essays, 16). Shortly before her epiphany Demeter asked for propitiatory rites in honor of herself, and the foundation of a temple together with an altar for offering sacrifices. Thus light is a central feature of both epiphanies of Demeter whereas the word φέγγος, which is not a Homeric word but in classical Attic is used for moonlight, is used in such a way that it “seems to reflect the language of the Mysteries” (Richardson, The Homeric Hymn to Demeter, 26). That this light of this epiphany seems to have its parallel in the Eleusinian Mysteries is seen in the central feature of the ἐποπτεία, the final stage of the Mysteries, which “was essentially a vision (cf. ad Dem. 480), and this was evidently accompanied by a great light, which is contrasted with the darkness which preceded at earlier stages of the ceremonies” (Richardson, 26).
14. Apollo jumps from the boat he was sailing on to Krisa, like a star in the middle of the day (Homeric Hymn to Apollo 441–2: ἀστέρι εἰδόμενος μέσωι ἤματι· τοῦ δ’ ἀπὸ πολλαὶ σπινθαρίδες πωτῶντο, σέλας δ’ εἰς οὐρανὸν ỉκεν); and as he proceeded to his temple he made a firelight which covered all Krisa (ἔνθ’ ἄρ’ ὅ γε φλόγα δαῖε πιφαυσκόμενος τὰ ἃ κῆλα,/ πᾶσαν δὲ Kρίσην κάτεχεν σέλας). The reaction of the people of Krisa is that of a divine epiphany.
15. See D.C. Feeney , The Gods in Epic: Poets and Critics of the Classical Tradition (Oxford, 1991), 52; cf. 85, for various cases of the interaction of gods with men; see also E. Kearns, “The Gods in the Homeric Epics,” in The Cambridge Companion to Homer, ed. R. Fowler (Cambridge, 2004), 64–5, 71–3. B. Snell, Die Entdeckung des Geistes. Studien zur Entstehung des europäischen Denkens bei den Griechen (Göttingen, 1975), 55, points out that the gods’ radiance is not just a feature of their appearance to men, but it is a permanent situation for gods are permanently powerful.
16. That there is a system of divine inspection which implies that knowledge on the immortal level is fuller and more reliable, especially as far as the supreme god, Zeus, is concerned whose omniscience relies on his capacity for universal vision since he is a sky god, see Griffin (n. 3), 179. See also W. Allan, “Divine Justice and Cosmic order in Early Greek Epic,” JHS 126 (2006): 8 esp. note 35; G. S. Kirk, The Iliad: A Commentary, vol. II: books 5–8 (Cambridge, 1990), 296, 334–5. For Zeus’ difficultyin controling the family of the gods on Olympos and his challenge to a trial of strength and superiority see M. M. Willcock, The Iliad of Homer: books I–XII. Edited with Introduction and Commentary (London, 1978), 260.
17. See A. Heubeck and A. Hoekstra, A Commentary on Homer’s Odyssey, vol. II: books IX–XVI (Oxford, 1989), 139–40.
18. Od. 12.385–8.
19. See Allan (n. 16), 23. See also Heubeck-Hoekstra (n.18), 140. On the restoration of the τιμὴ and confidence of the offended deity, i.e., the Sun, see A. W. H. Adkins, “Homeric Gods and the Values of Homeric Society,” JHS 72 (1972): 6–7.
20. Trans. Griffin (n. 3), 171.
21. Such a contrast applies to Hektor too in Iliad 17.591ff. (shortly before the divine action): ὣς φάτο, τὸν δ’ ἄχεος νεφέλη ἐκάλυψε μέλαινα,/ βῆ δὲ διὰ προμάχωνκεκορυθμένος αἴθοπι χαλκῶι: “So spoke he, and a black cloud of grief enwrapped Hector, and he strode amid the foremost fighters, harnessed in flaming bronze”: trans. A. T. Murray, Homer. The Iliad, with an English Translation, vol. II (Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, 1925), 275; the parallelism/analogy between the divine and the mortal action is obvious here.
22. Trans. R. Lattimore, The Iliad of Homer. Translated and with an Introduction (Chicago and London, 1951), 371.
23. Edwards (n. 3), 125; see also Griffin (n.3), 170. There is, however, a contradictory symbolism in this scene: the light that is invoked by Aias symbolizes life, whereas the hero’s wish is that, if he has to die, not to die in darkness that death presupposes.
24. See Willcock’s comment (n. 16), 260, ad 8.30–40: “Athene, the favourite daughter can get round her father even when he is angry. The gods on Olympos behave like a human family.” For Athena’s special relationship with her father Zeus see Ares’ complaint in Iliad 5.875ff. For Zeus as the god of sky and of meteorological phenomena see R. Buxton, The Complete World of Greek Mythology (London, 2004); see also W. Burkert, Griechische Religion der archaischen und klassischen Epoche (Stuttgart, 1977), 271. On the contrary, there is no early (i.e., Homeric) association of Apollo with light but instead his first appearance in the Iliad relates him to darkness: the god came down from the peaks of Olympos with anger in his heart, wishing to take revenge on the Achaeans, and “he came like night” (1.47: ὁ δ’ ἤιε νυκτὶ ἐοικώς); the god of light—this is in fact a later association—came as darkness; cf. Buxton, The Complete World of Greek Mythology, 75.
25. Janko (n. 8), 292. See Feeney’s discussion (n. 15, 53–4) on Hektor’s action in Iliad 15.637ff., where divine intervention may be interpreted as diminishing the hero’s achievements or quite the opposite, Zeus’ presence increases Hektor’s success. This passage has many terms of light and vision as for example: line 600: σέλας
ὀφθαλμοῖσιν ἰδέσθαι; lines 607–8: τὼ δέ οἱ ὄσσε λαμπέσθην βλοσυρῆισιν ὑπ’ ὀφρύσιν; line 623: αὐτὰρ ὁ λαμπόμενος πυρὶ πάντοθεν ἔνθορ’ ὁμίλωι; see Mugler (n. 2), 350 and passim.
26. Trans. Lattimore (n. 22), 327. For other cases of lifting the mist from a hero’s eyes, befogging his vision or sending darkness in favor of one side, see Janko (n. 8), 301.
27. G. S. Kirk, The Iliad: A Commentary, vol. I: books 1–4 (Cambridge, 1985), 338. See also Willcock’s (n. 16, 223) linguistic and interpretative comments on this passage.
28. Trans. Lattimore (n. 22), 369. See also Edwards (n. 3), 115, for the formal and the symbolical points of comparison here. M. M. Willcock, The Iliad of Homer: books XIII–XXIV. Edited with Introduction and Commentary (London, 1984), 260, argues that, “It seems that Athene actually descends in a rainbow … This is a little different from the usual simile; cf. the same goddess’s descent like a shooting star in IV 75.” Mugler (n. 2), 206, remarks that Homer appears impressed not only by the phenomenon of the rainbow but particularly by the purple color in it.
29. Lattimore (n. 22), 369.
30. Il. 8.75–7.
31. Od. 16.177–9. Athena’s deceptive epiphany in relation to Telemachos is transformed into an optical illusion concerning Odysseus, for whom Telemachos suspects that he is one of those gods who hold broad heaven. Therefore, we have here Odysseus’ false “epiphany” by transformation of age and appearance: see P. Pucci, Odys- seus Polutropos. Intertextual Readings in the Odyssey and the Iliad (Ithaca and London, 1987), 94.
32. Trans. Griffin (n. 3), 151.
33. However, although this epiphany is described in detail by Telemachos, himself, he has no direct acquaintance.
34. See J. Russo, M. Fernandez-Galiano, A. Heubeck, A Commentary on Homer’s Odyssey, vol. III: books XVII–XXIV (Oxford, 1992), 76; Parisinou (n. 4), 5–11 (where also a thorough discussion of the archaeological evidence).
35. Parisinou (n. 4), 7, 11, and esp. 162. See also Russo, Fernandez-Galiano, Heubeck (n. 34), 76, who point out that this epiphany has common features with Demeter’s epiphany in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, like the radiant atmosphere which fills the palace.
36. On divine epiphanies in the Homeric poems see Feeney (n.15), 85; Griffin (n. 3), 150ff.
37. Pucci (n. 31), 110 note 1.
38. Willcock (n. 28), 279, remarks that χαλεποὶ in Iliad 20.131 should be understood that “Gods are hard to face when they (lit., to) appear in their true shape.” It is worth referring here to Iliad 18.516–9, where Ares and Pallas Athena, the war gods, are shown on Achilles’ shield fashioned in gold, with gold dress, beautiful and tall, and as gods they were more visible than the others (ὥς τε θεώ περ ἀμφὶς ἀριζήλω); ἀρίζηλος here, which means “visible” or “clear,” seems to be a synonym of ἐναργής.
39. See Pucci (n. 31), 110ff., esp. notes 1 and 4 (ch. 9: “More Light in the Epiphany, Less Light in the Text”), where it is suggested that enarges in divine epiphanies has various meanings, even that of a god appearing in disguise and that in its five occurrences in Homer the word always refers to a divine presence (Il. 20.131; Od. 3.420, 7.201, 16.161) or to a divinely inspired and transmitted dream (Od. 4.481); cf. Constantinidou, “The Vision of Homer” (n. 2), 11 note 36. In my view, the expression phainesthai enarges applies to those cases that divine power or nature becomes clear, evident, and this is a privilege for the pious and favorites, although the case of Od.7.201 points to the meaning of phainontai enargeis as “the gods appear in full forms,” i.e., with no disguise. This is also clearly explained in 7.206 (ou ti katakruptousin) where Alcinoos asserts that his people have the privilege of seeing their gods in full forms, without concealing themselves (see Pucci, 110 note 2). On enarges see also W. G. Thalmann, Conventions of Form and Thought in Early Greek Poetry (Baltimore, 1984), 101.
40. See Russo, Fernandez-Galiano, Heubeck (n. 34), 69; cf. ibid., 68 (ad 18.317–9).
41. Trans. R. Fagles, Homer, The Odyssey: Translated by R. Fagles. Introduction and Notes by B. Knox (New York: Viking Penguin, 1996), 387.
42. Russo (n. 34), 70.
43. Note Odysseus’ orders to the servants in lines 313ff. but also his offer to furnish light for the suitors, as he is determined to stay until the morning if they wish, since they will not wear him down, him who has endured so many sufferings (Od. 18.317–9). See also Russo, Fernandez-Galiano, Heubeck (n. 34), 68. 44. J. T. Hooker, “The Visit of Athena to Achilles in Iliad I,” Emerita 58 (1990): 21–32, who also argues that Athena’s appearance here should not be explained in psychological or religious terms; see also Constantinidou, “The Vision of Homer”
(n. 2), 12 esp. note 37.
45. Homer on Life and Death, 158–9.
46. See Willcock (n. 16), 191. But see Burkert (n. 24), 303–4, for the possibility of a psychological interpretation of this scene, i.e., Achilles’ self-restrain appears as a divine intervention, while Athena’s dazzling eyes could be a moment of bright thought and judgment against the quarrel which darkens the mind.
47. But see Hooker’s argument (n. 44), 28: “The invisibility of the goddess to all except Achilles is absolutely necessary given the situation. Athena is intent on maintaining the status of Achilles, which has been grievously undermined by Agamemnon’s threat.” See also M. M. Willcock, A Commentary on Homer’s Iliad: books I-VI (London, 1970), 18: “… the gods are visible only to those by whom they wish to be seen.”
48. See Kearns (n. 15), 71–2. Demeter’s revelation scene in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter is compatible to epiphany scenes in the Iliad and the Odyssey. In the Ho- meric Hymn, however, the focus is on the goddess and her revelation; the ritual and religious character, especially of this part of the Hymn, could be an explanation compared to the more literal one of the Athena case in Iliad 1. Therefore, the abbreviated form of Athena’s appearance in the latter could also be assigned to the conventions of the Homeric epic, where various actions are subjected to the fulfillment of a plan on a large scale, the plan of the poet.
49. See S. Constantinidou, “The Importance of Bronze in Early Greek Religion,”Δωδώνη 21.2 (1992): 153–8; Constantinidou, “The Vision of Homer” (n. 2), 12–3.
50. As M. Detienne and J.-P. Vernant have put it in Cunning Intelligence in Greek Culture and Society (Chicago and London, 1978), 181 (Engl. trans. of Les ruses d’intelligence: la Metis des grecs, (Paris, 1974)), Athena is marked by her shining eyes and the shining “eye of bronze”; see also pp. 179–83.
51. See Burkert (n. 24), 301; Constantinidou, “Aὐγή/αὐγαί: Some Observations on the Homeric Perception of Light and Vision” (n. 2), 105–6.
52. (n. 3), 169.
53. Cf. Il. 1.194: ἦλθε δ’ Ἀθήνη, “and Athene came”: Griffin (n. 3), 159 note 29, and 83ff.
54. Edwards (n. 3), 173 (ad 18.225–7). It seems that light and fire imagery is used as a symbol of power and strength as well as confidence. For light and fire imagery associated with Achilles in the Iliad, see C. Moulton, Similes in the Homeric Poems (Göttingen, 1977), 99ff., 106ff.; see also C. H. Whitman, Homer and the Heroic Tradi- tion (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1958), 128–53 (ch. VII: “Fire and other elements”).
55. ὣς ἀπ’ Ἀχιλλῆος κεφαλῆς σέλας αἰθέρ’ ἵκανε. For the Homeric meanings of σέλας see Mugler (n. 2), 350.
56. Edwards (n. 3), 170, argues that the flame from Achilles’ head functions symbolically, i.e., the hero ‘appears like a light of hope’ for the besieged and all is described in the technique of a simile; a simile obviously linked to the narrative and to future events. See Whitman (n. 54), 137. For this passage of the glorification of Achilles see also Constantinidou, “Aὐγή/αὐγαί: Some Observations on the Homeric Perception of Light and Vision” (n. 2), 102.
57. Edwards (n. 3), 170.
58. Athena fills Diomedes with might and the inspired hero is led to a spectacular triumph which covers the whole book and even gets into the sixth book of the Iliad: see Kirk (n. 16), 52–4. The gleaming fire kindled by Athena (line 4: δαῖε, line 7: δαῖεν), is compared to the autumn star which becomes the most glittering as it is bathed in the ocean and its light is reflected on the water; Kirk (n. 16), 53, argues that this is Sirius, the brightest star.
59. The autumnal star is not an evil but a good sign here; the fire that is coming from the helmet and the shield of Diomedes is obviously taken as a sign of divine inspiration. See Kirk (n. 16), 52–4.
60. In the Homeric Hymn to Athena, the goddess’ first appearance by her birth is marked by her gleaming armor which here is gold: lines 4–7: Tριτογενῆ, τὴν αὐτὸςἐγείνατο μητίετα Zεὺς/ σεμνῆς ἐκ κεφαλῆς, πολεμήϊα τεύχε’ ἔχουσαν/ χρύσεα παμφανόωντα· σέβας δ’ ἔχε πάντας ὁρῶντας/ ἀθανάτους.
61. For godlike heroes in the Homeric poems see Griffin (n. 3), 83ff.
62. Cf. Parisinou (n. 4), 162; Kearns (n. 15), 64: “Divine limitations and human excellence go together; perhaps the famous dictum of “Longinus,” that Homer made his men Gods and his Gods men, is not so far from the mark”; cf. 71. See also Thalmann (n. 39), 92–6; and Janko (n. 8), 2 (Introduction: 1. “The gods in Homer: further considerations”): “Again it is Griffin who has shown how Homer exploits the gods’interactions with mortals as a metaphor for, and a guide to, the response of the human audience.”
63. As Richardson (n. 13), 29, points out: “It is the gods who give and take away prosperity (ὄλβος, πλοῦτος as they desire), and their condition of ageless immortality is contrasted with that of men. They live in pure regions where the light always shines: no cloud of darkness disturbs their vision, and when they appear to men, they appear in a blaze of glorious light.” See also Lefkowitz (n. 12), 53ff.
64. See Moulton (n. 54), 106ff., for the symbolism of fire/light similes and their association with narration. See also Whitman (n. 54), 129, 132–3, 144–5.
65. Whitman (n. 54), 144–5, argues that fire-light imagery prevails especially in the Iliad with obvious association with the war and its aftermath, like death, destruction and the forthcoming fall of Troy itself; on the other hand, in the Odyssey the unifying motif is the sea and its imagery; see also p. 153.
66. On the interaction of gods with men and how divine intervention supports and reinforces human action see Lefkowitz (n. 12), 86–149. On “The so-called divine machinery in the Iliad, that is, the intervention of gods in human actions” and their motives, see W. Kullmann, “Gods and men in the Iliad and the Odyssey,” HSCP 89 (1985): 1–23. On the various aspects of gods’ intervention in the Iliad, see M. M. Willcock, “Some Aspects of the Gods in the Iliad,” BICS 17 (1970): 1–10. See also Kirk (n. 16), 1–14 (Introduction: 1. “The Homeric gods: prior considerations”); Janko (n. 8), 1–7 (Introduction: 1. “The gods in Homer: further considerations”). 67. See the Homeric examples discussed throughout this chapter. 68. For lightning as a sign of victory, especially associated with Hektor, see Whitman (n.54), 133–4, 136–7. 69. Trans. Lattimore (n. 22), 184. See Kirk’s (n. 16, 304) comment here that “‘blazing flash’ for lightning is found only here” (δαιόμενον δὲ/ ἧκε σέλας). See also Whitman (n. 54), 133–4: “The lighting flash which dismays the Achaeans is the direct reflex of Achilles’ retirement. The action of the god and the inaction of the hero are essentially one.”
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