Notes
CHAPTER 1. THE GENDER-NEUTRAL SOCIETY
1. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 1 2.10, 381. Tocqueville, however, was a critic of both gender neutrality and feminism; Democracy in America, 1 3.12, 574.
2. Alexander Hamilton, Report on Manufactures (1791), in Papers of Alexander Hamilton, ed. Syrett and Cooke, 10:255, emphasis added. Cf. Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations 1.2, where the difference of talents is said to be the effect, not the cause, of the division of labor—hence not “nature” but social construction.
3. Faludi, Backlash; Rothman, “Was There Ever a Backlash against Women?”; Hochs-child, Second Shift.
4. Williams, Unbending Gender, 1–6.
5. Or is that not the case? See Flanagan, “How Serfdom Saved the Women’s Movement,” 109–28.
6. Burns, Schlozman, and Verba, Private Roots of Public Action, 16, 155, 181–87, 375–76. See also Giele, “Gender and Sex Roles,” ch. 9 in Smelser, ed. Handbook of Sociology; Bianchi, Milkie, Sayer, and Robinson, “Is Anyone Doing the Housework?”; Williams, “Family-Hostile Corporation,” 41– 42; Hochschild, Second Shift, 8, 127, 219, 222; Schor, Overworked American, 85, 103; Sigel, Ambition and Accommodation, 99.
7. Friedan, Feminine Mystique, ch. 1; Schaub, “On the Character of Generation X,” 15–18.
8. Mansbridge, Why We Lost the ERA, 187–99.
9. Okin, Justice, Gender and the Family, 171.
10. Statistical Abstract of the United States, table 615; the figures are for the year 2000. Query to Ernie Boch, Jr., prominent Boston car dealer: “Why don’t more women sell cars?” [Answer:] “They don’t apply. They’re intimidated by the industry. It’s totally male-dominated.” Boston Globe, July 20, 2003. That is, of course, a totally male interpretation of a kind rarely printed in the newspapers today. See Maccoby, Two Sexes, ch. 9.
11. Mendelson, Home Comforts. The first chapter of this excellent book begins: “I am a working woman with a secret life,” thus gravely compromising her loyalty to the gender-neutral society. For the contrary, official view see Schor, Overworked Ameri-can, ch. 4. According to this excellent book, women are unnecessarily devoted to housework because they do not put an economic value on the time they spend doing it. They should look on housework as if they were being paid to do it, as if they were employees and not their own boss.
12. Rhoads, Taking Sex Differences Seriously
13. Herland began two thousand years ago after a volcano and a slave revolt killed off almost all the men, and the young women then slew the few remaining men, their “brutal conquerors.” Gilman, Herland, 54. Unlike Plato’s Republic, which features manliness and accepts war, Gilman’s Herland is warless as well as manless. It has no eros, no thumos, and no philosophy.
14. Irving, Alhambra, 169. Shakespeare, Macbeth 1.5.7; on this, Shakespeare’s play most concerned with manliness, see Benardete, “Macbeth’s Last Words,” 63–75. “Have you no bones?” is what women in New Guinea say to unmanly men; Mead, Male and Female, 27.
15. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, Intro.
16. Comparing “market work” men do with “family work” women still do, one intelligent observer says, “This is not equality.” Williams, Unbending Gender, 3.
17. For Garry Wills, John Wayne “became the pattern of manly American virtue.” Wills, John Wayne’s America, 30. In reality as on film the manly villains in Wayne’s movies were much more numerous than the heroes. For the unromantic lowdown on the typical American cowboy, see Courtwright, Violent Land, ch. 5, “The Cowboy Subculture.”
18. Rubin, Families on the Fault Line, 74.
CHAPTER 2. MANLINESS AS STEREOTYPE
1. I switch to “sciences” in the plural because they differ in their conclusions. But it is important to remember that science aspires to unity and completeness, to which it will be led, at least in principle, by a single method. That method, requiring the universality and exactness of mathematics, does not respect the difference between “social” and “natural” science—a difference that common sense as distinct from science might want adopt in order to tolerate inexactness in social science.
2. Lippmann, Public Opinion, chs. 6, 7.
3. Allport, Nature of Prejudice. Allport’s social-science view of stereotypes removes the awareness of authority, in this case democratic authority, that is visible in Lipp-mann’s title, Public Opinion. All stereotypes collected together would form the beliefs supporting what the Greeks called nomos, the ruling law and custom of any society. On the history of the concept “stereotype,” see Fiske, “Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination,” in Gilbert, Fiske, and Lindzey, eds., Handbook of Social Psychology, 2:357–64; Ashmore and Del Boca, “Conceptual Approaches to Stereotypes and Stereotyping,” in Hamilton, ed., Cognitive Processes in Stereotyping and Intergroup Behavior, ch. 1; Miller, In the Eye of the Beholder, ch. 1.
4. Allport, Nature of Prejudice, 33–34, 360–63, 372–77. The anthropologist Margaret Mead had written of sex stereotypes in 1949, in Male and Female, 31, 373, before the notion was developed in social psychology.
5. Sigel, Ambition and Accommodation, 14.
6. Haig, “Inexorable Rise of Gender and the Decline of Sex,” 87–96; this is a survey of the use of sex and gender in more than 30 million titles of academic articles.
7. Maccoby and Jacklin, Psychology of Sex Differences, 355.
8. Shields, “Functionalism, Darwinism and the Psychology of Women,” 739–54. See the account in Eagly, “Science and Politics of Comparing Women and Men,” 145–58.
9. Eagly, “Science and Politics of Comparing Women and Men,” 145–58. “Presentations of sex differences are fraught with political danger”; Eagly, “Reflections on the Commenters’ Views,” 170. See also her earlier book, Sex Differences in Social Behavior, 1–6. For similar statements see Williams and Best, Measuring Sex Stereotypes, 307; Moir and Moir, Why Men Don’t Iron, 117, quoting Diane Halpern. And see the account in Rhoads, Taking Sex Differences Seriously, 17–22.
10 Eagly, “Science and Politics of Comparing Women and Men,” 150; Halpern, Sex Differences, 82–9.
11. Tannen, You Just Don’t Understand, 287. A category that won’t go away is an essence.
12. Maccoby, Two Sexes. She concludes that “gender matters greatly” (287). She favors a “harmonious relationship” between two parents (313) and says that “there is every reason … to make each sex’s choices as free as possible” (314). But does more choice make for more harmony?
13. Halpern: “It has been estimated that 50% of college women do not know the principle that water level remains horizontal.” Sex Differences, 72–74.
14. Rhoads, Taking Sex Differences Seriously, 27.
15. Hall and Halberstadt, “Smiling and Gazing,” in Hyde and Linn, eds., Psychology of Gender; and Eagly, “Science and Politics of Comparing Women and Men,” 150.
16. Rhoads, Taking Sex Differences Seriously, 26–27, 46–54, 96–108; see also the summary in Pool, Eve’s Rib, ch. 2; Schwartz and Rutter, Gender of Sexuality, 46–53; Thompson and Walker, “Gender in Families,” 845–71; Geary, Male, Female, 146.
17. Rhoads, Taking Sex Differences Seriously, 9–11, 18–19, 35– 41; Lueptow et al., “Social Change and the Persistence of Sex Typing,” 1–36.
18. Rhoads, Taking Sex Differences Seriously, 24, 156, 195, 205, 263. Maccoby, Two Sexes, chs. 2, 3, p. 120; Williams and Best, Sex and Psyche, 36–57; Williams and Best, Measuring Sex Stereotypes, 275–87; Harris, Nurture Assumption, 218–39; Pool, Eve’s Rib, 46–50; Tannen, Argument Culture, 168, 182.
19. Lakoff, Language and Women’s Place. See the summary in Crawford, Talking Difference, 24–25. Lakoff herself makes a number of jokes in her short book. The Moirs say that women “use jokes as a way of making others feel comfortable,” as opposed to men who use “insult, jest and innuendo.” Moir and Moir, Why Men Don’t Iron, 266.
20. Lakoff, Language and Women’s Place, 7.
21. Tannen, You Just Don’t Understand, 15.
22. Ibid., 88, 145.
23. Ibid., 225.
24. Ibid., 229
25. Cf. Lakoff: “We could shuck off deferential style just as we did hoop skirts and girdles.” Quoted in Crawford, Talking Difference, 25.
26. (In a manly way?) I push this point further than Tannen does; see Tannen, Gender and Discourse, 7–12.
27. Ibid., 47– 48, 85, 228.
28. Ibid., 294 –95.
29. Eagly, “Science and Politics of Comparing Women and Men,” 147; Halpern, Sex Differences, 59–97; Geary, Male, Female, 218–21, 289, 312.
30. See Mathell, Vingerhoets and Van Heck, “Personality, Gender, and Crying,” 19–28.
31. “Laypeople, once maligned as misguided holders of gender stereotypes, are fairly accurate observers of female and male behavior.” Eagly, “Science and Politics of Comparing Women and Men,” 152. “This study confirms the folk wisdom concerning how women should act to be attractive to men.” Maccoby, Two Sexes, 197. “Stereotypes are reasonably accurate assessments of the typical differences between men and women,” Campbell, Mind of Her Own, 7, 123. See also Swim, “Perceived Versus Meta-Analytic EVect Sizes,” 21–36.
32. Maccoby, Two Sexes, 40; Rhoads, Taking Sex Differences Seriously, 140; Campbell, Mind of Her Own, ch. 6. Here we see the intolerance of science for opposites; through misplaced economy it tries to understand insinuation as aggression. Science is also intolerant of exceptions, as when stereotype is defined as applying to “all individuals in the group” instead of most individuals. This is what a stereotype would be if it were a scientific concept; common sense does not try to be so exact. The phrase is quoted in Halpern, Sex Differences, 177.
33. Allport, Nature of Prejudice, 19, 171, 202.
34. McMillan, Clifton, McGrath, and Gale, “Women’s Language,” 556.
35. Maccoby, Two Sexes, 172–73.
36. Some feminists take a hostile attitude toward objective, modern social science, considering it to be an attempt to impose control and disparaging it as “phallic.” I believe, as we shall see, that there is something in what they say, but they should at least in the first instance be grateful to its aid in the construction of the gender-neutral society.
37. Plato, The Republic 514a–517c.
38. Fiske, “Stereotyping,” in Handbook of Social Psychology, ed. Gilbert, Fiske, and Lindzey, 2:357. See also Allport, Nature of Prejuice, 31–37, 171–73, who says judg-mentally that a stereotype is the work of an in-group wrongly distinguishing itself above others and yet that those (such as he) who do not think in stereotypes use hesitant, “differentiated,” categories.
39. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 2 1.3, 3.1–5, 4.2. Manent, Tocqueville and the Nature of Democracy, ch. 5.
40. Some studies speak of “clusters” or “patterns” of traits; Ashmore, “Sex Stereotypes and Implicit Personality Theory,” 62; and Pettigrew, “Extending the Stereotype Concept,” 313.
41. Mead, Male and Female, 34, 45, 47, 134, 143. Mead’s book in no way departs from, and frequently reiterates, the general stereotypes we find endorsed by the psychologists’ studies that women are nurturing, men are aggressive and achieving.
42. Eagly, “Science and Politics of Comparing Women and Men,” 146. Psychology’s change to a continuum was not a change on a continuum but a qualitative change.
43. “Men emit more task-oriented behaviors than women,” Deaux and LaFrance, “Gender,” in Handbook of Social Psychology, 1:805. You don’t say! But what about Socrates—is he task-oriented?
44. Carol Gilligan remarks, in a “Letter to Readers, 1993” for a reprinting of her In a Different Voice (1982), that when asked what “voice” means, she answers: “By voice I mean voice.” But in fact she doesn’t mean “voice”; she means what people say characteristically when they assert themselves. In her book she says nothing about women’s actual, dulcet voices. On Gilligan, see Maccoby, Two Sexes, 198–201; Som-mers, War Against Boys, chs. 4, 5.
45. See Tannen, Gender and Discourse, 57, on the misleading character of “operational” definitions.
46. An instance of phenomenology can be seen in the work of Eleanor Maccoby when she distinguishes a clear distinction, male-female, from a “fuzzy set,” masculine-feminine. You are either male or not, but you can be more or less masculine. Mac-coby infers this distinction among distinctions from the way we commonly speak. But aren’t fuzzy sets required for the sake of clarity? See Maccoby, “Gender as a Social Category,” 762; also Gottfredson, “Why g Matters,” 79–132; and Fiske on “moods,” Handbook of Social Psychology, 2:390–92.
47. See Ashmore, “Sex Stereotypes and Implicit Personality Theory,” in Hamilton, ed., Cognitive Processes, 40.
48. On occasion, social scientists find that an exception becomes necessary: “Sexual harassment is a pernicious form of gender-related behavior.” Deaux and La France, Handbook of Social Psychology, 1:815. Steven Pinker insists on the impossibility or impropriety of inferring value from fact when the message of his book is to show the “downsides [value] of denying human nature [fact].” Blank Slate, 152, 164, 172, 194, 340.
49. Geary (and others he cites) cannot use unscientific words, such as “beautiful” or “good-looking,” and so is obliged to speak of “symmetrical” as if it were the same thing. And why are men and women attracted to symmetry in each other? Because in the evolutionary past if not today, symmetry suggests good health, a useful quality in a mate. This is the imprecision known as reductionism: beauty is reduced to utility. Geary’s useful book also contains repulsive nude drawings, resembling composite police photos of wanted criminals, of the ideal of each sex in the eyes of the other. For greater accuracy, why not print the centerfold from a girlie magazine and a photo of Cary Grant? Geary, Male, Female, 31, 132, 149, 151.
50 Camille Paglia: “Sexual freedom, sexual liberation. A modern delusion. We are hierarchical animals. Sweep one hierarchy away, and another will take its place, perhaps less palatable than the first.” Sexual Personae, 3.
51. For example, Geary, Male, Female; Buss, Evolution of Desire; and Udry, “Nature of Gender,” 561–73. Rhoads, a political scientist, speaks more cautiously of what “evolutionary psychologists think”; Taking Sex Differences Seriously, 27.
52. Aristotle, Politics 1284a15–18. “Where are your claws?” said the lions.
53. Andrew Sullivan, “The He Hormone; Testosterone and Gender Politics,” New York Times Magazine, April 2, 2000; Rhoads, Taking Sex Differences Seriously, 30–34; Udry, “Biological Limits of Gender Construction,” 709–22.
54. The very long time during which human nature evolved is known as the “environment of evolutionary adaptation” (EEA), as if in our time evolution had stopped. For practical purposes, it has stopped.
55. Darwin, Origin of Species, 16:48– 49.
56. “And as Natural Selection works solely by and for the good of each being, all corporeal and mental endowments will tend to progress towards perfection.” Ibid., 16:428.
57. Darwin, Descent of Man (1870), in Works, 21:2, 48– 49, 65, 125–26, 128, 147.
58. “Strategies” is a neo-Darwinian term, not Darwin’s, that glosses over the difference between an unconscious instinct and a conscious plan. “Genes” were discovered by Gregor Mendel.
59. Whereas human beings are dominant over other animals, men are pre-eminent over women. Darwin, Descent of Man, 21:556, 564, 605, 614.
60. Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics 1162a17–34.
61. Nature’s support of the double standard is argued today by neo-Darwinians. Symons, Evolution of Human Sexuality, 226–31; Ridley, Red Queen, 177–79; Pinker, Blank Slate, 251–54; Arnhart, Darwinian Natural Right, 136.
62. “The canon in Natural History [is] Natura non facit saltum.” Sed facit species, one could reply. Darwin also says that the species are “only well-marked and permanent varieties.” But varieties are varieties of species. Darwin, Origin of Species, 16:233, 416, 425.
63. Darwin, Origin of Species, 16:44, 142; Descent of Man, 22:25, 61.
64. “The great break in the organic chain between man and his nearest allies, which cannot be bridged over by an extinct or living species, has often been advanced as a grave objection to the belief that man is descended from some lower form; but this objection will not appear of much weight to those who, from general reasons, believe in the general principle of evolution.” Darwin, Descent of Man, 21:156.
65. Gould attempts to address the difficulty in gradualism with his theory of “punctuated equilibrium” in which evolution proceeds by stages instead of gradations. This is a step back toward Aristotle. Gould, Structure of Evolutionary Theory.
66. Note the greater precision of Thomas Aquinas over Darwin’s “survival”: “every substance seeks the preservation of its own being according to its nature,” Summa Theologica, I–II, 94.2.
67. See the last pages of The Origin of Species.
68. The Origin of Species ends: “From so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved.” Matt Ridley, a neo-Darwinian, has written a book titled The Red Queen after the character in Lewis Carroll’s Through the Looking Glass who runs very hard without getting anywhere because the surroundings move with her. The postmodern point is that when one species adapts, the others return the favor and the advantage originally gained is lost; progress, being relative, is not really progress. Progress requires a fixed standard of perfection. Ridley, Red Queen.
69. Darwin, Origin of Species, 16:145.
70. “The Female of the Species” has thirteen stanzas of which the seventh supplies this explanation for the phenomenon.
71. “Man is a social being,” to be sure; but this is a species-characteristic of “inherited tendencies” acquired through evolution. Yet Darwin admits, without referring to politics, that animal (including human) sociability extends “only to those of the same association.” Descent of Man 21:97, 108–9, 115.
72. Wilson, Sociobiology; Gilder, Men and Marriage (a popular treatment).
CHAPTER 3. MANLY ASSERTION
1. “The very essence of the male animal, from the bantam rooster to the four-star general, is to strut.” Daniel Patrick Moynihan, The Negro Family (U.S. Department of Labor, March 1965), ch. 3.
2. Hemin gway, Old Man and the Sea, 26, 66, 84, 103.
3. “Ernest Hemingway can just do it!”
4. Death in the Afternoon (1932) shows too that manliness is about knowledge and courage together, but the knowledge mixes the ways of bulls with the conventions of bullfighting.
5. See Bickford Sylvester’s ingenious observations on Cuba and baseball in the book, “The Cuban Context of The Old Man and the Sea,” 165–84.
6. Hemingway, Old Man and the Sea, 65, 105, 107, 121. On the Christian symbols, see the essays by critics published in Bloom, ed., Hemingway’s The Old Man and the Sea, some of whom are too quick to assume that referring to the Bible means agreeing with it.
7. Sylvester remarks on the “human community’s discomfort with those rare individuals upon whom the survival of the many depends”; “Cuban Context,” 183.
8. The judgment of William Faulkner: “His best. Time may show it to be the best single piece of any of us, I mean his and my contemporaries. This time, he discovered God, a Creator.” Bloom, ed., Hemingway’s The Old Man and the Sea, 5.
9. In Death in the Afternoon, Hemingway argues with an uncomprehending old lady about bullfighting.
10. For what follows on Achilles, I rely on the work of the late Seth Benardete, Argument of the Action, ch.2; Bow and the Lyre, 2, 4, 44; “Achilles and Hector,” 31–58, 85–114.
11. Iliad 7:96.
12. Ibid., 12:23.
13. Ibid., 1:7, cf. 1:24.
14. Ibid., 1:134 –39, 243– 44, 303; 2:100–108.
15. See the seven claims to rule given in Plato, Laws 690a-c.
16. Iliad 1:416, 18:95.
17. Ibid., 9:10–16. Did Achilles have a choice or was it fated that he would die young? See Brann, Past-Present, 317–22.
18. See Stove, “Intellectual Capacity of Women,” 113–36. No experiments on this matter, he says, would weigh with him “if their results were inconsistent with the verdict of ordinary experience” (132). But Stove does not make a point of our lack of experience with women philosophers. (In speaking of philosophers, here and elsewhere, I am not referring to philosophy professors but rather to thinkers of the highest rank.)
19. Iliad 1:240, 412. Whether a ruler can always honor the best is a question, as Achilles comes to see.
20. It is not, however, as different as Margaret Mead said; see Caton, ed. Samoan Reader.
21. In 1878 the Supreme Court ruled that polygamy is not protected by the Constitution in part because it “leads to the patriarchal principle”—obviously not thought to be in force at that time; Reynolds v. U.S. 98 U.S. 145 (1878).
22. Aristotle, Politics 1253a1–18.
23. See the discussion of Aristotle’s Politics in ch. 7, below.
24. See Courtwright, Violent Land, 9–11: “I begin with … a statistical syllogism. Young men are prone to violence and disorder; America attracted unusually large numbers of young men; therefore America … was a more violent and disorderly place.” Wilson and Herrnstein show the combination of youthful adventurousness with male aggression in the highest crime rates; Wilson and Herrnstein, Crime and Human Nature, 104 –25, 141– 44, 178–79. Campbell maintains that robbery is a distinctively male crime and that the thrill of a stickup is to prove your superiority; Campbell, Mind of Her Own, 212, 220.
25. The scientific term is territory; see Wilson, Sociobiology, 256–78. Lorenz, On Aggression, 34 –39.
26. Machiavelli calls a person in this situation a “hereditary prince” and warns him to watch out for rising new princes. He puts no stock in manly protectiveness. The Prince, chs. 2, 6, 8.
27. See Krause, Liberalism with Honor, 21.
28. Kant, On the Proverb, 294n.
29. Oh social scientist! You long for a study that will say how many Grace Kellys and how many Gary Coopers will rise to the occasion, how many will cringe in helpless fright. If only there were a study, we wouldn’t have to go to the movies.
30. What is it about the word no that you don’t understand? goes the feminist query. Answer: whether no is final or refers only to the first date, or to the first request. A woman’s modesty enables both sexes to live their lives with nuance in which a woman’s grace and intelligence have scope to operate. If she is too blunt, she will accept or reject too quickly. But we seem to be living under the principle, not favorable to women, that honesty comes before good sense. The sort of honesty I refer to was introduced by Nietzsche (see chapter 4).
31. See Crawford, Talking Difference, ch. 3.
32. Crawford notes that although women need to be more assertive, men need to be less so: “However, the male half of the model received little attention.” Training men to be less assertive is the traditional “assertiveness training” done by women. In the words of the song from Guys and Dolls, “marry the man today and change his ways tomorrow.” But if women are in training to become more assertive, they don’t have time or inclination for this. Crawford, Talking Difference, 51. Tannen approves of assertiveness training for women as part of her campaign for greater flexibility through understanding the other sex. But learning to be assertive would seem to make you less flexible. Tannen, You Just Don’t Understand, 120–21.
33. What makes this reversion to the past a “New Age” is the suppression of cherubs, demons, and gods—male counterparts to female spirits.
34. James Boswell, Life of Samuel Johnson, July 31, 1763; Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics 1125a13–16.
35. Crawford, Talking Difference, 45.
36. See the long list of films in the last decade featuring women killers in DeMott, Killer Woman Blues, 68–69.
37. On Aristophanes’ The Assembly of Women (Ecclesiazousai), see Leo Strauss, Socrates and Aristophanes, ch. 9; Saxonhouse, Fear of Diversity, ch. 1.
38. Aristotle, Nichomachean Ethics 1115a25–35.
39. On the conservative side: Browne, “Women at War,” 51–247; Gutmann, Kinder, Gentler Military; Yarbrough, “Feminist Mistake,” 48–52. On the liberal side: Abrams, “Gender in the Military,” 217– 41; Morris, “By Force of Arms,” 651–781; Stiehm, ed., It’s Our Military Too!
40. One of many studies: Cornelius and Averill, “Sex Differences in Fear of Spiders,” 377–83.
41. Browne, “Women at War,” 205.
42. Morris, “By Force of Arms,” 751.
43. United States v. Virginia 518 U.S. 515, 533 (1996).
44. Burns, Schlozman, and Verba, Private Roots of Public Action, 111; Kaufmann and Petrocik, “Changing Politics of American Men,” 864 –87.
45. Edlund and Pande, “Why Have Women Become Left-Wing?” 917–61; Greenberg, “Race, Religiosity, and the Women’s Vote,” 59–82.
46. Graglia, Domestic Tranquility, ch. 2; Rhoads, Taking Sex Differences Seriously, 38; Burns, Schlozman, and Verba, Private Roots of Public Action, 157–60.
47. “Big Government” is nonpolitical in the sense of providing entitlements that are intended to remove security issues from partisan dispute. As a result women, who are less political and less partisan than men, paradoxically favor Big Government. Another reason why women may like Big Government is that it likes them: more women than men have jobs in or close to government, 26.6 percent of women vs. 78 percent of men; and 49.1 percent of women receive payments from government, vs. 32.8 percent of men. (Andersen, “Gender Gap,” 19) Yet Big Government has to be established and maintained by political action, requiring partisan dispute and thus providing employment for manly types.
48. Men have more political information generally, but women know better the name of the head of the local school system. Burns, Schlozman, and Verba, Private Roots of Public Action, 101–5. On women as organizers, see also Welch, “Women as Political Animals?” 721.
49. If the participatory factors were equalized, “it would follow as the day the night” that sex differences in political participation would disappear. Burns, Schlozman, and Verba, Private Roots of Public Action, 385. Ignorance, or as the Marxists used to say, “false consciousness,” might seem to stand in the way, but instructed by this book, women could recognize that nothing inherent to them prevents them from participating in politics equally with men. Once this happens, they could then leap ahead of the participatory factors, seize control of their fate, and not wait to be declared equal before behaving as equals.
50. Is education a “private root” of public action? It seems rather that the American democracy educates its citizens to democracy in democratic fashion (partly indirectly), so that the public is more cause of the private than effect.
51. For women holding office, the gender gap in political opinion is much wider than in the electorate. Successful ambition in women makes them more womanish in the sense of representing women’s views. Burns, Schlozman, and Verba, Private Roots of Public Action, 112. Ambition, which might seem to be the perfection of political participation, is not treated by Burns et al., who speak slightingly of “some unmeasured taste for various kinds of activity that explains political participation.” (256, 273) To be is to be measurable by social science, they say.
CHAPTER 4. MANLY NIHILISM
1. In the movie Patton (1970) the American general in an early scene discloses that he is the author of the poetry celebrating himself.
2. See Bloom, ed. and trans., Republic of Plato, Interpretive Essay, 351–60; Benardete, Socrates’ Second Sailing, 66–68; Strauss, City and Man, 90, 97–99.
3. Plato appears to be the inventor of the word theology, which he puts in the mouth of Adeimantus questioning Socrates; Republic 379a5. See Benardete, Argument of the Action, 1–2.
4. Republic 386c.
5. Or is there a place for manliness in the natural right Achilles implies in his challenge to Agamemnon? Perhaps the nihilism of poets (and the corresponding promotion of cosmos by philosophers) is exaggerated, for the sake of explaining justice, in Socrates’ discussion here.
6. Plato, Republic 379a–383c.
7. James, Writings, 1281, 1289–90.
8. Ibid., 1293.
9. Ibid., 481, 506–7.
10. Ibid., 491, 533, 535. Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, 1:6, 19, 23.
11. James, Writings, 509.
12. Ibid., 579.
13. Ibid., 613.
14. Ibid., 617.
15. Townsend, Manhood at Harvard, 243–45.
16. Roosevelt, American Ideals and Other Essays, 51.
17. Roosevelt, Strenuous Life, 1.
18. Edmund Morris, Rise of Theodore Roosevelt, 40, 60.
19. Roosevelt, Autobiography, ch. 4. A New Yorker by birth, TR made himself into a Westerner by deliberate intent or, should I say, sheer willpower. In 1889, at the age of thirty-two, he published a two-volume work, The Winning of the West, celebrating the manly spirit of democratic heroes who extended civilization by leaving it behind. See Burton, Theodore Roosevelt, 15–27.
20. Maccoby, Two Sexes, 51–53.
21. See Susan Faludi’s bluV-book Backlash.
22. Roosevelt, Autobiography, 314.
23. Ibid., 313.
24. Ibid., 120.
25. Ibid., 347. See also “The Great Adventure,” in Works of Theodore Roosevelt, 19:243. What TR means by “fear of living” corresponds to what Socrates meant by fear of death, but TR’s “living” consists of facing risk rather than seeking awareness. See Apology 29a; Republic 387d, 486b, 540b.
26. Roosevelt, Speech at Yellowstone National Park, 1903.
27. Ibid., 318.
28. Roosevelt, American Ideals, ch. 3, “The Manly Virtues and Practical Politics,” 34 – 41.
29. Roosevelt, Autobiography, 161–63; and his speech “On American Motherhood,” 1905.
30. Silverman, Theodore Roosevelt and Women, ch. 4.
31. Roosevelt, “The New Nationalism,” Speech at Osawatomie, Kansas, August 31, 1910: “But when I say I am for the square deal, I mean not merely that I stand for fair play under the present rules of the game, but that I stand for having those rules changed so as to work for a more substantial equality of opportunity and reward for equally good service.” A year earlier Croly contrasted the “conservative” notion of equal rights under the law with the “radical” notion (of which he partly approved) of “equal opportunities” for exercising such rights, establishing “equality of opportunity” for the “virile democrat”; Croly, Promise of American Life, 180–83. See Stettner, Shaping Modern Liberalism, 42– 43.
32. See Mansfield, “Liberty and Virtue in the American Founding,” 9–15.
33. Thomas Jefferson, Letter to John Adams, October 28, 1813.
34. Roosevelt, Autobiography, 389.
35. Luke 19:20; see Mansfield, Taming the Prince, 15, 302n38; Yarbrough, “Theodore Roosevelt and the Stewardship of the American Presidency,” 536– 48.
36. Machiavelli, Discourses on Livy, 3:13.3.
37. The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, ed. Elting E. Morison, 2:853, 892, 894 –95, 901–2, 907, 909, 919.
38. Haggard, King Solomon’s Mines, 49; see 28, 62, 65, 135, 215, 306. Says the narrator at the beginning: “I’ll scratch that word ‘niggers’ out, for I don’t like it” (9).
39. Ibid., 56.
40. Ibid., 237.
41. Ibid., 135.
42. Ibid., 54.
43. Ibid., 292; see also 155, 279, 287. “I myself am not a gentleman. If I were, I would almost certainly not be writing this book, for one of the marks of a gentleman is that he seldom mentions the question of gentility.” Raven, English Gentleman, 7.
44. Ibid., 7, 23, 223, 233. Yet Quatermain killed sixty-five lions until the sixty-sixth wounded him; 8, 240.
45. Ibid., 68.
46. Ibid., ch. 17, “Solomon’s Treasure Chamber,” contains nature’s most valuable gems which only men know how to treasure. Nature does not care about them, nor do the blacks.
47. Ibid., 246.
48. Contrary to Wendy Katz, Haggard’s fatalism is favorable to human action because as far as humans can know, what is fated comes as chance. See Katz, Rider Haggard and the Fiction of Empire, ch. 4.
49. Burroughs, Tarzan of the Apes, 41. Thanks to Hugh Liebert for his insights throughout this section on Tarzan. On the difference between the movie and the book, see Kirkham and Thumim, You Tarzan, 107.
50. Burroughs, Tarzan of the Apes, 56.
51. Ibid., 48– 49, 52, 101.
52. Ibid., 206.
53. Ibid., 95, 98.
54. Ibid., 163. Presence of mind is lacking in women and in the “insane rage” of male animals (57).
55. Ibid., 100.
56. Ibid., 143.
57. Ibid., 166, 179. Burroughs accords the status of natural to polished gentlemanliness, for in Darwin’s theory “civilized,” being an evolution, is just as natural as the “savage” from which it is evolved.
58. Ibid., 250, 259–60. Bederman misses this point in her perceptive discussion of Tarzan, which is less friendly than mine. She wants to understand Tarzan’s revenge as lynching and his civilization as racism. For her, manliness is on the one hand an ideological construction, hence nothing essential, but on the other hand it is violence and rape, hence essentially objectionable. Bederman, Manliness and Civilization, 218–32.
59. The Second Jungle Book (1895), with its poem, makes a theme of the law of the jungle. Kipling’s Just So Stories for Little Children (1902) are about animals in Ethiopia.
60. This is the last word of Kipling’s poem, “The Law of the Jungle.”
61. “The Ballad of East and West” in Barrack Room Ballads (1892).
62. “Gunga Din,” in Barrack Room Ballads (1892).
63. See Cantor, Creature and Creator, 111.
64. Stevenson, Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and M r. Hyde, 5.
65. Ibid., 7.
66. Ibid., 5, 8, 10, 30. Dr. Lanyon, Dr. Jekyll’s friend, gets a good look at Mr. Hyde and notes its effect on himself with cool self-awareness (38–39).
67. Ibid., 50.
68. Ibid., 23.
69. Whatever insight may be found in this section comes from the late W. Carey McWilliams, the manly professor at Rutgers University. See also Zuckert and Zuck-ert, “‘And in Its Wake We Followed,’” 59–93.
70. Twain, Connecticut Yankee, 65. It does not appear that Franklin Roosevelt borrowed this phrase in 1932.
71. Ibid., 43, 48– 49, 77, 101, 244.
72. Manliness, manhood, being a man are referred to frequently; ibid., 14, 39, 64, 89, 181–82, 190, 195, 212, 215.
73. Ibid., 5.
74. Ibid., 11.
75. Ibid., 190.
76. Ibid., 91.
77. Ibid., 236–37, 245– 46.
78. For a contrary view, see H. L. Mencken, “Roosevelt I.” In 1920 Mencken dared to say that Roosevelt “owed a lot to Nietzsche,” that “Theodore … swallowed Friedrich as a farmwife swallows Peruna [a patent medicine]—bottle, cork, label and testimonials” (42).
79. Nietzsche, On the Genealogy of Morals, 3:24; Thus Spoke Zarathustra, 4, “The Shadow.” Nietzsche does not say it is his definition, but in his spirit of interpretation I put it in his mouth.
80. Plato, Crito 46b; Gorgias 457e– 458a.
81. Marx, Theses on Feuerbach.
82. Plato, Republic 380a; Homer, Iliad 20:1–74. The reference to warring gods alludes to the question, “Which of the warring gods should we serve?” by Max Weber, “Science as a Vocation,” 153. Weber was in many ways a follower of Nietzsche, not least in the concept of charisma that does some of the work of manliness for him.
83. See the section “War and Warriors” in Zarathustra, 1:10; Human All Too Human, 1:77; “I greet all the signs that a more manly and warlike age is commencing,” Gay Science, 283, see also 362; Will to Power, 125; Beyond Good and Evil, 293; Twilight of the Idols, 38. Nietzsche scholars have not paid much attention to the manliness in the thought of their hero, so impressed are they with its sublimation into philosophy. But the appeal of Nietzsche comes in great part from his blatant, if not quite genuine, manliness. See, however, Pangle, “Warrior Spirit,” 140–79; Bentley, Century of Hero-Worship.
84. Zarathustra, 1:10. See Goyard-Fabre, Nietzsche et la question politique, 15–29.
85. Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, 209.
86. Beyond Good and Evil, 227; Zarathustra, 1, “Of the Afterworldsmen”; 4, “The Leech”; 4, “The Sorcerer”; 4, “Of the Higher Man”; The Dawn of Day, 536; Nach-lass, 1:65, 1056; 2:554, 605, 1077.
87. Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics 1127a33–1127b34.
88. Nietzsche, Twilight of the Idols, 1:8.
89. Nietzsche, Zarathustra, 2, “Of Self-Overcoming.”
90. Nietzsche, Nachlass, 2:1077. “Each of [the Greek philosophers] was a warlike, brutal tyrant,” Human, All Too Human, 1:261.
91. Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, preface.
92. Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, 263; Human, All Too Human, 1:224, 235, 240, 251.
93. Nietzsche, Human, All Too Human, 1:3. This book is in Nietzsche’s pro-scientific phase but it fits with the whole of his thought.
94. Nietzsche, Gay Science, 293. Today “no one lives philosophically, with that simple manly constancy.” Nietzsche, Advantage and Disadvantage of History for Life, 5.
95. Nietzsche, Zarathustra, 1, “Of Old and Young Women.”
96. Nietzsche, Zarathustra, 2, “Of Redemption.”
97. Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, 236.
98. Appel, “Ubermensch’s Consort,” 512–30. Nietzsche, Human, All Too Human, 1:259, 377, 411; 2:272, 274.
99. Nietzsche, Human, All Too Human, 1:411; Gay Science, 68.
100. Nietzsche, Zarathustra, 1, “Of Old and Young Women.”
101. Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, 144, 238–39. How long must we wait for social science to test that one?
102. Nietzsche, Human, All Too Human, 1:169, 213.
103. Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, 145.
104. Nietzsche, Human All Too Human, 1:425; Gay Science, 363.
105. Plato, Republic 387e. In the Birth of Tragedy, Nietzsche wished to find Greek manliness and instead, we learn from Plato, came upon self-pity, which he confused with manliness.
106. See the lecture by Leo Strauss, delivered in 1941 and printed only recently; “German Nihilism,” 353–78. Aschheim, Nietzsche Legacy in Germany, ch. 8; Manent, Cours Familier, 269–80.
107. Hitler, Mein Kampf, 56, 174 –75, 214, 237, 342, 392–93, 750.
108. Ibid., 175.
109. Lieber will noch der Mensch das Nichts wollen als nicht wollen; On the Genealogy of Morals 3:28.
CHAPTER 5. WOMANLY NIHILISM
1. We must first concede, as is obvious, that the ideas of feminism are not the sole cause of the gender-neutral society. Many things, including the technology of birth control and advances in public health, have reduced the special demands of morality and reproduction on women and thus brought the sexes closer to one another.
2. Note the value derived from a fact.
3. Cott, Grounding of Modern Feminism, 13.
4. Wollstonecraft, Vindication, 30, 44, 219.
5. Ibid., 13, 205–23.
6. Ibid., 4.
7. Tocqueville’s American woman is both knowing and modest, however; “she has pure morals rather than a chaste mind.” Democracy in America, 2 3.9.
8. Wollstonecraft, Vindication, 219.
9. Ibid., 6.
10. Stanton-Anthony Reader, 49. Stanton assumes that woman has a “deeper interest” than man in the home; see also a speech by Susan B. Anthony on the single woman’s capacity for homemaking, praising her “pure love of home”; Stanton-Anthony Reader, 146–51, 225.
11. Ibid., 212.
12. Ibid., 30, 136.
13. Ibid., 121. See Banner, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, 71, 83. The same is true of the feminism in Charlotte Gilman’s Herland, which is a community held together by a religion of motherhood. To a male visitor, a woman of Herland asks with horror: “‘Destroy the unborn—!’ she said in a hard whisper. ‘Do men do that in your country?’” Gilman, Herland, 66, 69–70.
14. See also Anthony’s “constitutional argument”; Stanton-Anthony Reader, 152–65.
15. Being alone is good because it obliges the individual woman to develop herself in all regards, however, not in order to make her own choices. “Life must ever be a march and a battle.” But if so, why is Stanton so opposed to war? And soldiers do not fight alone. Stanton-Anthony Reader, 247– 49.
16. Sir Robert made his money in the building of the Suez Canal, and the villainess Mrs. Cheveley tries to blackmail him into supporting an Argentine Canal in which she has a corrupt interest. The key to the play is to note that the Suez Canal was for the common good and the Argentine Canal was not (see act 1).
17. Henry James, Bostonians, in Novels, 1881–1886, 1154.
18. Ibid., 1115.
19. Ibid., 1210.
20. Ibid., 819.
21. Verena, it turns out, too easily discovers “almost unsuspected truths” on Basil’s side. Ibid., 1162.
22. Ibid., 913, 958, 1048.
23. Ibid., 1015.
24. Ibid., 856.
25. Ibid., 1047.
26. Ibid., 1010; see Wardley, “Woman’s Voice,” 639–55; and Catherine H. Zuckert, “American Women and Democratic Morals:, 148–72. Let it be noted for elaboration in ch. 7 that James’s women in this novel and others are American, which to him means democratic. “Social construction” for him is political. See James’s essays, “The Speech of American Women” and “The Manners of American Women,” published in Henry James, French Writers and American Women; and The American Scene, 638– 43.
27. Henry James, Bostonians, 978, 1111.
28. Ibid., 978, 1212.
29. Ibid., 927–28.
30. Ibid., 944.
31. Among features of our contemporary landscape that can be found in The Bostoni-ans are: women’s rejection of men’s courtesies; the professional woman; new truths vs. old (stereotypes); the equality vs. the superiority of women; elite women vs. the working girl; radical vs. moderate feminists; the unerotic character of feminism; the coarseness of manners.
32. Beauvoir, Second Sex. “Of all feminist theorists de Beauvoir is the most comprehensive and far-reaching.” Firestone, Dialectic of Sex, 16. For the American reception see Bair, Simone de Beauvoir, 432–39.
33. Beauvoir’s chapter “The Mother” begins with nine pages on abortion (Second Sex, 484 – 93); later she says provocatively, “When woman suffocates in a dull gynaeceum—brothel or middle-class home” (603); and the reader comes upon nothing about women’s responsibility for morality but rather finds remarks like this: “marriage is directly correlated with prostitution” (555).
34. Beauvoir, Second Sex, 118–21.
35. See, e.g., Deckard, Women’s Movement; Mitchell and Oakley, What Is Feminism?; Cott, Grounding of Modern Feminism (but see 45, 151); Fraisse and Perrot, eds., History of Women in the West.
36. Beauvoir, Second Sex, 61.
37. To acquiesce in immanence is “false consciousness” (a neo-Marxian term) or “bad faith” (a usage of Jean-Paul Sartre); Krause, “Lady Liberty’s Allure,” 5.
38. For Aristotle, male is that which generates in another; female, that which generates in itself. Generation of Animals 716a.
39. Beauvoir, Second Sex, 267. The statement begins a chapter on childhood, which is followed by a chapter on the young girl. Every woman, it seems, is first a child, then a young girl; she can’t go in reverse. Is this not a natural becoming that Beauvoir takes for granted, quite distinct from the historical becoming on which she dwells? But historical becoming also presupposes natural becoming, and in this is not distinct from it. A woman is born a woman so that she can become a woman.
40. Beauvoir, Second Sex, 714.
41. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 2 3.10.
42. Beauvoir, Second Sex, 627.
43. In Donald Symons’s words: “Among all peoples, copulation is considered to be essentially a service or favor that women render to men, and not vice versa.” This is the last of the seven sex differences that he finds in all societies. Evolution of Human Sexuality, 27–28.
44. Beauvoir, Second Sex, 529.
45. “The woman who achieves virile independence has the great privilege of carrying on her sexual life with individuals who are themselves autonomous and effective in action, who—as a rule—will not play a parasitic role in her life, who will not enchain her through their weakness and the exigency of their needs.” Quelle illusion! Beauvoir, Second Sex, 695.
46. Ibid., 682.
47. See Bertholet, Sartre, passim.
48. See J. Michael Bailey’s excellent book, The Man Who Would Be Queen.
49. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto, 2 (end).
50. On Beauvoir’s “need for a male figure,” see Evans, Simone de Beauvoir, 76, 79, 94.
51. L’A r c 61 (1975): 3–12. Said Beauvoir of this exchange, “I questioned him [Sartre] on his relations with feminism. He answered with the greatest good will but rather superficially.” Beauvoir, Adieux, 82.
52. Beauvoir, Second Sex, ch. 11.
53. These were the sexist questions Fidel Castro put in a speech to the Cuban women who had fought in the revolution that installed him in power and are deplored by Germaine Greer, Female Eunuch, 319–20.
54. Ibid., 1, 51, 56, 61, 68, 77, 196, 259, 349.
55. Millett, Sexual Politics, 62–63; the index of the book has an entry for “double standard” but not for “morality.”
56. Firestone, Dialectic of Sex, 135–38, 223. See also Betty Friedan’s praise of Freud within a criticism of his traditional outlook on women; Feminine Mystique, 104 –5.
57. Cf. Ingrid Bengis, who hates men because she cannot through sex get them to stay with her: she wants transcendence, they want nature. What she calls transcendence (more than an orgasm) Beauvoir calls immanence, and what she calls nature (orgasm alone) Beauvoir calls transcendence. Which one is right? Combat in the Erogenous Zone, 95.
58. Millett, Sexual Politics, 161–68; Greer, Female Eunuch, 156–57; Firestone, Dialectic of Sex, 74. Greer in her saucy way hopes that in the future “children might grow up without the burden of gratitude for the gift of life which they never asked for.” In her own case, she says that as children, “we could see that our mothers blackmailed us with self-sacrifice” (249, 157). But don’t we owe gratitude for gifts we don’t ask for? For the gift of life that makes it possible to ask for things?
59. Firestone, Dialectic of Sex, 218.
60. Greer, Female Eunuch, 181.
61. The assumption is contrary to fact because in cases of sexual encounter women are liable (1) to become pregnant, (2) to suffer more from sexually transmitted disease, and (3) to feel more emotional hurt afterwards.
62. Firestone, Dialectic of Sex, 126.
63. Ibid., 141.
64. Ibid., 215–16.
65. Ibid., 172.
66. Millett, Sexual Politics, 94. Greer appears to agree; Sexual Eunuch, 21.
67. Greer, Female Eunuch, 32– 40, 92; the title of her book refers to Freud’s view that a woman is a castrated man. The intelligent Ms. Firestone, who called Freudianism “the misguided feminism,” also said: “Freud grasped the crucial problem of modern life: sexuality” (emphasis in original); Dialectic of Sex, 46, 48, 46–72. Millett, Sexual Politics, 176 –203.
68. Freud, Three Essays, 87; General Introduction, 185–86. Marcuse, Eros and Civilization, 49– 50.
69. Greer, Sexual Eunuch, 347, 351. Note the contradiction between “spontaneity” (347) and “the purposive employment of energy in a self-chosen enterprise” (351).
70. Millett, Sexual Politics, 25, 27.
71. Firestone, Dialectic of Sex, 139.
72. Aristotle, Politics 1252b5.
73. Greer, Female Eunuch, 7, 349.
74. Sarachild, “Consciousness Raising,” 145. See also MacKinnon, “Feminism, Marxism, Method and the State,” 519–20 for a discussion of the difference between feminist consciousness-raising and Marxism.
75. A fact Friedan later tried to conceal, according to a recent biographer; Horowitz, Betty Friedan and the Making of the Feminine Mystique, 10–12, 92–94, 217.
76. Friedan, Feminine Mystique, ix.
77. Ibid., 32, 258.
78. Ibid., 329.
79. Making others conform to oneself is the factual truth of Kant’s categorical imperative, which was then turned into a principle by Nietzsche. For Kant, the categorical imperative was meant to have a moderating influence on one’s will by subordinating it to the will of a rational being, but in effect, and with Nietzsche’s interpretation, the categorical imperative identified one’s own will with that of a rational being and abandoned the moderation of self-discipline.
80. See Friedan’s criticism of Adlai Stevenson, who in an address at Smith College in 1955 actually addressed “the problem that has no name” but in doing so betrayed his belief that woman’s true role is as wife and mother; Feminine Mystique, 60.
81. Ibid., 61.
82. I am encouraged by Bailey’s The Man Who Would Be Queen, 180, in the belief that “better looking” can be a term of social science.
83. Think of the difference between a man’s man, such as Clint Eastwood, and a ladies’ man like Warren Beatty.
84. Naomi Wolf, Promiscuities, xxii. In her book Misconceptions, Ms. Wolf relates her discovery that motherhood is hard work requiring creativity and calls for a new “motherhood feminism” that would seek better appreciation and more government programs for mothers.
85. Shalit, Return to Modesty; Gurstein, Repeal of Reticence.
86. Aristotle, Politics 1259a39.
87. Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, 23.
88. Gilligan, In a Different Voice, 18.
89. Ibid., 157–63.
90. Ibid., 23.
91. “For [the phallus] is a signifier intended to designate as a whole the effects of the signified, in that the signifier conditions them by its presence as a signifier.” “The Signification of the Phallus” (1958), in Lacan, Ecrits, 285. Lacan has inspired a considerable literature on “masculinity” that sees the male organ as signifying power while ignoring its two more obvious natural functions; see, e.g., Hooper, Manly States, 60.
92. See Diamond and Quinby, eds., Feminism and Foucault, xi–xix; Fraser, Unruly Practices, 17–34.
93. “All men by nature desire to know” is the opening sentence of Aristotle’s Metaphysics.
94. For an introduction to Foucault, see Foucault, Power/Knowledge.
95. Benhabib, “Feminism and Postmodernism,” 17–34, and Butler, “Contingent Foundations,” 35–37.
96. As Butler says: “subjects who institute actions are themselves instituted effects of prior actions.” “Contingent Foundations,” 43.
CHAPTER 6. THE MANLY LIBERAL
1. Goldwin, Why Blacks, Women and Jews Are Not Mentioned in the Constitution.
2. Liberalism is a nineteenth-century term, but I use it anachronistically to designate seventeenth-century philosophers, above all John Locke, who laid down the principles and practices that later came to be called liberal.
3. Hobbes, Leviathan, ch. 15, where the laws of nature are said to be moral virtues; see also Elements of Law, 1.17.15; De Cive, 3.32. At one point in Leviathan, ch. 15, courage is put under justice: “That which gives to humane actions the relish of Justice, is a certain Noblenesse or Gallantnesse of courage (rarely found), by which a man scorns to be beholding for the contentment of his life, to fraud, or breach of promise.” Hobbes’s political philosophy is complicated by the fact that he stated it as a whole three times and in regard to manliness or courage struggled throughout either to deny or to reformulate it as it had been previously conceived in the tradition of philosophy. In an earlier formulation Hobbes is closer to courage, while still omitting it as a virtue: “The sum of virtue is to be sociable with them that will be sociable, and formidable to them that will not. And the same is the sum of the law of nature; for in being sociable, the law of nature taketh place by the way of peace and society; and to be formidable, is the law of nature in war.” Elements of Law, 1.17.15.
4. Hobbes, Leviathan, chs. 6, 10. See Strauss, Political Philosophy of Hobbes, 13, for discussion of why Hobbes did not unequivocally lay down vanity as the basis of his political science.
5. Hobbes, Elements of Law, 1.9.21.
6. Hobbes, De Cive, 1.5. The vanity Hobbes is most concerned with is “a vain conceipt of ones owne wisdome, which almost all men think they have in a greater degree, than the Vulgar; that is, in all men but themselves, and a few others, whom by Fame, or for concurring with themselves, they approve.” Leviathan, ch. 13.
7. The term dominators is from Kavka, Hobbesian Moral and Political Theory, 97–107. Kavka shows that the existence of a minority of dominators is necessary to Hobbes’s reasoning that the state of nature is a state of war. See Hobbes, Elements of Law, 1.15.10; and Sullivan, Machiavelli, Hobbes and the Formation of a Liberal Republicanism in England, 95.
8. Strauss, Political Philosophy of Hobbes, 133.
9. Hobbes, Leviathan, chs. 4, 11, Review and Conclusion; De Cive, Epistle Dedicatory and Preface; Elements of Law, Epistle Dedicatory, 1.13.3; Strauss, Political Philosophy of Hobbes, 138.
10. Hobbes, Leviathan, chs. 17, 28.
11. Ibid., chs. 13–15.
12. Ibid., chs. 16, 21.
13. “Eloquence, whose end … is not truth (except by chance) but victory.” De Cive, X.11; see Elements of Law, 2.8.14. The rhetoric Hobbes opposes in passionate orators is to be distinguished from the “powerful eloquence, which procureth attention and consent” that he practices himself; Leviathan, Review and Conclusion; see De Cive, 12.12. The former is a hindrance to sovereignty because it supposes that justice is arguable; the latter spreads the truth of Hobbes’s civil science, which gives the decision of disputable questions to the sovereign. See Skinner, Reason and Rhetoric, 297–300, 435; Herzog, Happy Slaves, 75; Polin, Politique et Philosophie, 207–9.
14. Hobbes, Leviathan, ch. 21.
15. Ibid., chs. 14, 21, for the exception to perfect nonresistance when you are about to be taken by the executioner. At this point justice permits manly (or desperate) resistance.
16. Ibid., chs. 10, 15; see the extensive discussion in Tuck, Natural Rights Theories, ch.6.
17. It was Hobbes, not Kant, who invented the priority of right to good.
18. Hobbes, Leviathan, ch. 15, Review and Conclusion. See Strauss, Natural Right and History, 188; and Strauss, Political Philosophy of Hobbes, 18, 49–50, 114 –15, 120; Her-zog, Happy Slaves, 87. See also Leviathan, ch. 30, discussed by Dietz, “Hobbes’s Subject as Citizen,” 108–11.
19. Hobbes, Leviathan, ch. 14. See Tarcov, Locke’s Education for Liberty, 38.
20. See Okin, Women in Western Political Thought, 197–99; Pateman, Sexual Contract, 44, 222. Pateman recognizes Hobbes’s attack on “masculine right,” but both writers are so indignant at his sexism that they fail to appreciate his repression of manliness.
21. Hobbes, Leviathan, ch. 19; see also chs. 20, 22, 25, 26, 30; see also Elements of Law, 2.4.2, 14; De Cive, 9.3; and a statement in the Latin version of Leviathan: “authority does not take account of masculine and feminine.” Leviathan, ch. 42.
22. Descartes, Passions of the Soul, 153–56; Hobbes, Leviathan, ch. 14; Spinoza, Ethics IIIP6–9, P17, P59, IVP67; Spinoza, Political Treatise, 10.8; see Smith, Spinoza’s Book of Life, 112– 22.
23. Spinoza, Short Treatise, I/71.
24. Spinoza, Political Treatise, 11.4. Did Spinoza overlook Aristotle’s criticism of the women of Sparta: “What is the difference between women ruling and rulers who are ruled by women?” Politics 1269b33.
25. Spinoza, Political Treatise, 2.4 –5, 3.9, 4.6, 5.4, 5.6, 6.10, 7.6, 25, 10.8; Theological-Political Treatise, 5.22–25, 16.2–7, 24, 18.16.
26. Machiavelli, The Prince, ch. 9; Discourses on Livy, 1.4 –6.
27. Locke, Tw o Treatises of Government, 1 1.
28. Ibid., 2 235.
29. Hobbes says: “For the actions of men proceed from their opinions, and in the well-governing of opinions consisteth the well-governing of men’s actions, in order to their peace and concord”; Leviathan, ch. 18. See Tarcov, Locke’s Education for Liberty, 47– 48.
30. Locke, Some Thoughts Concerning Education, 114; see also 35, 104, 109. Tarcov, Locke’s Education, 132–33, 152–53.
31. Locke, Some Thoughts Concerning Education, 115; Essay Concerning Human Understanding, 2 21.30–31, 71.
32. Locke, Some Thoughts Concerning Education, 70; cf. 115.
33. Locke, Tw o Treatises, 1 62; 2 80–82.
34. Ibid., 2 34, 37.
35. Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France, in Wo rk s, 8 vols., 2:282–83, 331, 352.
36. Ibid., 2:348– 49.
37. Burke, A Letter to a Noble Lord, in Wor ks, 5:125. See Mansfield, Statesmanship and Party Government, ch. 7.
38. See the formulation of the categorical imperative as the law of nature: “Act as if the maxim of your action were to become through your will a universal law of nature.” Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, 4:421.
39. Kant, Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View, 7:303–11. See Shell, Embodiment of Reason, 88, 157, 220, 225, 254, 310.
40. See esp. Kant, Conjectural Beginning of Human History, 8:114 –15; Shell, Embodiment of Reason, 285, 307, 310.
41. Hegel, Philosophy of History, 4 3.3; Philosophy of Right, 342– 48.
42. “Certain passages in the argument employed by Hegel in defining the relation of master to slave apply much better to the relation of man to woman.” Beauvoir, Second Sex, 64. That possibility is raised but not elaborated in Alexandre Kojève’s interpretation; Introduction à la lecture de Hegel, 13.
43. Susan Okin introducing John Stuart Mill, The Subjection of Women, v.
44. Mill, On Liberty, 86–97. In Considerations on Representative Government, ch. 3, Mill disparages “mere unmanliness and want of spirit” in those without the ambition to improve.
45. Mill, On Liberty, 48.
46. Note Mill’s dismissal of the “cowardice” of not acting on one’s opinions; ibid., 55.
47. Yet Mill admits that mankind’s truths are for the most part but “half-truths.” Ibid., 84.
48. Ibid., 54.
49. Mill, Subjection of Women, 61.
50. Ibid., 54, 74, 81, 64, 63, 106.
CHAPTER 7. MANLY VIRTUE
1. Okin, Women in Western Political Thought, chs. 5–8; Pateman, Sexual Contract, 9, 96–102. Postmodern feminists have been more friendly to Rousseau because of his recognition of women’s subtle powers. See Zerilli, Signifying Woman, ch. 2; Win-grove, Rousseau’s Republican Romance, 6–8. See Wollstonecraft’s early criticism (1792) of Rousseau, Vindication of the Rights of Women, 28–29, 45– 49, 84, 88–105: “I have, probably, had an opportunity of observing more girls in their infancy than J. J. Rousseau” (49).
2. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Emile, 377.
3. Ibid., 357.
4. Ibid., 360.
5. Ibid., 370, 408. For the “indirect rule” of women, see Schwartz, Sexual Politics, 84 – 89; and Melzer, Natural Goodness of Man, 245– 48.
6. “Woman’s empire is an empire of gentleness, skill, and obligingness; her orders are caresses, her threats are tears.” Rousseau, Emile, 408. How satisfying an empire is that? But then the male empire of vaunting and strutting is a delusion; why should women want that?
7. Ibid., 361, 364, 398. See also Rousseau, Letter to D’Alembert, 8:82–90.
8. Ibid., 398.
9. Ibid., 387; see Shell, “Emile,” 291–94.
10. Ibid., 406.
11. See Bloom, Love and Friendship, 103, 121, 138.
12. At the end of Emile (480), Emile addresses Rousseau as “my master.”
13. Thus Rousseau’s use of nature does not introduce a “perpetual circularity,” as Wingrove claims (Rousseau’s Republican Romance, 27). To say this one must believe that there is no nature to be seen or studied but only chaos that can be willfully or politically ordered by tyrannical human beings. Yet for some reason the chaos of human nature is divided into female and male chaos; i.e., human nature is perceived and isn’t chaos.
14. The “quarrels” and “spats” of Emile and Sophie are quickly resolved and shown to be due to the illusions of pride; Rousseau, Emile, 426, 447.
15. Rousseau’s notion of “nature,” by putting the relations of the sexes beyond dispute, actually facilitates the indirect rule of women over men. It satisfies complacent males with an assurance that they dominate while excusing women from having openly to assert their claim to rule.
16. Nietzsche: “‘According to nature’ you want to live? O you noble Stoics, what deceptive words are these!” Beyond Good and Evil, 9.
17. Cicero’s adaptation of Stoicism is in his Republic, Laws and Offices; his thoroughgoing criticism is in De Finibus 4.
18. Crane, Red Badge of Courage, in Stephen Crane: Prose and Poetry, ed. Levenson, 175, 183, 212. See also Crane’s story “A Grey Sleeve,” 632– 46.
19. Ibid., 85.
20. Plato, Symposium 176c, 23c–d.
21. Winthrop, “Aristotle,” 18.
22. Aristotle, Politics 1253a2; 1276b13, 1286a9, 1287b13, 1334a11–13.
23. Ibid., 1253a29–31.
24. Ibid., 1252b8. The quotation is from one poet, Euripides, who in Iphigenia in Aulis puts it in the mouth of Iphigenia, a woman. The poets broadcast the assertions of human beings, and Aristotle, a philosopher, repeats and endorses this assertion.
25. Ibid., 1252b10–12, 21–23. Aristotle quotes and names both Hesiod and Homer (Works and Days 405; Odyssey IX 114V.) to suggest that besides asserting, poets disclose hidden truths. See also Thucydides I 3.3, 6.
26. By contrast, Rousseau insists that natural law “must speak immediately with the voice of Nature” so that it can gain agreement. Discourse on Inequality, preface.
27. Aristotle, Politics 1253a8, 1278a17.
28. Plato, Republic 373e–376d; and Benardete, Socrates’ Second Sailing, 54–58. Ludwig, Eros and Polis, 192–212. See also Aristotle, Politics 1327b40–1328a1.
29. Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics 1094b14 –19, 1117a6, 1144b4 –18.
30. Plato, Statesman 262d. Aristotle even asserts the meaning of nature, that the complete thing is the nature of the thing; Politics 1252b34.
31. Aristotle, Politics 1252a25–b9.
32. Ibid., 1260a13. Does this mean that women lack authority in their own souls or among men or both? See Saxonhouse, Women in the History of Western Political Thought, 74; and Salkever, “Women, Soldiers, Citizens,” 177.
33. Aristotle, Politics 1259b34, 1260a13.
34. Ibid., 1260a31. On Tecmessa, see Nichols, “Women in Western Political Thought,” 252–53; and Davis, Politics of Philosophy, 25–26.
35. Aristotle, Politics 1259b7–8. Aristotle compares the advantages males seek to establish over females to the “story” told by Amasis, a man of low origin who became king of Egypt and sought to confirm his authority by having his subjects worship the image of a god made from a golden footpan. See Herodotus 2:172; Nichols, Citizens and Statesmen, 31–32.
36. Aristotle, Politics 1329a13, 1265b29, 1279b2, 1297b2.
37. Ibid., 1329a13, 1265b29, 1279b2, 1297b2. See Salkever, Finding the Mean, 197–98; and Salkever, “Women, Soldiers, Citizens,” 187.
38. Aristotle, Politics 1283a36–9.
39. Ibid., 1282b14 –24, 1283a25–30, 36–39.
40. In what follows I am indebted to Swanson, “Aristotle on Nature, Human Nature, and Justice,” 225– 48; Public and the Private, 44 –68. See also Freeland, Feminist Interpretations.
41. Aristotle, History of Animals 608a33–b19.
42. After the passage on male and female characters Aristotle goes on to discuss conflict between and within the species. Ibid., 608b20V.
43. Aristotle, Generation of Animals 732a11–12.
44. Ibid., 741a7–9.
45. Aristotle, Metaphysics 1058a29–b26.
46. Aristotle, Politics 1277b20–23.
47. Aristotle, Nichomachean Ethics 1162a16–17; 1160b25–1161a25.
48. Ibid., 1134b18–1135a6.
49. Aristotle, Politics 1278b14, 1288a33.
50. Ibid., 1280a7–15.
51. Ibid., 1325a34 – 41, 1325b10–11.
52. Ibid., 1325b16–23.
53. Plato, Laws 630c–631d, 963e; Republic 361b, 366d, 429c– 430c, 549d; Meno 71e; Protagoras 349d–e; Gorgias 469c, 483a–b, 491b, 512c. On “manliness” in Plato, see Strauss, Political Philosophy of Hobbes, 147.
54. Plato, Republic 503c–504a; Meno 86b; Phaedo 68c.
55. See Benardete, Socrates’ Second Sailing, 100, on “the spirit of eideticization.”
56. Plato, Laches 183c–184a. On the Laches, see Blitz, “Introduction to the Reading of Plato’s Laches,” 185–225; Rabieh, Best Part of Valor; Tessitore, “Courage and Comedy,” 115–33.
57. Plato, Republic 452a–e.
58. There are humanitarians who assert the rights of humanity, but they do so against the opponents of those rights and do not speak for all humanity.
59. Plato, Republic 454c–e.
60. Plato, Laches 185a–b, 185e–186a.
61. Machiavelli, Discourses on Livy, 1:27.
62. Céline, Voyage, 314.
63. Plato, Laches 179d, 180c, 200e–201a.
64. Ibid., 181b, 188c–189b. In another dialogue we learn from Alcibiades that Laches himself cut a poor figure in this battle; Symposium 221a.
65. Plato, Laches 192b–d.
66. Ibid., 195b–196a.
CONCLUSION
1. Ozio ambizioso; Machiavelli, Discourses on Livy, 1:pr.
2. For Machiavelli’s appreciation of women, see his song of praise to Madonna Cate-rina Sforza in Discourses on Livy, 3:6.
3. Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France, 2:348.
4. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 1 2.10, 387.
5. As noted in chapter 7, I learned about the notion of assertion from my wife, Delba Winthrop, but I have asserted (stolen) it.
6. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 2 4.6, 663; 2 3.19, 604; 2 4.1, 640.
7. Ibid., 2 4.6, 663.
8. Ibid., 2 3.10, 566; 2 3.12, 574, 576.
9. That much-to-be recommended book is for the professional housewife and applies rational control to every aspect of her life, but it deliberately presupposes a woman’s outlook.
10 Plato, Laws 731d; see also 781a, 802e, 814a–d.
11. Besides Plato’s Statesman, one finds weaving to describe social mixing in the Phaedo, in Aristophanes’s Lysistrata, and in Homer’s Odyssey.
12. In the Laws Plato presents a third possibility of a regime that is somewhat reluctantly but still officially male dominated. See Kochin, Gender and Rhetoric.
13. Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics 1162a16–34.