ENDNOTES

1. Andrew Marantz, “How Social-Media Trolls Turned U.C. Berkeley into a Free-Speech Circus,” New Yorker, July 2, 2018, available at https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2018/07/02/how-social-media-trolls-turned-uc-berkeley-into-a-free-speech-circus?reload=true.

2. Raymond Ibrahim, “How the US Army War College Surrendered to CAIR,” Algemeiner, June 17, 2019, available at https://www.algemeiner.com/2019/06/17/how-the-us-army-war-college-surrendered-to-cair/.

3. 117 Harvard Law Review (2004), 1765, 1790.

4. “Judge rules Charlottesville alt-right rally can go on,” CBS News/AP, August 11, 2017, available at https://www.cbsnews.com/news/judge-rules-charlottlesville-alt-right-rally-can-go-on/.

5. Joseph Goldstein, “After Backing Alt-Right in Charlottesville, A.C.L.U Wrestles With Its Role,” New York Times, Aug. 17, 2017, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/17/nyregion/aclu-free-speech-rights-charlottesville-skokie-rally.html.

6. Wendy Kaminer, “The ACLU Retreats from Free Expression,” Wall Street Journal, June 20, 2018, available at https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-aclu-retreats-from-free-expression-1529533065.

7. Alex Blasdal, “How the resurgence of white supremacy in the US sparked a war over free speech,” Guardian, May 31, 2018, available at https://www.theguardian.com/news/2018/may/31/how-the-resurgence-of-white-supremacy-in-the-us-sparked-a-war-over-free-speech-aclu-charlottesville.

8. Blasdal, “How the resurgence of white supremacy in the US sparked a war over free speech.”

9. Zechariah Chafee, Free Speech in the United States (Boston: Harvard University Press, 1941).

10. Palko v. Connecticut, 301 U.S. (1937), 319, 327.

11. Texas v. Johnson, 491 U.S. (1989), 397.

12. Collin v. Smith, 432 U.S. (1977), 43.

13. R.A.V. v. St. Paul, 505 U.S. (1992), 377.

14. Snyder v. Phelps, 562 U.S. (2011), 443.

15. Marantz, “How Social-Media Trolls Turned U.C. Berkeley into a Free-Speech Circus.”

16. Chafee, Free Speech in the United States, 5 (emphasis added).

17. Chafee, Free Speech in the United States, 5 n.2.

18. Henry Samuel, “French comedian Dieudonné sentenced to two months in prison,” Telegraph, Nov. 25, 2015, available at https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/belgium/12015954/French-comedian-Dieudonne-sentenced-to-two-months-in-prison.html.

19. Dan Bilefsky, “Court Rules Against French Comedian Dieudonné in Free-Speech Case,” New York Times, Nov. 10, 2015, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/11/world/europe/dieudonne-mbala-mbala-france-european-rights-court.html?searchResultPosition=1.

20. Melissa Eddy and Aurelien Breeden, “The El Paso Shooting Revived the Free Speech Debate. Europe Has Limits,” New York Times, Aug. 6, 2019, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/06/world/europe/el-paso-shooting-freedom-of-speech.html.

21. Alexander Tsesis, “Dignity and Speech: The Regulation of Hate Speech in a Democracy,” 44 Wake Forest Law Review (2009), 497, 527 fn. 216–17.

22. Jeremy Waldron, “Dignity and Defamation: The Visibility of Hate,” 123 Harvard Law Review (2010), 1597, 1643.

23. Eric Posner, “The World Doesn’t Love the First Amendment,” Slate, Sept. 25, 2012, available at http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/jurisprudence/2012/09/the_vile_anti_muslim_video_and_the_first_amendment_does_the_u_s_overvalue_free_speech_.html.

24. Adam Liptak, “Hate speech or free speech? What much of the West bans is protected in the U.S.,” New York Times, June 11, 2008, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/11/world/americas/11iht-hate.4.13645369.html.

25. Thane Rosenbaum, “Should Neo-Nazis Be Allowed Free Speech?” Daily Beast, January 30, 2014, available at https://www.thedailybeast.com/should-neo-nazis-be-allowed-free-speech.

26. John Villasenor, “Views among college students regarding the First Amendment: Results from a new survey,” Brookings Institute, Sept. 18, 2017.

27. Jeffrey M. Jones, “More U.S. College Students Say Campus Climate Deters Speech,” Gallup, March 12, 2018, available at http://news.gallup.com/poll/229085/college-students-say-campus-climate-deters-speech.aspx?version=print; also: Richard Perez-Pena, Mitch Smith, and Stephanie Saul, “University of Chicago Strikes Back Against Campus Political Correctness,” New York Times, Aug. 26, 2016, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/27/us/university-of-chicago-strikes-back-against-campus-political-correctness.html; also: Cecilia Capuzzi Simon, “Fighting for Free Speech on America’s Campuses,” New York Times, Aug. 1, 2016, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/07/education/edlife/fire-first-amendment-on-campus-free-speech.html.

28. FIRE, “Spotlight on Speech Codes 2015: The State of Free Speech on Our Nation’s Campuses,” available at https://www.thefire.org/resources/spotlight/reports/spotlight-speech-codes-2015/; also: Haley Hudler, “New Survey Exposes Threat to Free Speech on Campus,” FIRE, October 28, 2015, available at https://www.thefire.org/new-survey-exposes-threats-to-free-speech-on-campus/.

29. Thomas Fuller, “Berkeley Cancels Ann Coulter Speech Over Safety Concerns,” New York Times, April 19, 2017, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/19/us/berkeley-ann-coulter-speech-canceled.html; also: Susan Svriuga, William Wan, Elizabeth Dwoskin, “Ann Coulter Speech at Berkeley cancelled, again, amid fears for safety,” Washington Post, April 26, 2017, available at https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/grade-point/wp/2017/04/26/ann-coulter-speech-canceled-at-uc-berkeley-amid-fears-for-safety/?utm_term=.a30ce0e2f3e2.

30. Marantz, “How Social-Media Trolls Turned U.C. Berkeley into a Free-Speech Circus.”

31. Emma Kerr, “As Protests Mount, U. of Chicago Plans for a Visit From Steve Bannon,” Chronicle of Higher Education, Feb. 6, 2018, available at https://www.chronicle.com/article/As-Protests-Mount-U-of/242463.

32. Allison Stanger, “Understanding the Angry Mob at Middlebury That Gave Me a Concussion,” New York Times, March 13, 2017, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/13/opinion/understanding-the-angry-mob-that-gave-me-a-concussion.html.

33. Liam Stack, “Yale’s Halloween Advice Stokes a Racially Charged Debate,” New York Times, Nov. 8, 2015, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/09/nyregion/yale-culturally-insensitive-halloween-costumes-free-speech.html.

34. Manny Fernandez and Richard Perez-Pena, “As Two Oklahoma Students Are Expelled for Racist Chant, Sigma Alpha Epsilon Vows Wider Inquiry,” New York Times, March 10, 2015, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/11/us/university-of-oklahoma-sigma-alpha-epsilon-racist-fraternity-video.html.

35. Joel Brinkley and Ian Fisher, “U.S. Says It Also Finds Cartoons of Muhammad Offensive,” New York Times, Feb. 4, 2006, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/04/politics/us-says-it-also-finds-cartoons-of-muhammad-offensive.html.

36. Patricia Cohen, “Yale Press Band Images of Muhammad in New Book,” New York Times, Aug. 12, 2009, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/13/books/13book.html?mtrref=www.bing.com.

37. Richard Perez-Pena, “After Protests I.M.F. Chief Withdraws as Smith College’s Commencement Speaker,” New York Times, May 12, 2014, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/13/us/after-protests-imf-chief-withdraws-as-smith-colleges-commencement-speaker.html; also: Jacque Wilson, “UC Berkley students petition to drop Bill Maher from commencement,” CNN, Oct. 28, 2014, available at http://www.cnn.com/2014/10/28/living/bill-maher-commencement-speaker/index.html; also: “List of Campus Disinvitation Attempts: 2000–2014,” FIRE, Jun. 3, 2014, available at https://www.thefire.org/list-of-campus-disinvitations-2000-2014/.

38. Anna Silman, “Ten famous comedians on how political correctness is killing comedy: ‘We are addicted to the rush of being offended,’” Salon, June 10, 2015, available at https://www.salon.com/2015/06/10/10_famous_comedians_on_how_political_correctness_is_killing_comedy_we_are_addicted_to_the_rush_of_being_offended/.

39. Valier Strauss, “Is professor’s #NRA tweet a firing offense or protected speech?” Washington Post, Sept. 29, 2013, available at https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/answer-sheet/wp/2013/09/29/is-professors-nra-tweet-a-firing-offense-or-protected-speech/?utm_term=.e8964d194a85.

40. Nicholas Kristof, “Stop the Knee-Jerk Liberalism That Hurts Its Own Cause,” New York Times, June 29, 2019, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/29/opinion/sunday/liberalism-united-states.html.

41. John Koblin, “Roseanne Barr Incites Fury with Racist Tweet, and Her Show Is Cancelled by ABC,” New York Times, May 29, 2018, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/29/business/media/roseanne-barr-offensive-tweets.html?rref=collection%2Fissuecollection%2Ftodays-new-york-times&action=click&contentCollection=todayspaper&region=rank&module=package&version=highlights&contentPlacement=2&pgtype=collection.

42. Daisuke Wakabayashi, “Google Legally Fired Diversity-Memo Author, Labor Agency Says,” New York Times, Feb. 16, 2018, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/16/business/google-memo-firing.html.

43. Rob Bluey, “This CEO Made a Political Donation,Then Lost His Job Because Liberals Didn’t Like It,” Daily Signal, April 4, 2014, available at https://www.dailysignal.com/2014/04/04/ceo-made-political-donation-lost-job-liberals-didnt-like/; also: Associated Press, “Mozilla CEO resignation raised free speech issues,” USA Today, April 4, 2014, available at https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2014/04/04/mozilla-ceo-resignation-free-speech/7328759/.

44. Leanna Garfield, “Pro-LBGT-rights Consumers vow to boycott Chick-fil-A after it announces its opening in Toronto—here’s why the fast-food chain is so controversial,” Business Insider, July 27, 2018, available at https://www.businessinsider.com/chick-fil-a-lgbt-twitter-jack-dorsey-apology-marriage-equality-2018-6/.

45. Natalie Wolfe, “Celeb costumes that were rude, racist or downright offensive,” News.com.au, Oct. 31, 2016, available at https://www.news.com.au/entertainment/celebrity-style/wardrobe-malfunction/celeb-costumes-that-were-rude-racist-or-downright-offensive/news-story/c63ac15dc9b972bcc9a53a0ec5d3b7dc.

46. Peter Sblendoria, “Justin Timberlake accused of black appropriation after tweeting about Jesse Williams’ BET Awards speech,” New York Daily News, June 27, 2016, available at https://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/music/justin-timberlake-accused-black-appropriation-tweet-article-1.2689560.

47. Bethany Mandel, “The Angry Left Is Turning Me Into A Trump Supporter,” Forward, June 12, 2018, available at https://forward.com/opinion/402998/the-angry-left-is-turning-me-into-a-trump-supporter/?utm_content=opinion_Newsletter_MainList_Title_Position-1&utm_source=Sailthru&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=Opinion%20-%20automated%20-%20wednesday%202018-06-13&utm_term=Opinion.

48. Rob Goldberg, “Jerry Jones Says that Any Cowboys Player Who ‘Disrespects’ The Flag Won’t Play,” Bleacher Report, Oct. 8, 2017, available at https://bleacherreport.com/articles/2737631-jerry-jones-says-a-cowboys-player-who-disrespects-the-flag-wont-play.

49. Schenck v. United States, 249 U.S. (1919), 47.

50. Stanley Fish, There’s No Such Thing as Free Speech: And It’s a Good Thing, Too (Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press,1994); also: Kalefa Sanneh, “The Hell You Say: The new battles over free speech are fierce, but who is censoring whom?” New Yorker, Aug. 10 & 17, 2015, available at https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/08/10/the-hell-you-say.

51. Lincoln Caplan, “The Embattled 1st Amendment,” American Scholar, Spring 2015 (citing Professor Ronald K.L. Collins’ list of forty-three additional categories).

52. Alexander Tsesis, “The Empirical Shortcomings of First Amendment Jurisprudence: A Historical Perspective on the Power of hate Speech,” Santa Clara Law Review (2000), 729, 776.

53. Abrams v. United States, 250 U.S. (1919), 616, 630 (Holmes, J., dissenting) (emphasis added).

54. Alexander Meiklejohn, Political Freedom: The Constitutional Powers of the People (Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press, 1960), 73.

55. New York State Board of Elections v. Lopez Torres, 552 U.S. (2008), 196, 208.

56. Whitney v. California, 274 U.S. (1927), 357, 376–77 (emphasis added).

57. Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc., 418 U.S. (1974), 323, 339–40 (emphasis added).

58. Sindre Bangstad, Anders Breivik and the Rise of Islamophobia (London: ZED Books, 2014).

59. Frank Bruni, “The Lecture that Donald Trump Needs,” New York Times, Sept. 26, 2017, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/26/opinion/sessions-free-speech-trump.html?rref=collection%2Fsectioncollection%2Fopinion-columnists (emphasis added).

60. Fish, There’s No Such Thing as Free Speech, 125.

61. United States v. Dennis, 183 F.2d 201 (2nd Circuit 1950), 213.

62. Id. (emphasis added).

63. Thane Rosenbaum, “The Internet As Marketplace of Madness—and a Terrorist’s Best Friend,” 86 Fordham Law Review (2017), 591, 594.

64. Alvin I. Goldman and James C. Cox, “Speech, Truth and the Free Market for Ideas,” Legal Theory (1996), 2, 29–32.

65. Alexander Meiklejohn, Free Speech: and Its Relation to Self-Government (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1948), 87.

66. Terminiello v. Chicago, 337 U.S. (1949), 1, 23–24 (Jackson, J., dissenting).

67. Lyrissa Barnett Lidsky, “Nobody’s Fool: The Rational Audience as First Amendment Ideal,” University of Florida Law Review (2010), 799, 815.

68. Derek E. Bambauer, “Shopping Badly: Cognitive Biases, Communications, and the Fallacy of the Marketplace of Ideas,” 77 University of Colorado Law Review (2006), 649, 696, 709.

69. Sharon Begley, “People Believe a ‘Fact’ That Fits Their Views Even if It’s Clearly False,” Wall Street Journal, Feb. 4, 2005, available at https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB110746526775045356.

70. Chip Heath and Jonathan Bender, When Truth Doesn’t Win in the Marketplace of Ideas: Entrapping Schemas, Gore, and the Internet (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003), 209.

71. Lyrissa Barnett Lidsky, “Nobody’s Fool: The Rational Audience as First Amendment Ideal,” University of Florida Law Review (2010), 799, 832.

72. Lidsky, “Nobody’s Fool: The Rational Audience as First Amendment Ideal,” 828.

73. Andrew Romano, “How Ignorant are Americans?” Newsweek, March 20, 2011, available at http://www.newsweek.com/how-ignorant-are-americans-66053.

74. Tom Nichols, The Death of Expertise: The Campaign Against Established Knowledge and Why It Matters (Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press, 2017); also: Tom Nichols, “America’s Cult of Ignorance,” Daily Beast, May 5, 2017, available at https://www.thedailybeast.com/americas-cult-of-ignorance.

75. Yuval Harari, “People Have Limited Knowledge. What’s the Remedy? Nobody Knows,” New York Times, Apr. 18, 2017, writing about Steven Sloman & Philip Fernbach, The Knowledge Illusion: Why We Never Think Alone (2017). See generally Christopher H. Achen & Larry M. Bartels, Democracy for Realists: Why Elections Do Not Produce Responsive Government (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2016); also: Bryan Caplan, The Myth of the Rational Voter (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008).

76. Nicholas D. Kristof, “With a Few More Brains . . . ,” New York Times, March 30, 2008, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/30/opinion/30kristof.html.

77. Larry E. Tise, Proslavery: A History of the Defense of Slavery in America, 1701–1840 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1987), 8.

78. Charles R. Lawrence III, “If He Hollers Let Him Go: Regulating Racist Speech on Campus,” in Words That Wound: Critical Race Theory, Assaultive Speech, and the First Amendment (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993), 75, 77.

79. Sheen Iyengar et al., “How Much Choice Is Too Much: Contributions to 401(k) Retirement Plans” (Pension Research Council, Working Paper No. 2003-10), 9.

80. Jordan Malter, “Alt-Tech Platforms: A haven for fringe views online,” CNN, Nov. 10, 2017, https://money.cnn.com/2017/11/10/technology/culture/divided-we-code-alt-tech/index.html.

81. U.K. News, “Critics argue that safe space policies at British universities have become a direct threat to freedom of speech,” The Week, May 3, 2015.

82. Jerome A. Barron, “Access to the Press—A New First Amendment Right,” Harvard Law Review (1967), 1641, 1678.

83. R. H. Coase, “The Market for Goods and the Market for Ideas,” 64 American Economic Review (1964), 384, 385.

84. R. H. Coase, “Advertising and Free Speech,” 6 Journal of Legal Studies (1977), 1, 4.

85. David Folkenflik, “Sinclair Broadcast Group Forces Nearly 200 Station Anchors to Read Same Script,” NPR, April 2, 2018, available at https://www.npr.org/2018/04/02/598916366/sinclair-broadcast-group-forces-nearly-200-station-anchors-to-read-same-script.

86. Bethel School District No. 403 v. Fraser, 478 U.S. (1986), 675.

87. Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier, 484 U.S. (1988), 260.

88. Adeel Hassan, “Photo of More Than 60 Students Giving Apparent Nazi Salute Is Being Investigated,” New York Times, Nov. 12, 2018, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/12/us/nazi-salute-wisconsin-students.html.

89. Kathryn Schumaker, “Why school administrators were wrong not to punish students who gave the Nazi salute,” Washington Post, Nov. 29, 2018, available at https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2018/11/29/why-school-administrators-were-wrong-not-punish-students-who-gave-nazi-salute/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.03360f55e7a9.

90. Genevieve Lakier, “The Invention of Low-Value Speech,” 128 Harvard Law Review (2015), 2166, 2172 (emphasis added).

91. United States v. Stevens, 559 U.S. (2010), 560, 567.

92. Roth v. United States, 354 U.S. (1957), 476, 484 (emphasis added).

93. Miller v. California, 413 U.S. (1973), 15, 24.

94. Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire, 315 U.S. (1942), 568, 571–72 (emphasis added).

95. Id. (emphasis added).

96. Cantwell v. Connecticut, 310 U.S. (1940), 296, 309–10 (emphasis added).

97. Jones v. Opelika, 316 U.S. (1942), 584, 593, reversed 319 U.S. (1943), 103 (emphasis added).

98. Texas v. Johnson, 491 U.S. (1989), 397, 418.

99. Genevieve Lakier, “The Invention of Low-Value Speech,” 128 Harvard Law Review (2015), 2166, 2203 (emphasis added).

100. Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire, 315 U.S. (1942), 568, 571–72.

101. Brian Leiter, “The Case Against Free Speech,” 38 Sydney Law Review (Dec. 18, 2016), 407, available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2450866.

102. Feiner v. New York, 340 U.S. (1951), 315, 320 (emphasis added).

103. FCC v. Pacifica Foundation, 438 U.S. (1978), 726, 743 n.18.

104. Frederick Schauer, “The Hostile Audience Revisited,” Knight First Amendment Institute, Emerging Threats Series (2017).

105. Sanneh, “The Hell You Say.”

106. Tim Wu, “How Twitter Killed the First Amendment,” New York Times, Oct. 27, 2017, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/27/opinion/twitter-first-amendment.html.

107. Shiri Moshe, “Rutgers President Defends ‘Academic Freedom’ of Three Professors Blasted for Comments on Israel, Jews,” Algemeiner, Nov. 20, 2017, available at https://www.algemeiner.com/2017/11/20/rutgers-president-defends-academic-freedom-of-three-professors-blasted-for-comments-on-israel-jews/.

108. Peter Salovey, “Free Speech, Personified,” New York Times, Nov. 26, 2017, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/26/opinion/free-speech-yale-civil-rights.html.

109. Daniel Retter, “Humiliating, Gehinnom Bava Matzia, 58b,” HaMafteach® Talmud Bavli Indexed Referenced Guide (English Edition, September 2014), 287.

110. Primo Levi, Survival in Auschwitz (Italy: DeSilva, 1947), 25.

111. Patricia J. Williams, “Spirit-Murdering the Messenger: The Discourse of Fingerpointing as the Law’s Response to Racism,” 42 University of Miami Law Review (1987), 127, 129.

112. Thane Rosenbaum, The Myth of Moral Justice: Why Our Legal System Fails to Do What’s Right (New York: Harper Collins, 2004).

113. Lisa Feldman Barrett, How Emotions Are Made (Boston: Mariner Books, 2017), 241.

114. Immanuel Kant, Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals (Lewis W. Beck, trans., ed., New York: Macmillan, 1990), 434–35 (1785).

115. Kant, Metaphysics of Morals, 462.

116. Kant, Metaphysics of Morals, 329–30.

117. Kant, Metaphysics of Morals (Mary Gregor trans., Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1991), 236–37, 332–33, 462–64 (1797).

118. Richard Hurowitz, “Remembering the White Rose,” New York Times, Feb. 21, 2018, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/21/opinion/white-rose-hitler-protest.html.

119. Steven J. Heyman, Free Speech and Human Dignity (2008), 145, available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=1107254.

120. Richard Delgado, “Words That Wound: A Tort Action for Racial Insults, Epithets, and Name Calling,” in Words That Wound (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993), 91.

121. Jeremy Waldron, The Harm in Hate Speech (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2012).

122. Delgado, Words That Wound, 94.

123. Waldron, The Harm in Hate Speech, 84.

124. Editorial, “Europe’s Expanding ‘Right to be Forgotten,’” New York Times, Feb. 4, 2015, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/04/opinion/europes-expanding-right-to-be-forgotten.html.

125. James Q. Whitman, “The Two Western Cultures of Privacy: Dignity versus Liberty,” 113 Yale Law Journal (2004) 1151, 1162, 1165.

126. Gabrielle S. Friedman and James Q. Whitman, “The European Transformation of Harassment Law: Discrimination Versus Dignity,” 9 Columbia Journal of European Law (2003), 241, 260.

127. Wachenheim v. France, CE Ass., Oct. 27, 1995, Rec. Lebon 372, aff’d Communication No. 854/1999, Human Rights Commission, July 8-26m (2002), CCPR/C/75/D/854/1999.

128. Tom Heneghan, “Sarkozy asks Muslims not to feel hurt by veil ban,” Reuters, May 19, 2010, available at https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-france-veil/sarkozy-asks-muslims-not-to-feel-hurt-by-veil-ban-idUKTRE64I3RZ20100519.

129. Universal Declaration of Human Rights, General Assembly Resolution 217 (III) A, United Nations Document A/RES/217(III), at article 1 (Dec. 10, 1948) (emphasis added).

130. The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, General Assembly Resolution 2200A (XXI), Preamble United Nations Document 52-58, U.N. GAOR 21sr Sess., Supp. No. 16, U.N. Doc. A/6316 (Dec. 16, 1966).

131. Australian Human Rights Commission, “At a Glance: Racial Vilification under sections 18C and 18D of the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (Cth),” Dec. 12, 2013, available at https://www.humanrights.gov.au/our-work/race-discrimination/projects/glance-racial-vilification-under-sections-18c-and-18d-racial.

132. Aharon Barak, Human Dignity: The Constitutional Value and the Constitutional Right (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 51, 59.

133. Martha C. Nussbaum, “Constitutions and Capabilities: ‘Perception’ Against Lofty Formalism,” 121 Harvard Law Review (2007), 4, 7.

134. Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, article 11 (France, 1789) available at https://constitution.org/fr/fr_drm.htm.

135. Doreen Carvajal and Alan Cowell, “French Rein In Speech Backing Acts of Terror,” New York Times, Jan. 15, 2015, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2015/01/16/world/europe/french-rein-in-speech-backing-acts-of-terror.html?searchResultPosition=1.

136. Eddy and Breeden, “The El Paso Shooting Revived the Free Speech Debate.”

137. Id.

138. Press Law of 1881, section 24 (France, 1881) available at https://www.legal-project.org/issues/european-hate-speech-laws.

139. Valerie Strauss, “Florida principal reassigned after refusing to call the Holocaust a ‘factual, historical event,’” Washington Post, July 8, 2019, available at https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2019/07/08/florida-principal-reassigned-after-refusing-call-holocaust-factual-historic-event/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.1fc993369dec.

140. Switzman v. Elbling, Supreme Court Reports (Canada, 1957), 285, 326 (emphasis added).

141. Regina v. Keegstra, 3 Supreme Court Reports (Canada, 1990), 697, 698.

142. Regina, 697, 746–47.

143. Taylor v. Canadian Human Rights Commission, 3 Supreme Court Reports (Canada, 1990) 892, 919.

144. South Africa Constitution 1996, chapter 2, section 10.

145. Israel, Basic Law, Human Dignity and Liberty, 1994, S.H. 90 articles 2, 4.

146. HCJ 7015/02 Ajuri v. IDF Commander in the West Bank (2002) Israeli Law Review (2002), 1.

147. Mephisto, BVerfGE 30, 173 (1971) (F.R.G.), translated in 2 Decision of the Bundesverfassungsericht—Federal Constitutional Court—Federal Republic (1958) of Germany (pt. 1), at 156 (1998).

148. Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany (Christian Tomuschat & David P. Currie, trans., 2008), available at https://www.btg-bestellservice.de/pdf/80201000.pdf.

149. Grundgesetz article II, paragraph 1.

150. Guy E. Carmi, “Dignity—The Enemy from Within: A Theoretical and Comparative Analysis of Human Dignity as a Free Speech Justification,” 9 University of Pennsylvania Journal of Constitutional Law (2007), 957, 998.

151. Sara Lipton, “The Words That Killed Medieval Jews,” New York Times, Opinion, Dec. 11, 2015, available at https://nyti.ms/1Z375xs.

152. Virginia v. Black, 538 U.S. (2003), 343, 357.

153. Ben Cohen, “Houston Imam’s Apology for Sermon Urging Muslims to ‘Fight the Jews in Palestine’ Falls Short for Local Jewish Leaders,” Algemeiner, Dec. 27, 2017, available at https://www.algemeiner.com/2017/12/27/houston-imams-apology-for-sermon-urging-muslims-to-fight-the-jews-in-palestine-falls-short-for-local-jewish-leaders/.

154. See generally Alexander Tsesis, “Dignity and Speech: The Regulation of Hate Speech in a Democracy, 44 Wake Forest Law Review (2009), 497, 502.

155. Gordon W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice (New York: Basic Books, 1979), 57, 60.

156. Lauro v. Charles, 219 F.3d (Second Circuit, 2000), 202.

157. Schmerber v. California, 384 U.S. (1966), 757, 767.

158. Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. (1966), 436, 460.

159. Atkins v. Virginia, 536 U.S. (2002), 304, 311–12.

160. Lawrence v. Texas, 539 U.S. (2003), 558, 567, 575 (“retain their dignity as free persons”); also: Hollingsworth v. Perry, 570 U.S. 693 (2013) (“adversely affecting the status and dignity of the members of a disfavored class”).

161. Cohen v. California, 403 U.S. (1971), 14, 24.

162. Screws v. United States, 325 U.S. (1945), 91, 135.

163. Duncan v. Kahanamoku, 327 U.S. (1946), 304, 334.

164. Stephen J. Wermiel, “Law and Human Dignity: The Judicial Soul of Justice Brennan,” 7 William and Mary Bill of Rights Journal (1998), 223, 226–28, available at http://scholarship.law.wm.edu/wmborj/vol7/iss1/5.

165. Montana Constitution, “Declaration of Rights,” Article II, section 4 (1972).

166. Barak, Human Dignity,192–93; also: Wermiel, “Law and Human Dignity,” 223, 224.

167. Paul v. Davis, 424 U.S. (1978), 693, 734 (emphasis added).

168. Furman v. Georgia, 408 U.S. (1972), 238, 270 (emphasis added).

169. Lawrence v. Texas, 539 U.S. (2003), 558 (emphasis added).

170. United States v. Windsor, 570 U.S. (2013), 744, 764.

171. Obergefell v. Hodges, 576 U.S. __ (2015), 135; Supreme Court, 2584, 2693–95.

172. Roper v. Simmons, 543 U.S. (2005), 560, 551.

173. Glover v. United States, 531 U.S. (2000), 98, 104.

174. William J. Brennan, Jr., “The Constitution of the United States: Contemporary Ratification,” delivered at Georgetown University Law Center (Oct. 12, 1985); also: William J. Brennan, Jr., “The Constitution of the United States: Contemporary Ratification,” 27 South Texas Law Review (1986), 433, 438 (emphasis added).

175. Nomination of William Joseph Brennan, Jr.: Hearing Before the Senate Commission On the Judiciary, 85th Congress (1957), 8.

176. See generally Charles Lane, “Justice Kennedy’s unifying theme was dignity,” Washington Post, Opinion, June 28, 2018, available at https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/there-was-one-unifying-theme-of-anthony-kennedys-jurisprudence/2018/06/28/650aa740-7adf-11e8-80be-6d32e182a3bc_story.html?noredirect=on&utm_term=.d471a4bcfda0; also: Liz Halloran, “Explaining Justice Kennedy: The Dignity Factor,” NPR.org, June 28, 2018, available at https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2013/06/27/196280855/explaining-justice-kennedy-the-dignity-factor=.

177. Barak, Human Dignity, 206.

178. Jeremy Waldron, “Free Speech & the Menace of Hysteria,” 55 New York Review Books, May 29, 2008, available at http://www.nybooks.com/articles/21452; also: Jeremy Waldron, “Dignity and Defamation: The Visibility of Hate,” 123 Harvard Law Review (2009), 1597, 1601; also: Waldron, The Harm in Hate Speech, 39.

179. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (Richard Tuck ed., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 63–64; 88; 107; 206–7 (1651).

180. Waldron, “Dignity and Defamation,” 1627.

181. Tsesis, “Dignity and Speech,” 497, 513 n.111.

182. Robert C. Post, “Racist Speech, Democracy, and the First Amendment,” 32 William & Mary Law Review (1991), 267, 284.

183. Steven J. Heyman, “Righting the Balance: An Inquiry into the Foundations and Limits of Freedom of Expression,” 78 Boston University Law Review (1998), 1275, 1380.

184. Heyman, “Righting the Balance,” 1313 (citing John Locke’s, Two Treatises of Government, II secs. 6, 57 [Peter Laslett ed., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1988] (1698), and Kant, Metaphysics of Morals [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996], 230–33.

185. Thomas G. West, “Free Speech in the American Founding and in Modern Liberalism,” 21 Social Philosophy and Policy (2004), 310, 323, available at https://www.hillsdale.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/2004-free-speech-in-the-founding-and-in-modern-liberalism.pdf.

186. Pennsylvania Constitution, 1790, article 9, section 7.

187. “Philodemos,” Pennsylvania Gazette, May 7, 1788, reprinted in Merrill Jensen, ed., The Documentary History of the Ratification of the Constitution: Ratification of the Constitution by the States, volume 2 supplemental (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1976).

188. Respublica v. Oswald, 1 U.S. (Pennsylvania, 1788), 319, 324.

189. Updegraph v. Commonwealth, 11 Serg. & Rawle (Pennsylvania, 1824), 393, 408–9.

190. People v. Ruggles, 8 Johns. (New York Supreme Court, 1811), 290, 292.

191. Cass Sunstein, Democracy and the Problem of Free Speech xviii (New York: The Free Press, 1993).

192. St. George Tucker, “Of the Right of Conscience; and of the Freedom of Speech, and of the Press,” 1 William Blackstone, note G, at 11 (emphasis added), in 4 William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Law of England (St. George Tucker ed., Philadelphia: Young & Small, 1803), 151–52.

193. 8 Annals of Congress (1798), 75.

194. Thomas C. West, “Free Speech in the American Founding and in Modern Liberalism,” Social Philosophy and Policy, 21, no.2 (Summer 2004), 313, 316.

195. Letter from Thomas Jefferson to Francis W. Gilmer (June 7, 1816), in 15 Writings of Thomas Jefferson (Andrew A. Lipscomb & Albert Ellery Bergh eds., 1905), 23, 24.

196. John Locke, Two Treatises of Government, book II, sections 4, 6, 57, 63 (Peter Laslett ed., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988) (1690).

197. Locke, book II, sections 95–96, 128.

198. Steven J. Heyman, Free Speech and Human Dignity (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 20.

199. Heyman, Free Speech and Human Dignity, 176.

200. Heyman, Free Speech and Human Dignity, 39.

201. Alcorn v. Mitchell, 63 Illinois (1872), 553, 554 (emphasis added).

202. Fisher v. Carrousel Motor Hotel, 424 S.W. 2d (Texas 1967), 627, 628–29 (emphasis added).

203. Louis D. Brandeis and Samuel Warren, “The Right to Privacy,” 4 Harvard Law Review (1890), 193, 195, 266.

204. Andrew Ross Sorkin, “Peter Thiel Is Said to Bankroll Hulk Hogan Suit Against Gawker,” New York Times, May 25, 2015, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/25/business/dealbook/peter-thiel-is-said-to-bankroll-hulk-hogans-suit-against-gawker.html.

205. Brandeis and Warren, “The Right to Privacy,” 193, 196.

206. Restatement (Second) of Torts, sections 642B, 652C, 652D, 652E.

207. Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire, 315 U.S. (1942), 568, 572.

208. Heyman, Free Speech and Human Dignity, 144.

209. Cass R. Sunstein, “What If the Founders Had Free Speech Wrong?” Bloomberg, December 14, 2017, available at https://www.bloomberg.com/view/articles/2017-12-14/what-if-the-u-s-has-free-speech-all-wrong.

210. Jud Campbell, “Natural Rights and the First Amendment,” 127 Yale Law Journal (2017), 246, 283, available at https://www.yalelawjournal.org/article/natural-rights-and-the-first-amendment.

211. Campbell, “Natural Rights and the First Amendment,” 276.

212. Id.

213. Campbell, “Natural Rights and the First Amendment,” 273.

214. Id.

215. Campbell, “Natural Rights and the First Amendment,” 260.

216. Respublica, 319, 325 (emphasis added).

217. Campbell, “Natural Rights and the First Amendment,” 310.

218. Robert H. Bork, “Neutral Principles and Some First Amendment Problems,” 47 Indiana Law Journal 1 (1971), 20.

219. Heyman, Free Speech and Human Dignity, 177.

220. Proposal by Sherman to House Committee of Eleven, July 21–28, 1789, in The Complete Bill of Rights: The Drafts, Debates, Sources, and Origins (Neil H. Cogan, ed., 1997), 83 (emphasis added).

221. Adam Liptak, “How Conservatives Weaponized the First Amendment,” New York Times, June 30, 2018, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/30/us/politics/first-amendment-conservatives-supreme-court.html.

222. David Goldberger, “Sources of Judicial Reluctance to Use Psychic Harm as a Basis for Suppressing Racist, Sexist and Ethnically Offensive Speech,” 66 Brooklyn Law Review (1991), 1165, 1166.

223. Alexander M. Bickel, The Morality of Consent (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1975), 72.

224. Robin Abcarian, “Just as we thought: Richie Incognito bullied Jonathan Martin,” Los Angeles Times, Feb. 14, 2014, available at http://www.latimes.com/local/abcarian/la-me-ra-report-miami-dolphins-jonathan-martin-bullied-by-richie-incognito--20140214-story.html#axzz2v0vKKjyb; also: Barry Petchesky, “The Worst Stuff From The Miami Dolphins Investigation,” Deadspin, Feb. 14, 2014, available at http://deadspin.com/the-worst-stuff-from-the-dolphins-investigation-epdai-1522846626.

225. Ken Belson, “Ex-Dolphin Jonathan Martin Is Detained After Social Media Posts Shuts School,” New York Times, Feb. 23, 2018, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/23/sports/football/jonathan-martin.html.

226. Commonwealth v. Carter, No. 15YO0001NE (Massachusetts Juvenile Court, June 16, 2017).

227. Lawrence Tribe, American Constitutional Law section 12-8 (1978), 605–6.

228. Brandenburg v. Ohio, 395 U.S. (1969), 444, 447.

229. Hadley Arkes, “Civility and the Restriction on Speech: Rediscovering the Defamation of Groups,” 1974 Supreme Court Review (1974), 281, 306.

230. Chaplinsky, 315 U.S., 572.

231. Chaplinsky, 315 U.S., 571–72.

232. Rodney A. Smolla, “Words ‘Which by Their Very Utterance Inflict Injury’: The Evolving Treatment of Inherently Dangerous Speech in Free Speech and Theory,” 36 Pepperdine Law Review (2009), 317, 319, available at https://digitalcommons.pepperdine.edu/plr/vol36/iss2/4/.

233. Restatement (Second) of Torts (1965), section 46, comment d.

234. Knierim v. Izzo, 22 Illinois 2d (1961), 73, 85, 174 N.E.2d 157, 164.

235. Hadley Arkes, “Civility and the Restriction on Speech: Rediscovering the Defamation of Groups,” 1974 Supreme Court Review (1974), 281, 324.

236. Arkes, “Civility and the Restriction on Speech,” 333.

237. Feldman Barrett, How Emotions Are Made, 241.

238. Feldman Barrett, How Emotions Are Made, 201.

239. Feldman Barrett, How Emotions Are Made, 206.

240. R. Douglas Fields, “Sticks and Stones—Hurtful Words Damage the Brain,” Oct. 30, 2010, Psychology Today, The New Brain, available at https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-new-brain/201010/sticks-and-stones-hurtful-words-damage-the-brain.

241. Vivian Parry, “How emotional pain can really hurt,” BBC News, July 21, 2008.

242. Feldman Barrett, How Emotions Are Made, 200, 202.

243. Lisa Feldman Barrett, “When Is Speech Violence?” New York Times, Opinion, July 14, 2017, available at https://nyti.ms/2ukaVf4.

244. Arkes, “Civility and the Restriction on Speech,” 281, 300.

245. Feldman Barrett, How Emotions Are Made, 204.

246. Robert T. Carter, “Racism and Psychological and Emotional Injury: Recognizing and Assessing Race-Based Traumatic Stress,” The Counseling Psychologist, Jan. 26, 2007, available at https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0011000006292033.

247. Feldman Barrett, How Emotions Are Made, 242.

248. Feldman Barrett, “When Is Speech Violence?”

249. Greg Lukianoff, “A Dozen Things ‘The New Yorker’ Gets Wrong about Free Speech (And Why It Matters),” Huffington Post, Aug. 21, 2015, available at https://www.huffpost.com/entry/a-dozen-things-the-new-yo_b_8021046.

250. Page v. Smith, AC 155, House of Lords (1996), 2.

251. Restatement (Third) of Torts: Liability for Physical and Emotional Harm (2012), section 47 n.1 comment f.

252. Restatement (Third) of Torts: Liability for Physical and Emotional Harm (2012), section 45 comment a.

253. Erica Goldberg, “Emotional Duties,” 47 Connecticut Law Review (2015), 809, 827.

254. Betsy J. Grey, “Neuroscience and Emotional Harm in Tort Law: Rethinking the American Approach to Free-Standing Emotional Distress Claims,” 1; also in: Law and Neuroscience (Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press, 2011), available at https://asu.pure.elsevier.com/en/publications/neuroscience-and-emotional-harm-in-tort-law-rethinking-the-americ.

255. Allen v. Bloomfield Hills School District, 281 Michigan Appellate (2008), 49, 57.

256. Grey, “Neuroscience and Emotional Harm in Tort Law,” 18.

257. Robert Pear, “House Approves Bill on Mental Health Parity,” New York Times, March 6, 2008, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/06/washington/06health.html.

258. Grey, “Neuroscience and Emotional Harm in Tort Law,” 13.

259. Grey, “Neuroscience and Emotional Harm in Tort Law,” 11.

260. Grey, “Neuroscience and Emotional Harm in Tort Law,” 12; also: Benno Roozendaal, Bruce S. McEwen, and Sumantra Chattarji, “Stress, Memory and the Amygdala,” 10 Nature Reviews Neuroscience (2009), 423, 465.

261. Grey, “Neuroscience and Emotional Harm in Tort Law,” 13.

262. Grey, “Neuroscience and Emotional Harm in Tort Law,” 17.

263. Joseph E. LeDoux, “Emotional Circuits in the Brain,” 23 Annual Review of Neuroscience (2000), 155, 156–57.

264. Restatement (Second) of Torts (1965), section 46 (emphasis added).

265. Restatement (Third) of Torts (1987), section 45.

266. Restatement (Third) of Torts, section 46.

267. Deana Pollard Sacks, “Constitutionalized Negligence,” 89 Washington University Law Review (2012), 1065, 1118.

268. “Study Finds Hate Speech on Commercial Talk Radio Could Negatively Impact Listeners’ Health,” Hispanically Speaking News, August 25, 2012.

269. Hermes Garban, Francisco Iribarren, Chon Noriega, Nicholson Barr, and Widong Zhu, “Using Biological Markers to Measure Stress in Listeners of Commercial Talk Radio,” UCLA Chicano Studies Research Center, Working Paper, August 2012, available at http://www.chicano.ucla.edu/files/WP03_Using-Biological-Markers.pdf.

270. Katrin Bennhold, “Germany Acts to Tame Facebook, Learning From Its Own History of Hate,” New York Times, May 19, 2018, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/19/technology/facebook-deletion-center-germany.html.

271. Gregory Herek, “The Impact of hate crime victimization,” Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, available at http://www.lgbpsychology.org/html/summary.pdf.

272. J.C. Weiss, H.J. Ehrlich, and B.E.K. Larcom, “Ethnoviolence at Work,” Journal of Intergroup Relations, Vol. 18, No. 4 (1991–1992), 28–29.

273. David van Mill, “Getting Rid of Hate Speech,” in Free Speech and the State (London: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2017), available at https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-51635-6_4.

274. Robert Emery and Jim Coan, “What causes chest pain when feelings are hurt?” Scientific American MIND, March 1, 2010, available at https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-causes-chest-pains/.

275. Maia Szalavitz, “New Test Distinguishes Physical From Emotional Pain in Brain for First Time,” Time, May 6, 2013, available at http://healthland.time.com/2013/05/06/a-pain-detector-for-the-brain/.

276. Association for Psychological Science, “Could acetaminophen ease psychological pain?,” Science Daily, Dec. 25, 2009, available at www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/12/091222154742.htm.

277. Delgado, “Words That Wound,” 92; also: Rodney Clark, Norman B. Anderson, Vernessa Clark, David R. Williams, “Racism as a Stressor for African-Americans: A Biopsychosocial Model,” American Psychologist, 54 (1999), 805–16, available at https://scholar.harvard.edu/davidrwilliams/dwilliam/publications/racism-stressor-african-americans-biopsychosocial-model.

278. Melissa Healy, “Heartache or headache, pain process is similar, studies find,” Los Angeles Times, April 4, 2011, available at https://www.latimes.com/health/la-xpm-2011-apr-04-la-he-mood-pain-20110404-story.html.

279. Zhansheng Chen, Kipling D. Williams, Julie Fitness, and Nicola C. Newton, “When Hurt Won’t Heal: Exploring the Capacity to Relive Social and Physical Pain,” Psychological Science, August 2008; also: Chris Irvine, “Emotional pain hurts more than physical pain, researchers say,” Daily Telegraph, Aug. 28, 2008, available at https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/2639959/Emotional-pain-hurts-more-than-physical-pain-researchers-say.html.

280. Arkes, “Civility and the Restriction on Speech,” 281, 300.

281. Ethan Kross, Marc G. Berman, Walter Mischel, Edward E. Smith, Tor D. Wager, “Social rejection shares somatosensory representations with physical pain,” PNAS, April 12, 2011, available at http://www.pnas.org/content/108/15/6270.full?sid=758b38cc-b399-4d22-9c37-3c074cf321be.

282. Matt McMillen, “To the brain, getting burned, getting dumped feel the same,” CNN Health, March 29, 2011, available at http://www.cnn.com/2011/HEALTH/03/28/burn.heartbreak.same.to.brain/index.html.

283. Jonathan Rottenberg, “Physical Pain and Emotional Pain: More Similar Than You Think,” Psychology Today, Dec. 23, 2009, available at https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/charting-the-depths/200912/physical-pain-and-emotional-pain-more-similar-you-think.

284. Jennifer Warner, “Words Really Do Hurt: Study Shows Words Alone May Activate Pain Response in the Brain,” WebMD, April 2, 2010, available at https://www.webmd.com/pain-management/news/20100402/words-really-do-hurt; also https://www.uni-jena.de/en/News/Archiv/Archiv+2010/PM100326_weiss_hurt.html.

285. Fields, “Sticks and Stones.”

286. Ann Polcari, Karen Rabi, Elizabeth Bolger, and Martin Teicher, “Parental Verbal Affection and Verbal Aggression in Childhood Differentially Influence Psychiatric Symptoms and Wellbeing in Young Adulthood,” 38 Child Abuse & Neglect 1 (January 2014), 91–102.

287. Goldberg, “Emotional Duties,” 809, 831.

288. Goldberg, “Emotional Duties,” 835.

289. Lawrence, “If He Hollers Let Him Go,” 74.

290. Stevens v. United States, 559 U.S. (2010), 460.

291. Rebecca L. Brown, “The Harm Principle and Free Speech,” USC School of Law, Center for Law and Social Science, March 23, 2015, available at https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2584080.

292. Chafee, Free Speech in the United States, 149 (emphasis added).

293. Chafee, Free Speech in the United States, 150, 152 (emphasis added).

294. Fish, There’s No Such Thing as Free Speech, 125.

295. Arkes, “Civility and the Restriction on Speech,” 300.

296. Snyder v. Phelps, 562 U.S. (2011), 443.

297. Snyder v. Phelps, 131 Supreme Court Reporter (2011), 1207, 1220 (emphasis added).

298. Nathan B. Oman and Jason M. Solomon, “The Supreme Court’s Theory of Private Law,” 62 Duke Law Journal (2013), 1135.

299. Chafee, Free Speech in the United States, 150.

300. Snyder, 562 U.S., 46.

301. Snyder, 562 U.S., 463–64.

302. Cantwell v. Connecticut, 310 U.S (1940), 296, 310.

303. Arkes, “Civility and the Restriction on Speech,” 317.

304. Snyder, 562 U.S., 464.

305. Snyder, 562 U.S., 475.

306. Matsuda, Words That Wound, 15 (Introduction).

307. Frederick Schauer, “Harm(s) and the First Amendment,” Supreme Court Review (2011), 81, 90.

308. Hustler Magazine v. Falwell, 485 U.S. (1988), 46.

309. Cohen v. California, 403 U.S. (1971), 15.

310. Brandenburg v. Ohio, 395 U.S. (1969), 444.

311. David Goldberger, “Sources of Judicial Reluctance to Use Psychic Harm as a Basis for Suppressing Racist, Sexist and Ethnically Offensive Speech,” 66 Brooklyn Law Review (1991), 1165, 1204.

312. Texas v. Johnson, 491 U.S. (1989), 397, 432 (Rehnquist, J., dissenting).

313. Arkes, “Civility and the Restriction on Speech,” 314.

314. Cohen, 403 U.S., 21.

315. Id.

316. Schauer, “Harm(s) and the First Amendment,” 106.

317. Cohen, 403 U.S., 25.

318. Id.

319. Schauer, “Harm(s) and the First Amendment,” 101 n.83.

320. Respect for America’s Fallen Heroes Act, Pub. L. No. 109-228, section 2, 120 Stat. 387 (2006) (codified at 38 U.S.C. section 2413).

321. James. Q. Lynch, “Iowa House unanimously approves limits on funeral protests,” Globe Gazette, March 27, 2015, available at http://globegazette.com/news/local/iowa-house-unanimously-approves-limits-on-funeral-protests/article_588ee652-c576-5bed-ba7b-da626059d465.html.

322. Donald A. Downs, “Skokie Revisited: Hate Group Speech and the First Amendment,” 60 Notre Dame Law Review (1985), 629, 640 n.50.

323. Downs, “Skokie Revisited,” 641 n.50 (emphasis added).

324. Collin v. Smith, 578 F.2d (7th Circuit, 1978), 1197, 1206.

325. Collin, 578 F.2d, 1207.

326. Collin, 578 F.2d, 1200.

327. Collin, 578 F.2d, 1206.

328. Downs, “Skokie Revisited,” 647.

329. Fish, There’s No Such Thing as Free Speech, 124.

330. Vietnamese Fisherman’s Association v. Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, 518 F. Supp. 993 (Southern District of Texas, 1981).

331. Alcorn v. Anbro Engineering, Inc., 2 California 3d (1970), 493, 494, 468 P.2d 216, 217, 86 California Reporter, 88, 89.

332. Alcorn, 3d 493, 98–99, 468 P.2d 216, 218–19, 86 California Reporter, 88, 90–91 (emphasis added).

333. Gomez v. Hug, 645 P.2d (Kansas Court of Appeals, 1982), 916, 918.

334. United States v. Torres, 583 F. Supp. (Northern District of Illinois, 1984), 923, 925.

335. Contreras v. Crown Zellerbach, 88 Washington 2d (1977), 735, 736, 565 P.2d 1173, 1174.

336. Contreras, 735, 741–42, 565 P.2d 1173, 1177.

337. Sunstein, Democracy and the Problem of Free Speech, 193.

338. Sunstein, Democracy and the Problem of Free Speech, 186.

339. Nina Shea, “Hate Speech Laws Aren’t the Answer to Islamic Extremism—They’re Part of the Problem,” National Review, Jan. 9, 2015, available at https://www.nationalreview.com/2015/01/hate-speech-laws-arent-answer-islamic-extremism-theyre-part-problem-nina-shea/.

340. Erik Bleich, “French hate speech laws are less simplistic than you think,” Washington Post, Jan. 18, 2015, available at https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2015/01/18/french-hate-speech-laws-are-less-simplistic-than-you-think/?utm_term=.181ca11b35ba.

341. Adam Gopnick, “PEN Has Every Right to Honor Charlie Hebdo,” New Yorker, April 30, 2015, available at https://www.newyorker.com/news/daily-comment/pen-has-every-right-to-honor-charlie-hebdo.

342. Jill Lawless, “Charlie Hebdo Raises the Question: Is Hate Speech Protected in France,” CBSNews, Jan. 25, 2015.

343. Waldron, The Harm in Hate Speech, 120.

344. Jesse Singal, “Why Won’t Women’s March Leaders Denounce Louis Farrakhan’s Anti-Semitism, Intelligencer, March 7, 2018, available at https://nymag.com/intelligencer/2018/03/is-it-so-hard-to-denounce-louis-farrakhans-anti-semitism.html.

345. Criminal Code of Canada, Section 319 Canadian Human Rights Act.

346. Wisconsin v. Mitchell, 508 U.S. (1993), 476, 479.

347. Id.

348. Mitchell, 508 U.S., 488.

349. Beauharnais v. Illinois, 343 U.S. (1952), 250.

350. Charles Blow, “Accommodating Divisiveness,” New York Times, Feb. 21, 2014, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/22/opinion/blow-accommodating-divisiveness.html.

351. Heyman, Free Speech and Human Dignity, 174.

352. R.A.V v. St. Paul, 505 U.S. (1992), 377, 391.

353. R.A.V., 505 U.S., 402.

354. Waldron, “Dignity and Defamation,” 1597, 1655.

355. Megan Sullaway, “Psychological Perspectives Hate Crime Laws,” 10 Psychology, Public Policy, and Law (2004), 250, 261–65.

356. Mari J. Matsuda, “Public Response to Racist Speech: Considering the Victim’s Story,” 87 Michigan Law Review, (1989), 3220, 3235–40.

357. Beauharnais v. Illinois, 343 U.S. (1952), 250, 251.

358. Beauharnais, 343 U.S., 261.

359. Goldberger, “Sources of Judicial Reluctance,” 1165, 1177.

360. Nadine Strossen, Hate: Why We Should Resist It With Free Speech, Not Censorship (Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press, 2018), 19.

361. Katherine Timpf, “‘God Bless You’ Listed among Anti-Muslim ‘Microaggressions,’” National Review, March 14, 2018, available at https://www.nationalreview.com/2018/03/god-bless-you-microaggression-against-muslims/?utm_source=Facebook&utm_medium=Social&utm_campaign=Timpf.

362. George F. Will, “Colleges have free speech on the run,” Washington Post Opinions, Nov. 30, 2012, available at https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/george-will-colleges-have-free-speech-on-the-run/2012/11/30/9457072c-3a54-11e2-8a97-363b0f9a0ab3_story.html.

363. Greg Lukianoff and Jonathan Haidt, “The Coddling of the American Mind,” Atlantic, Sept. 2015, available at https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2015/09/the-coddling-of-the-american-mind/399356/.

364. Lukianoff, “A Dozen Things ‘The New Yorker’ Gets Wrong about Free Speech.”

365. Erwin Chemerinsky, “The Free Speech-Hate Speech Trade-Off,” New York Times, Opinion, Sept. 13, 2017, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/13/opinion/berkeley-dean-erwin-chemerinsky.html.

366. Judith Shulevitz, “In College and Hiding from Scary Ideas,” New York Times, March 21, 2015 available at https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/22/opinion/sunday/judith-shulevitz-hiding-from-scary-ideas.html.

367. Oshra Bitton, “When Students for ‘Justice’ Promote Violence,” CAMERA on Campus, May 17, 2018, available at http://cameraoncampus.org/blog/when-students-for-justice-promote-violence/.

368. Daniel Sugarman, “Neo Nazi jailed after calling for genocide on Jews,” Jewish Chronicle, April 20, 2018, available at https://www.thejc.com/news/uk-news/neo-nazi-jailed-for-stirring-up-racial-hatred-after-calling-for-genocide-of-jews-1.462814.

369. Ulrich Baer, “What ‘Snowflakes’ Get Right About Free Speech,” New York Times, Opinion, April 24, 2017, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/24/opinion/what-liberal-snowflakes-get-right-about-free-speech.html.

370. Brian Owsley, “Racist Speech and ‘Reasonable People’: A Proposal for a Tort Remedy,” 24 Columbia Human Rights Law Review (1993), 323, 326, 350.

371. Richard Delgada and Jean Stefancic, “Ten Arguments Against Hate Speech Regulation: How Valid?” 23 North Kentucky Law Review (1996), 475, 484.

372. Liel Leibovitz, “Tweets Cost a Professor His Tenure, and That’s a Good Thing,” Tablet, Aug. 29, 2014, available at http://www.tabletmag.com/jewish-news-and-politics/183274/salaita-tweets.

373. Jason N. Blum, “Don’t Bow to Blowhards,” Chronicle Review, Sept. 3, 2017, available at https://www.chronicle.com/article/Don-t-Bow-to-Blowhards/241048.

374. Aaron R. Hanlon, “Why Colleges Have a Right to Reject Hateful Speakers Like Ann Coulter,” New Republic, April 24, 2017, available at https://newrepublic.com/article/142218/colleges-right-reject-hateful-speakers-like-ann-coulter.

375. Jim Rutenberg, “Terrorism Is Faster Than Twitter,” New York Times, Nov. 5, 2017, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/05/business/media/terrorism-social-networks-freedom.html.

376. Thane Rosenbaum, “The Internet As Marketplace of Madness—and a Terrorist’s Best Friend,” 86 Fordham Law Review (2017), 591.

377. Bennhold, “Germany Acts to Tame Facebook.”

378. Eddy and Breeden, “The El Paso Shooting Revived the Free Speech Debate.”

379. Ben Cohen, “‘Repulsive Anti-Semite’ Convicted by UK Judge for Jew-Hating YouTube Videos,” Algemeiner, June 14, 2018, available at https://www.algemeiner.com/2018/06/14/repulsive-antisemite-convicted-by-uk-judge-for-jew-hating-youtube-videos/.

380. Rutenberg, “Terrorism Is Faster Than Twitter.”

381. Greg Lukianoff, “Twitter, hate speech, and the costs of keeping quiet,” CNET, April 7, 2013, available at https://www.cnet.com/news/twitter-hate-speech-and-the-costs-of-keeping-quiet/.

382. Soeren Kern, “European Union Declares War On Internet Free Speech,” Gatestone Institute, June 3, 2016, available at https://www.gatestoneinstitute.org/8189/social-media-censorship.

383. Council of European Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism, Council of Europe Treaty Series, no. 196, May 16, 2005, available at https://rm.coe.int/168008371c.

384. Alexander Tsesis, “Terrorist Speech On Social Media,” 70 Vanderbilt Law Review, (2017), 651, 681.

385. Tsesis, “Terrorist Speech On Social Media,” 654.

386. Daisuke Wakabayashi, “Legal Shield for Websites Rattles Under Onslaught of Hate Speech,” New York Times, Aug. 6, 2019, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/06/technology/section-230-hate-speech.html.

387. Frederick Schauer, “Is It Better to Be Safe Than Sorry?: Free Speech and the Precautionary Principle,” 36 Pepperdine Law Review (2009), 301, 305.

388. Holder v. Humanitarian Law Project, 561 U.S. (2010), 1, 40 (dealing with material support to foreign terrorist organizations pursuant to the USA Patriot Act); also: Tsesis, “Terrorist Speech On Social Media,” 706–7.

389. Rosenbaum, “The Internet As Marketplace of Madness,” 600.

390. Leiter, The Case Against Free Speech, 31 n.82.

391. Eddy and Breeden, “The El Paso Shooting Revived the Free Speech Debate.”

392. Jocobellis v. Ohio, 378 U.S. (1964), 184 (Stewart, J., concurring).

393. Waldron, “Dignity and Defamation,” 1597, 1646.

394. Ramesh Ponnuru, “Target Practice: A Media Gun Show,” National Review, June 14, 1991.

395. Douglas Walton, Slippery Slope Arguments (Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press, 1992), 175.

396. Fish, There’s No Such Thing as Free Speech, 130.

397. Frederick Schauer, “Slippery Slopes,” 99 Harvard Law Review (1985), 361, 365.

398. Susan Bandes, “The Negative Constitution: A Critique,” 88 University of Michigan Law Review (1990), 2271, 2335.

399. Cohen, 403 U.S., 15, 25.

400. Gertz v. Welch, 418 U.S. (1974), 323, 339.

401. Fish, There’s No Such Thing as Free Speech, 132.

402. Eugene Volokh, “Crime-facilitating Speech,” 57 Stanford Law Review (2005), 1095, 1174–79.

403. Leiter, The Case Against Free Speech, 39.

404. Stanley Fish, “Fraught with Death: Skepticism, Progressivism, and the First Amendment,” 64 University of Colorado Law Review (1993), 1061, 1086.

405. Baer, “What ‘Snowflakes’ Get Right About Free Speech.”

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