Chapter 1: The Civil Rights Vision
1. George Gilder, Wealth and Poverty (New York: Basic Books, 1980), p. 129.
2. Peter Uhlenberg, “Demographic Correlates of Group Achievement: Contrasting Patterns of Mexican-Americans and Japanese-Americans,” Race, Creed, Color, or National Origin, ed. Robert K. Yin (Itasca, Illinois: F. E. Peacock Publishers, Inc., 1973), p. 91.
3. Richard A. Easterlin, “Immigration: Economic and Social Characteristics,” Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, ed. Stephan Thernstrom, et al. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980), p. 478.
4. Karl E. Taeuber and Alma F. Taeuber, “The Negro Population in the United States,” The American Negro Reference Book, ed. John P. Davis (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1970), p. 112.
5. Jack Chen, The Chinese of America (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1980), p. 18.
6. Yasuo Wakatsuki, “Japanese Emigration to the United States, 1866-1924,” Perspectives in American History, Vol. XII (1979), pp. 428, 429.
7. Ibid., p. 429.
8. Ibid., p.428.
9. Wolfgang Kollmann and Peter Marschalck, “German Emigration to the United States,” Perspectives in American History, Vol. VII (1973), pp. 518, 519.
10. George F. W. Young, The Germans in Chile: Immigration and Colonization, 1849-1914 (New York: Center for Migration Studies, 1974), p. 30.
11. Judith Laikin Elkin, Jews of the Latin American Republics (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1980), pp. 191, 192.
12. Robert F. Foerster, The Italian Emigration of Our Times (New York: Arno Press, 1969), p. 39.
13. Betty Lee Sung, The Story of the Chinese in America (New York: Collier Books, 1967), p. 320.
14. Robert E. Kennedy, Jr., The Irish: Emigration, Marriage, and Fertility (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973), p.78.
15. David S. Neft, Roland T. Johnson, Richard M. Cohen, The Sports Encyclopedia: Baseball (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1976), p. 493.
16. Jeannye Thornton, “Today’s Toys—More Than Just Child’s Play,” U.S. News and World Report, December 20, 1982, p. 68.
17. Virginia Thompson and Richard Adloff, Minority Problems in Southeast Asia (New York: Russell & Russell, 1955), p. 128.
18. Yuan-li Wu and Chun-hsi Wu, Economic Development in Southeast Asia (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1973), p. 22.
19. Robert E. Klitgaard and Ruth Katz, “Ethnic Inequalities and Public Policy: The Case of Malaysia,” Mimeographed, Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, July 1981, p. 11.
20. Thomas Sowell, The Economics and Politics of Race (New York: William Morrow, 1983), pp. 80-92.
21. Robert F. Foerster, The Italian Emigration of Our Times, p. 262.
22. Thomas Sowell, Ethnic America (New York: Basic Books, 1981), pp. 175, 177.
23. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1975), p. 422.
24. See Ibid., p. 422; Victor Purcell, The Chinese in Southeast Asia, 2nd edition (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980), pp. 406, 514, 519, 527; S. W. Kung, Chinese in American Life (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1962), pp. 14, 15.
25. Carl Degler, Neither Black Nor White (New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1971), p. 86.
26. Thomas Sowell, “New Light on Black I.Q.,” New York Times Magazine, March 27, 1977, pp. 57ff; Idem, “Race and I.Q. Reconsidered,” Essays and Data on American Ethnic Groups (Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute, 1978), pp. 203-238; Idem., “Weber and Bakke and the Presuppositions of ‘Affirmative Action,’” Wayne Law Review, July 1980, pp. 1309-1336.
27. Regents of the University of California v. Allan Bakke, 438 U.S. 265, pp. 365-366.
28. United Steelworkers of America v. Brian F. Weber, 443 U.S. 193, p. 212n.
29. J. C. Furnas, The Americans (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1969), p. 382.
30. Robert F. Foerster, The Italian Emigration of Our Times, pp. 393-394.
31. Kevin O’Connor, The Irish in Britain (London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1972), p. 26.
32. Gary B. Cohen, The Politics of Ethnic Survival: Germans in Prague, 1861-1914 (Princeton University Press, 1981), p. 126.
33. Nathan Glazer, Affirmative Discrimination (New York: Basic Books, 1975), pp. 56-57.
34. Nathan Glazer and Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Beyond the Melting Pot (Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press, 1970), pp. 257-258.
35. Andrew M. Greeley, That Most Distressful Nation (Chicago: Quadrangle Press, 1972), p. 129.
36. Kevin O’Connor, The Irish in Britain, p. 137.
37. Victor Purcell, The Chinese in Southeast Asia, 2nd edition (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1980), p. 107.
38. Ibid.
39. Lennox A. Mills, Southeast Asia (University of Minnesota Press, 1964), pp. 110-111.
40. Victor Purcell, The Chinese in Southeast Asia, p. 284.
41. Robert Lacour-Gayet, A History of South Africa (New York: Hastings House, 1977), p. 230; W. H. Hutt, The Economics of the Colour Bar (London: The Institute of Economic Affairs, 1964), pp. 45-46.
42. Jack Chen, The Chinese of America (New York: Harper & Row, 1980), pp. 66-67.
43. Yuan-li Wu and Chun-hsi Wu, Economic Development in Southeast Asia, pp. 55-57.
44. Stanford M. Lyman, Chinese Americans (New York: Random House, 1974), p. 137.
45. Haitung King and Frances B. Locke, “Chinese in the United States: A Century of Occupational Transition,” International Migration Review, Vol. 14, M.49 (Spring 1980), p. 22.
46. “In the relatively small number of occupations in which Asians were allowed to participate, they were able to attain a moderate level of economic success.” U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Unemployment and Underemployment Among Blacks, Hispanics, and Women (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 1982), p. 58. The “deplorable” concentration of Chinese in mathematics, engineering and physics was also considered “evidence of the limited employment opportunities among Chinese intellectuals,” in Haitung King and Frances B. Locke, “Chinese in the United States: A Century of Occupational Transition,” International Migration Review, Vol. 14, No. 49 (Spring 1980), p. 22.
47. J. C. Furnas, The Americans, p. 86; Daniel Boorstin, The Americans (New York: Random House, 1958), Vol. I, p. 225.
48. Thomas H. Holloway, Immigrants on the Land (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1980), p. 151; Harry Leonard Sawatsky, They Sought a Country (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971), pp. 129, 244; Arthur Young, A Tour in Ireland (Shannon, Ireland: Irish University Press, 1970), Vol. I, pp. 377-379; W. D. Borrie, “Australia,” The Positive Contribution by Immigrants, ed. Oscar Handlin, et al. (Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 1955), p. 91.
49. Thomas Sowell, Ethnic America (New York: Basic Books, 1981), pp. 52-53, 58-59; Emilio Willems, “Brazil,” The Positive Contributions by Immigrants, ed. Oscar Handlin, et al. (Paris: Unesco, 1955), pp. 122, 130; Charles Wagley, An Introduction to Brazil (New York: Columbia University Press, 1971), p. 79; W. D. Borrie, Italians and Germans in Australia (Melbourne: The Australian National University, 1934), pp. 93, 94; Gary R. Cohen, The Politics of Ethnic Survival, p. 23; Carl Solberg, Immigration and Nationalism: Argentina and Chile, 1890-1914 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1970), pp. 41, 101.
50. Theodore Huebner, The Germans in America (Radnor, Pa.:Chilton Co., 1962), p. 128; W. D. Borrie, Italians and Germans in Australia (Melbourne: The Australian National University, 1934), p. 94; Alfred Dolge, Pianos and Their Makers (Covina, Ca.: Covina Publishing Co., 1911), p. 172. Germans apparently were also pioneers in piano manufacturing in Russia. Ibid., p. 264.
51. Emilio Willems, “Brazil,” The Positive Contribution by Immigrants, ed. Oscar Handlin, et al. (Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 1955), p.133.
52. Solomon Grayzel, A History of the Jews (New York: New American Library, 1968), p. 266.
53. Thomas Sowell, The Economics and Politics of Race, Chapter 2; David Lowenthal, West Indian Societies (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972), pp. 202-208.
54. Naosaku Uchido, The Overseas Chinese (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1960), pp. 15-46; Stanford M. Lyman, Chinese Americans (New York: Random House, 1974), Chapter 3.
55. Albert Bernhardt Faust, The German Element in the United States (New York: Arno Press, 1969), Vol. II, pp. 122-124; Kathleen Neils Conzen, “Germans,” Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, ed. Stephan Thernstrom, et al. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981), p. 421.
56. W. D. Borrie, “Australia,” The Positive Contribution by Immigrants, ed. Oscar Handlin, pp. 90-94; Emilio Willems, “Brazil,” Ibid., pp. 122, 125-128.
57. J. Halcro Ferguson, Latin America: The Balance of Race Redressed (London: Oxford University Press, 1961), p. 56.
58. Nathan Glazer and Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Beyond the Melting Pot, p. 213.
59. For example, Humberto S. Nelli, The Italians in Chicago (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), pp. 92-100; Herbert J. Gans, The Urban Villagers (New York: The Free Press, 1962), p. 174.
60. Robert F. Foerster, The Italian Emigration of Our Times (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1924), Chapters XIII, XIV.
61. Gary B. Cohen, The Politics of Ethnic Survival: Germans in Prague, 1861-1914 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981), Chapters 1, 2.
62. Alvin Rabushka and Kenneth A. Shepsle, Politics in Plural Societies: A Theory of Democratic Instability (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co., 1972), pp. 95, 105.
63. Ibid., pp. 122-123.
64. Bernard Lewis, The Muslim Discovery of Europe (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1982), pp. 24-25, 298.
65. Lynn Hollen Lees, Exiles of Erin (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1979), p. 223.
66. Raphael Patai, The Vanished Worlds of Jewry (New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1980), p. 57.
67. Gary B. Cohen, The Politics of Ethnic Survival, pp. 76-83, 175-182, 260-262; Arthur A. Goren, “Jews,” Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, p. 576.
68. See, for example, Albert Bernhardt Faust, The German Element in the United States, Vol. I, pp. 98-99, 103, 104, 112, 213, 232; Vol. II, p. 423. This is not to claim that Germans had no clashes with Indians.
69. Ibid., Vol. I, pp. 45-46, 182, 242, 446.
70. John Hope Franklin, The Free Negro in North Carolina (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1971), p. 26.
71. Gary B. Cohen, The Politics of Ethnic Survival, p. 28.
72. Myron Cohen, Sons of the Soil: Migration and Ethnic Conflict in India (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), pp. 285-288; Mary Fainsod Katzenstein, Ethnicity and Equality: The Shiv Sena Party and Preferential Policies in Bombay (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1979), pp. 72-78.
Chapter 2: From Equal Opportunity to “Affirmative Action”
1. U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, Legislative History of Titles VII and XI of Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrintingOffice, nodate) pp. 1007-08, 1014, 3005, 3006, 3013, 3160, and passim.
2. Ibid., p. 3005.
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid., p. 1014.
5. Ibid., p. 3006.
6. Ibid., p. 3160.
7. Ibid., p. 3015.
8. Ibid., p. 3013.
9. Quoted in Nathan Glazer, Affirmative Discrimination (New York: Basic Books, 1975), p. 45.
10. For example, Gallup Opinion Index, Report 143 (June 1977), p. 23.
11. Nathan Glazer, Affirmative Discrimination, p. 49.
12. Much semantic effort has gone into claiming that quotas are rigid requirements while “goals” under “affirmative action” are flexible. Historically, however, quotas have existed in sales, immigration, production, and many other areas, sometimes referring to minima, sometimes to maxima, and with varying degrees of flexibility. The idea that “quota” implies rigidity is a recent redefinition. The objection to quotas is that they are quantitative rather than qualitative criteria, not that they are rigidly rather than flexibly quantitative.
13. United Steelworkers of America v. Weber, 443 US 193 (1979), p.207, note 7.
14. Ibid., p. 222.
15. Ibid., pp. 226-252.
16. Thomas Sowell, Markets and Minorities (New York: Basic Books, 1981), p. 11.
17. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Social Indicators, 1976 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977), pp. 454-456.
18. Peter Uhlenberg, “Demographic Correlates of Group Achievement: Contrasting Patterns of Mexican-Americans and Japanese-Americans,” Race, Creed, Color, or National Origin, ed. Robert K. Yin (Itasca, Illinois: F. E. Peacock Publishers, 1973), p. 91.
19. Lucy W. Sells, “Leverage for Equal Opportunity Through Mastery of Mathematics,” Women and Minorities in Science, ed. Sheila M. Humphreys (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1982), pp. 12, 16.
20. Ibid., p. 11.
21. College Entrance Examination Board, Profiles, College-Bound Seniors, 1981 (New York: College Entrance Examination Board, 1982), pp. 12, 22, 41, 51, 60, 65.
22. Ibid., pp. 27, 36, 46, 55.
23. Ibid., pp. 60, 79; Alexander Randall, “East Meets West,” Science, November 1981, p. 72.
24. National Research Council, Science, Engineering, and Humanities Doctorates in the United States (Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 1980), pp. 13, 39.
25. National Research Council, Summary Report: 1980 Doctorate Recipients from United States Universities (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1981), pp. 26, 29.
26. Sue E. Berryman, “Trends in and Causes of Minority and Female Representation Among Science and Mathematics Doctorates,” mimeographed, The Rand Corporation, 1983, p. 13.
27. U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Unemployment and Underemployment Among Blacks, Hispanics, and Women (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 1982), p. 58.
28. Thomas Sowell, Ethnic America (New York: Basic Books, 1981), p. 222.
29. J. C. Furnas, The Americans (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1969), p. 86; Daniel Boorstin, The Americans (New York: Random House, 1958), Vol. I, p. 225.
30. Arthur Young, A Tour in Ireland (Shannon, Ireland: Irish University Press, 1970), Vol. I, pp. 377-379.
31. Thomas H. Holloway, Immigrants on the Land (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1980), p. 151.
32. Harry Leonard Sawatzky, They Sought a Country (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971), pp. 129, 244. Apparently Germans prospered in Honduras as well. Ibid., pp. 361, 365.
33. Hattie Plum Williams, The Czar’s Germans (Lincoln, Nebraska: American Historical Society of Germans from Russia, 1975), pp. 135, 159.
34. Carl Solberg, Immigration and Nationalism (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1970), pp. 27, 40.
35. Judith Laikin Elkin, Jews of the Latin American Republics (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1980), pp. 214-237. See also Robert Weisbrot, The Jews of Argentina (Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society of America, 1979), pp. 175-184.
36. Thomas Sowell, Ethnic America, p. 238.
37. Daniel P. Moynihan, “Employment, Income, and the Ordeal of the Negro Family,” Daedalus, Fall 1965, p. 752.
38. Daniel O. Price, Changing Characteristics of the Negro Population (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969), pp. 117, 118.
39. Employment and Training Report of the President, 1981 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981), p. 150.
40. Ibid., p. 151.
41. Thomas Sowell, Ethnic America, p. 260.
42. Thomas Sowell, The Economics and Politics of Race (New York: William Morrow, 1983), p. 187.
43. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Social Indicators III (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1980), p. 485.
44. Finis Welch, “Affirmative Action and Its Enforcement,” American Economic Review, May 1981, p. 132.
45. Thomas Sowell, Affirmative Action Reconsidered (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1975), pp. 16-22.
46. Martin Kilson, “Black Social Classes and Intergenerational Policy,” The Public Interest, Summer 1981, p. 63.
47. U.S. Bureau of the Census Current Population Reports, Series P-20, No. 366 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981), pp. 182, 184.
48. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series P-60, No. 80, p. 37; Ibid., Series P-60, No. 132, pp. 41-42.
49. The probability that a non-discriminatory employer will escape a false charge of discrimination is 95 percent, when the standard of “statistical significance” is that his employment pattern would not occur more than 5 times out of 100 by random chance. But the probability of escaping the same false charge for three separate groups simultaneously is (.95)3 or about 86 percent. When there are six separate groups, the probability is (.95)6 or about 73 percent. Not all groups are separate; women and the aged, for example, overlap racial and ethnic groups. This complicates the calculation without changing the basic principle.
50. The greater ease of “proving” discrimination statistically, when there are multiple groups, multiple jobs, and substantial demographic, cultural and other differences between groups, may either take the form of finding more “discriminators” at a given level of statistical significance (5 percent, for example) or using a more stringent standard of statistical significance (1 percent, for example) to produce a more impressive-looking case against a smaller number of “discriminators.”
51. Thomas Sowell, Affirmative Action Reconsidered (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1975), pp. 16-22.
52. Commission on Human Resources, National Research Council, Summary Report: 1980 Doctorate Recipients from United States Universities (National Academy Press, 1981), p. 27.
53. Ibid., p. 25.
54. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series P-23, No. 120 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1982), p. 5.
55. Barry R. Chiswick, “An Analysis of the Earnings and Employment of Asian-American Men,” Journal of Labor Economics, April 1983, pp. 197-214.
56. Walter McManus, William Gould and Finis Welch, “Earnings of Hispanic Men: The Role of English Language Performance,” Ibid., pp. 101-130; Gary D. Sandefur, “Minority Group Status and the Wages of White, Black, and Indian Males,” Social Science Research, March 1983, pp. 44-68.
Chapter 3: From School Desegration to Busing
1. Richard Kluger, Simple Justice (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1976), p. 696.
2. Ibid., p. 782.
3. Gloria J. Powell, “School Desegregation: The Psychological, Social, and Educational Implications,” The Psychosocial Development of Minority Group Children, ed. Gloria J. Powell, p.439.
4. See, for example, K. B. Clark and M. K. Clark, “The Development of Consciousness of Self and the Emergence of Racial Identification in Negro Pre-School Children,” Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. 10 (1939), pp. 591-599.
5. Norman Miller, “Changing Views About the Effects of School Desegregation: Brown Then and Now,” Scientific Inquiry and the Social Sciences, ed. Marilynn B. Brewer and Barry E. Collins (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1981), pp. 413-452.
6. Lino Graglia, Disaster by Decree (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1976), p. 31.
7. Richard Kluger, Simple Justice, p. 782.
8. Ibid., p. 720.
9. Ibid., p. 758.
10. Lino Graglia, Disaster by Decree, p. 40.
11. Ibid., pp. 38-39.
12. Ibid., p. 48.
13. Ibid., pp. 48-52.
14. Ibid., p. 51.
15. Ibid., p. 66.
16. Ibid., p. 76.
17. Ibid., p. 73.
18. Ibid., Chapter 9.
19. Jack McCurdy, “Egly Makes His Desegregation Order Final,” Los Angeles Times, July 8, 1980, Part II, pp. 1, 6.
20. Thomas Sowell, “Assumptions versus History in Ethnic Education,” Teachers College Record, Vol. 83, No. 1 (Fall 1981), pp. 48-51.
21. Ibid., p. 46.
22. Ibid., p. 44.
23. Ibid., pp. 45, 47, 48.
24. Diane Ravitch, The Great School Wars (New York: Basic Books, 1974), p. 178.
25. Charles M. Wollenberg, All Deliberate Speed (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978), Chapters 2, 3.
26. Ibid., pp. 73-74; Harry H. L. Kitano, Japanese Americans (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1969), p. 24.
27. “It would take an extraordinarily sophisticated, or perhaps an extraordinarily naive, approach to judicial behavior to believe that the cited literature was the cause of the Court’s judgment rather than the result of it.” Philip B. Kurland, “Brown v. Board of Education Was the Beginning,” Washington University Law Quarterly, Vol. 1979, No. 2 (Spring), p. 318.
28. For example, E. Van den Haag, “Social Science Testimony in the Desegregation Cases—A Reply to Professor Kenneth Clark,” Villanova Law Review, Fall 1960, pp. 69-79; James Gregor, “The Law, Social Science, and School Segregation,” Western Reserve Law Review. Vol. 14, No. 14, No. 4 (September 1963), pp. 621-636.
29. Richard Kluger, Simple Justice, p. 555.
Chapter 4: The Special Case of Blacks
1. James B. Conant, Slums & Suburbs (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961), p. 12.
2. Thomas Sowell, The Economics and Politics of Race (New York: William Morrow, 1983), p. 187.
3. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1982), p. 143.
4. Thomas Sowell, The Economics and Politics of Race, p. 193.
5. Ibid., p. 103.
6. Audrey M. Shuey, The Testing of Negro Intelligence, 2nd edition (New York: Social Science Press, 1966), p. 493.
7. H. J. Eysenck, The I.Q. Argument (New York: The Library Press, 1971), p. 23.
8. Phillip E. Vernon, Intelligence and Cultural Environment (London: Methuen and Co., Ltd., 1970), p. 155.
9. Lester R. Wheeler, “A Comparative Study of the Intelligence of East Tennessee Mountain Children,” Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 33, No. 5 (May 1942), pp. 322, 324.
10. H. Gordon, Mental and Scholastic Tests Among Retarded Children (London: Board of Education Pamphlet No. 44), p. 38.
11. Thomas Sowell, Race and I.Q. Reconsidered (Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute, 1978), pp. 210-211.
12. Herbert G. Gutman, The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750-1925 (New York: Vintage Books, 1977), pp. 32, 45.
13. Ibid., p. 455.
14. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series P-20, No. 224 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1971), p. 14.
15. For example, “Thomas Sowell delivers a message to struggling ethnic groups in the United States: Work hard and suffer long.” Julia Epstein, “Conservative Advice for Ethnics: Work Hard.”
16. Walter E. Williams, The State Against Blacks (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1982), p. 87; Thomas Sowell, Markets and Minorities (New York: Basic Books, 1981), pp. 44-46.
17. Thomas Sowell, Ethnic America (New York: Basic Books, 1981), Chapter 8.
18. Ibid., pp. 216-220.
19. Thomas Sowell, ed., Essays and Data on American Ethnic Groups, p. 258.
20. Thomas Sowell, “Three Black Histories,” Ibid., p. 44.
21. Barry R. Chiswick, “The Economic Progress of Immigrants: Some Apparently Universal Patterns,” Contemporary Economic Problems, 1979, ed. William Fellner (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1979), p. 373.
22. Ibid., pp. 357-399.
23. Thomas Sowell, The Economics and Politics of Race.
24. Richard Freeman, Black Elite (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976), Chapter 4.
25. Ibid., p. 88.
26. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series P-20, No. 371 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1982), p. 7.
27. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports Series P-23, No. 80 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, no date), p. 44.
28. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series P-20, No. 366 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Govenrment Printing Office, 1981), pp. 182, 184.
29. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series P-23, No. 80, p. 44.
30. Ibid., p. 30.
31. James P. Smith and Finis Welch, Race Differences in Earnings (Santa Monica, California: The Rand Corporation, 1978), p. 15.
32. Robert Higgs, Competition and Coercion: Blacks in the American Economy, 1865-1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), p. 120.
33. Thomas Sowell, “Patterns of Black Excellence,” The Public Interest, Spring 1976, pp. 26-58; J. S. Fuerst, “Report from Chicago: A Program That Works,” Ibid., pp. 59-69; Guy D. Garcia, “Hope Stirs in the Ghetto,” Time, April 25, 1983, p. 95.
34. James S. Coleman, Thomas Hoffer, Sally Kilgore, High School Achievement (New York: Basic Books, 1982), pp. 143-145.
35. Thomas Sowell, “Black Excellence: The Case of Dunbar High School,” The Public Interest, Spring 1974, pp. 1-21.
36. Thomas Sowell, “Patterns of Black Excellence,” op cit., pp. 35-37.
37. Thomas Sowell, “Assumptions versus History in Ethnic Education,” Teachers College Record, Fall 1981, pp. 56-57.
38. Daniel P. Moynihan, “Employment, Income, and the Ordeal of the Negro Family,” Daedalus, Fall 1965, p. 752.
39. Daniel O. Price, Changing Characteristics of the Negro Population (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969), pp. 118, 133.
40. Orley Ashenfelter, “Changes in Labor Market Discrimination Over Time,” Journal of Human Resources, Fall 1970, p.405.
41. David Levering Lewis, When Harlem Was in Vogue (New York: Vintage Books, 1982), Chapters 6, 7, passim.
42. See, for example, Jacob Mincer, “Unemployment Effects of Minimum Wages,” Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 84, No. 4, Part 2 (August 1976), p. S103; Walter E. Williams, Youth and Minority Unemployment (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1977).
43. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series P-60, No. 135 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1982), p. 3.
44. Walter E. Williams, The State Against Blacks (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1982), p. 75.
45. Ibid., pp. 76, 80.
46. Ibid., pp. 85, 86.
47. Ibid., p. 114.
48. Ibid., pp. 113, 114.
49. Ibid., pp. 104-105.
50. Ibid., p. 122.
Chapter 5: The Special Case of Women
1. Shirley J. Smith, “Estimating Annual Hours of Labor Force Activity,” Monthly Labor Review, February 1983, p. 15.
2. U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Earnings, Vol. 30, No. 1 (January 1983), p. 169.
3. U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bulletin 2162, Job Tenure and Occupational Change (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1982), p. 1.
4. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series P-60, No. 132 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1982), p. 161.
5. “The Economic Role of Women,” The Economic Report of the President, 1973 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1973), p. 103.
6. Helen S. Astin, “Career Profiles of Women Doctorates,” Academic Women on the Move, eds. Alice S. Rossi and Anne Calderwood (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1973), p. 153.
7. Thomas Sowell, Affirmative Action Reconsidered (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1975), pp. 32, 33.
8. William G. Bowen and T. Aldrich Finegan, The Economics of Labor Force Participation (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969), pp. 40, 41, 97.
9. Shirley J. Smith, “Estimating Annual Hours of Labor Force Activity,” Monthly Labor Review, February 1983, p. 19.
10. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series P-60, No. 132, p. 161.
11. John M. McDowell, “Obsolescence of Knowledge and Career Publication Profiles: Some Evidence of Differences Among Fields in Costs of Interrupted Careers,” American Economic Review, Vol. 72, No. 4 (September 1982), p. 761.
12. Ibid., p. 757.
13. U.S. Department of Labor, 1975 Handbook on Women Workers (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1975), p. 28.
14. For example, as a single man I declined a very tempting offer to teach at Dartmouth, because it is located in an isolated small town, where single living might be socially unattractive. But a year later, as a married man, I accepted a similar offer from Cornell, which is also located in a small isolated town.
15. Thomas Sowell, Affirmative Action Reconsidered, pp. 23-24, 30.
16. U.S. Department of Labor, 1975 Handbook on Women Workers, p. 60.
17. Ibid., p. 20. See also Beverly L. Johnson, “Marital and Family Characteristics of the Labor Force,” Monthly Labor Review, April 1980, p. 51.
18. John B. Parrish, “Professional Womanpower as a National Resource,” Quarterly Review of Economics and Business, February 1961, p. 58.
19. Ibid., p. 56.
20. Jessie Bernard, Women and the Public Interest (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co., 1971), p. 117.
21. John B. Parrish, “Professional Womanpower as a Soviet Resource,” Quarterly Review of Economics and Business, August 1964, p. 60.
22. Helen S. Astin, “Career Profiles of Women Doctorates,” Academic Women on the Move, p. 141.
23. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976), p. 49.
24. Jessie Bernard, Academic Women (University Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1964), pp. 43-44.
25. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, p. 50.
26. U.S. Department of Labor, 1975 Handbook on Women Workers, p. 28. See also William G. Bowen and T. Aldrich Finegan, The Economics of Labor Force Participation, p. 88.
27. U.S. Department of Labor, 7975 Handbook on Women Workers, p. 28.
28. William G. Bowen and T. Aldrich Finegan, op. cit., pp. 89-90, 97.
29. Walter E. Williams, The State Against Blacks (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1982), pp. 56, 57.
30. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Social Indicators III (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1980), p. 361.
31. Ibid.
32. U.S. Department of Labor, 1975 Handbook on Women, p. 68.
33. Walter E. Williams, The State Against Blacks, p. 55.
34. William W. Van Allstyne, “The Proposed Twenty-seventh Amendment: A Brief, Supportive Comment,” Washington University Law Review, Volume 1979, No. 1 (Winter 1979), p. 203.
35. Ibid., p. 202.
36. Ruth Bader Ginsburg, “Sexual Equality under the Fourteenth and Equal Rights Amendments,” Ibid., p. 175.
37. “Panel Discussion,” Ibid., p. 206.
38. William W. Van Allstyne, op. cit., p. 203.
39. Ruth Bader Ginsburg, op. cit., p. 161.
40. U.S. Department of Labor, 1975 Handbook on Women, p.7.
41. Ibid., p. 28.
42. Ibid., p. iii.
43. Helen S. Astin and Mary Beth Snyder, “Affirmative Action 1972-1982: A Decade of Response,” Change, July-August 1982, p. 31.
44. Ibid., pp. 28, 29, 30.
45. The Committee on the Status of Women in the Economics Profession reported to the American Economic Association in 1982 that women were “represented more poorly in the top economics departments than they were four years ago”—even though the number of women with Ph.D.’s in economics had doubled. (The American Economic Review, May 1983, p. 419.) The top-rated economics departments have long had a pattern of rarely retaining or promoting assistant professors, except for the unusual ones who publish exceptional research. It is a process not unlike panning for gold, where it is understood in advance that only occasional nuggets can be expected. But to hire and then fire large numbers of women without cause—when any one of them could file a costly and time-consuming lawsuit—would be a dangerous gamble under “affirmative action.”
46. Tom Jackman, “Female Professors Gain Little Ground,” New York Times, January 9, 1983, Section 3, p. 17.
47. U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, A Growing Crisis: Disadvantaged Women and Their Children (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 1983), p. 27.
48. Ibid.
49. Ibid., p. 75.
Chapter 6: Rhetoric or Reality?
1. Yash Tandon, Problems of a Displaced Minority: The New Position of East Africa’s Asians (London: Minority Rights Group, 1973), p. 15; Yash Ghai and Dharam Ghai, The Asian Minorities of East and Central Africa (London: Minority Rights Group, 1979), p. 9.
2. Myron Weiner, Sons of the Soil: Migration and Ethnic Conflict in India (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), pp. 285-288. See also Mary Fainsod Katzenstein, Ethnicity and Equality: The Shiv Shena Party and Preferential Policies in Bombay (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1979), Chapter 3.
3. Donald V. Smiley, “French-English Relations in Canada and Consociational Democracy,” Ethnic Conflict in the Western World, ed. Milton J. Esman (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1977), p. 188; Mary Fainsod Katzenstein, Ethnicity and Equality, p. 199.
4. Thomas Sowell, The Economics and Politics of Race: An International Perspective (New York: William Morrow, 1983), p. 171.
5. Mary Fainsod Katzenstein, Ethnicity and Equality, pp. 208-210.
6. Robert Klitgaard and Ruth Katz, “Overcoming Ethnic Inequality: Lessons for Malaysia,” Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, Vol. 2, No. 3 (1983), pp. 335, 341, 343.
7. Ibid., p. 208.
8. George M. Fredrickson, White Supremacy: A Comparative Study in American & South African History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), pp. 228-229, 231-233.
9. Robert Higgs, Competition and Coercion: Blacks in the American Economy, 1865-1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), pp. 64-66.
10. Robert Higgs, “Landless by Law: Japanese Immigrants in California Agriculture to 1941,” Journal of Economic History, March 1978, p. 209.
11. Carl Solberg, Immigration and Nationalism: Argentina and Chile, 1890-1914 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1970), p. 50; Mark Jefferson, Peopling the Argentine Pampa (Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat Press, 1971), p. 183; Constance Cronin, The Sting of Change: Sicilians in Sicily and Australia (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), pp. 163, 245; W. D. Borrie, The Italians and Germans in Australia (Melbourne: The Australian National University, 1934), p. 147; Luciano J. Iorizzo, “The Padrone and Immigrant Distribution,” The Italian Experience in the United States, ed. S. M. Tomasi and M.H. Engel (Staten Island, N.Y.: Center for Migration Studies, 1970), p. 57.
12. Dino Cinel, From Italy to San Francisco: The Immigrant Experience (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1982), pp. 237-239; Ronald P. Grossman, The Italians in America (Minneapolis: Lerner Publications, 1975), pp. 34-35.
13. Janet Bamford, “Any Port in a Storm,” Forbes, December 6, 1982, p. 40.
14. Ivan H. Light, Ethnic Enterprise in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972), p. 46.
15. Walter E. Williams, “Some Hard Questions on Minority Businesses,” The Negro Educational Review, April-July 1974, pp. 128-129.
16. Thomas Sowell, Ethnic America (New York: Basic Books, 1981), p. 262.
17. Ibid., p. 212.
18. Michael Meltsner, Cruel and Unusual: The Supreme Court and Capital Punishment (New York: Random House, 1973), p. 36.
19. Luigi Barzini, The Europeans (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1983), p. 106.
20. For example, Gallup Opinion Index, June 1977, Report 143, p. 23.
Epilogue
1. Thomas Sowell, “New Light on Black IQ” New York Times Magazine, March 27, 1977, pp. 57 ff; Thomas Sowell, “Race and IQ Reconsidered,” Essays and Data on American Ethnic Groups (Washington: The Urban Institute, 1978), pp. 203-238; Thomas Sowell, Black Education: Myths and Tragedies (New York: David McKay Co., 1972), pp. 265-295; Thomas Sowell, “The Great IQ, Controversy,” Change, May 1973, pp. 33-37; Thomas Sowell, Knowledge and Decisions (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1980), pp. 345-349; Thomas Sowell, Ethnic America (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1981), pp. 281-282.
2. CBS Correspondent Lem Tucker declared on the CBS Morning News broadcast of October 13, 1981, that my position “seems to place him in the school that believes that maybe most blacks are genetically inferior to whites.” A similar innuendo appeared in William Darity, Jr., “The Goal of Racial Economic Equality,” The Journal of Ethnic Studies, Winter 1983, p. 54.
3. Tom Braden, “Economist’s Message Is Wrong,” Mount Prospect, Illinois, Daily Herald, January 2, 1983.
4. Christopher Jencks, “Discrimination and Thomas Sowell,” New York Review of Books, March 3, 1983, p. 33.
5. Carl Rowan, “What Has Reagan Learned About U.S. Blacks?” Los Angeles Herald-Examiner, December 27, 1980, p. A13.
6. Thomas Sowell, Black Education: Myths and Tragedies, p. 111.
7. CBS Morning News, broadcast of October 13, 1981.
8. Lester Thurow, The New Republic, June 28, 1980, p. 900.
9. Christopher Jencks, op. cit., p. 37.
10. Patricia Roberts Harris, “Who Speaks for Black People?” The Washington Post, February 18, 1981.
11. Roger Wilkins, “Sowell Brother?” The Nation, October 10, 1981, p. 332.
12. St. Clair Drake, “The Value of Cultural Baggage,” Palo Alto Weekly, September 23, 1981, p. 1.
13. Christopher Jencks, op. cit., p. 34.
14. U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Unemployment and Underemployment Among Blacks, Hispanics, and Women (Washington: U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 1982), p. 40.
15. See Chapter 2 above.
16. Christopher Jencks, op. cit., p. 34.
17. U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, op. cit., p. 58.
18. Christopher Jencks, “Ethnic America: An Exchange,” New York Review of Books, June 16, 1983, p. 50.
19. See Chapter 2 above.
20. Charles L. Black, “Foreword: ‘State Action,’ Equal Protection and California’s Proposition 14,” Harvard Law Review, Vol. 81, No. 69 (1967), p. 109.
21. Allan H. Spear, Black Chicago (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), p. 168; E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro in the United States (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1971), pp. 284-285; Florette Henri, Black Migration: Movement North, 1900-1920 (New York: Anchor Books, 1976), pp. 96-97; Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto (New York: Harper and Row, 1966), p. 44; Ivan H. Light, Ethnic Enterprise in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972), Figure 1 (after p. 100).
22. Constance M. Green, The Secret City (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967), p. 127.
23. Douglas Henry Daniels, Pioneer Urbanites (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1980), Chapter 10.
24. St. Clair Drake, “The Value of Cultural Baggage,” The Palo Alto Weekly, September 23, 1981, p. 1.
25. W.E.B. Du Bois, Book Reviews by W.E.B. Du Bois, ed. Herbert Aptheker (Millwood, N.Y.: KTO Press, 1977), p. 5.
26. Quoted in William Darity, Jr., op. cit., p. 51.