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How the Canonical Christian Texts Were Chosen

Early groups of Christians possessed many sacred texts. Their religious material included letters, gospels, acts, manuals, epistles, hymns, apocalyptic literature, and treatises and were as diverse as the people who possessed them and the times and cultures in which they lived. Some of these writings made it into the New Testament canon; others were rejected, suppressed, and destroyed. Through the process of selection over many years, the documents collected into the canon offered a particular view of Christianity, but there were other documents and other views as well.

Gnostic Beliefs in Scripture

Even before the end of the Apostles' lifetimes, problems arose within the fledgling Christian communities. The New Testament letters of Paul and the Acts of the Apostles reveal many of these early problems. From reading them, you can see that the first Christians had to grapple with a host of issues: what they believed about Jesus, sin, Gentiles and Jews, the roles of women, and behavior and cultural practices that were not acceptable in or compatible with Christian ethical and moral ways. Nothing inflamed the early orthodox Christians more than heresy.

Heresy (from the Greek haireín ) means “the act of choosing.” It has been used throughout history to highlight a point of doctrine or opinion that is at variance with the more generally accepted doctrine or teaching. Most often, the word is used within the context of religious ideas, beliefs, or systems.

Scriptural Letters Written to Oppose Gnosticism

Prior to his martyrdom around A.D. 107, a Syrian living in Antioch named Ignatius wrote a number of letters to the Christian communities of Ephesus, Magnesia, Tralles, Rome, Philadelphia, and Smyrna. Ignatius exhorted these Christians to be ever vigilant against the spreading heresies of Gnosticism and Docetism (believers in those systems thought that Jesus the Christ was only a spirit with a phantom body). Such heresies threatened Christian unity, and the letters of Ignatius show that he was trying to create Christian unity. The letters suggest that he was sold on hierarchy and doctrine, but that the churches he visited were not. Ignatius asked Christians to obey their bishops. This was very early in the history of the church, but it is clear that a three-tiered hierarchy of leadership (bishops, priests, and deacons) was already established and that an orthodox viewpoint was in place. Those vested in unity based on apostolic succession and orthodox ideas used the power of the pen on papyrus to oppose Gnosticism and other ideas at variance with their beliefs.

Irenaeus, a presbyter in the southern Gallic city of Lyons, lived during a time of protracted persecutions of Christians between A.D. 120 and A.D. 203. It also happened to be a time when Gnosticism in general and Valentinism specifically, with its doctrine of dualism, were fashionable and flourishing. Irenaeus opposed the Gnostic idea of a lesser God doing the work of creation. He believed that the creation God of the Hebrew scriptures and the redemption God of the New Testament were the same God embodied in Christ. He particularly hated the hypocrisies of Marcion and Valentinus and forcefully argued against the Gnostic heresies in a five-volume work titled On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis , also known by the shorter title, Adversus Haereses (or Against Heresies ). This book contains precise and abundant quotes from a majority of the texts that made it into the New Testament. Irenaeus also wrote The Demonstration of the Apostolic Teaching (a text thought to serve as an instruction guide for baptism candidates into the early orthodox Christian religion). But mostly, Irenaeus's writings were against Gnosticism.

The Basilidians and Valentinians claimed that Jesus was a spirit, not a man. Other groups included Marcionists, Montanists, Ebionites (Jewish Christians opposed to abandoning Judaic customs and rituals), Arianists, Sethians, Thomasines, Mandaeans (followers of John the Baptist), Manichaeans, Ophites, Cainites, Carpocratians, Borborites, and Naassenes (mystics who claimed their teachings came from James, Jesus' brother).

Writings Favoring Gnosticism

Marcion was one of the most famous Gnostics. Much of what is known about Marcion has come down through the writings of those who opposed his teachings. He traveled from Asia Minor to Rome in A.D. 139. He was a Christian who adopted Gnostic beliefs and within five years was excommunicated. Marcion saw the God of Hebrew scriptures (the Old Testament) as weak and cruel whereas the God that Christ revealed was merciful and good. Marcion believed that of all the Apostles, only Paul truly understood the gospel teachings. The others were too steeped in Judaism. He practiced a severe ascetic life — the Gnostics thought that the body was polluted, loathsome, and evil and that asceticism countered such evil. Marcion established a sect of followers who believed in his particular view of Gnosticism. They shunned marriage, flesh, and wine (even from the Holy Eucharist). He developed his own canon, throwing out the Hebrew scriptures altogether. In Marcion's canon were ten letters of the Apostle Paul (minus the letters to Timothy and Titus known as the three pastoral Epistles), the Gospel of Luke (but he edited out all the references to the God of the Hebrew scriptures as the Father of Christ), and some of his own writings. Marcion and his followers could not accept the idea that Christ could have appeared in the flesh. Flesh was evil, but Christ was good and, therefore, how could he have come in the flesh? Marcion decided to accept the doctrine of Docetism. He may have been raised in a community of Jesus' followers who for generations had accepted such ideas.

What are polemics and apologetics?

Polemics, in reference to religion, is the art of waging controversial arguments against a particular ecclesiastical doctrine or opinion. Apologetics are explanations and defenses of Christianity. Several early Christians — Justin Martyr, Origen, and Augustine — are recognized as Apologists. Even the Apostle Paul made two apologies, one before Festus and the other before Agrippa (Acts 24:10; 25:8, and 26:2).

Tertullian converted to Christianity roughly between A.D. 197 to 198. His writings — there are about thirty-one — illustrate a brilliant mind that could seize upon new ideas. Initially, he was a faithful follower of the orthodox Christian way, a great Christian writer in Latin (which earned him the moniker of the Father of the Latin Church), and formulator of the term “Trinity,” a term that endures to today. Tertullian's writings include polemics against heresies and apologetics against Judaism and paganism. In particular, Tertullian zealously wrote five books against Marcionite heresies. Modern scholars consider them an invaluable source for information about Gnosticism of his time. Later in life, Tertullian broke with the orthodox Christian Church to become a Montanist. Members of that sect, after falling into ecstatic states to directly experience the presence of the Holy Spirit, would proclaim inspired messages.

Arius was a gifted theologian and writer from North Africa (A.D. 256 to A.D. 336). He sought to resolve a problem with the Christian doctrine. Both the Jews and the Christians had one God, but in Christianity, the Father God and his Son are both worshipped as God. Arius's attempt at resolving the doctrinal problem (so that Christianity would not be a bitheism, i.e., a religion with two gods) focused on the nature of God and the relationship between the Father and his Son. The orthodox Christians took the position that both were distinct Persons, but were one God. Arius reasoned that the Son was not eternal and, further, that he was subordinate to the Father (see 1 Corinthians 15:24–28.) His philosophy attracted a lot of support. However, the Council of Nicaea (the first ecumenical conference of bishops that was convened in A.D. 325 by Emperor Constantine I) established the canon. After significant debate, showing the strength of Arius's position, the Council voted his view into heresy. It bore the name of Arius and gave rise to polemics against it by the orthodoxy.

Other Significant Scriptural Writings

The earliest writings contained in the New Testament belong to the Apostle Paul, a Pharisaic Jew and Roman citizen, according to Acts. He never met Jesus, but experienced a powerful conversion and became an ardent believer. In his letter to the Galatians, he opposed those who argued in favor of making Christianity a synthesis between keeping faith in Christ and keeping the (Mosaic) law of the Jews. Paul called the proponents of such ideas “the Judaizers.” Paul's thoughts in Romans are later developed into the doctrine of “original sin” by Augustine and others. About the death and resurrection of Jesus, he wrote that Jesus “was delivered for our offenses, and was raised again for our justification” (Romans 4:25). He also explained how salvation comes through one's faith in Jesus (as opposed to adherence to Mosaic Law). Paul's belief in the divine nature of the Christ marks him as one of the first to offer this idea. Another Pauline offering was the concept of the Holy Spirit. But was Paul's thinking aligned more with the orthodox or Gnostic beliefs?

Paul reveals in 2 Corinthians 12:2–5 that he was “caught up to the third heaven … caught up into paradise, and heard unspeakable words, which it is not lawful for a man to utter.” The Gnostics relied on dreams and visions for inner insights, and when they spoke of their theology, it was often in terms of inspired revelation from an inward-oriented spiritual experience.

That his letters would be included in the New Testament suggested the importance and acceptance of his views by the orthodox church fathers, but modern religious scholar Elaine Pagels, writing in The Gnostic Paul , posits an interesting theory for Paul being a Gnostic. Unquestionably, his influence on the early church was so powerful that someone wrote forged letters from Paul (the pastoral Epistles to Timothy and Titus) to make it appear that Paul held beliefs in compliance with the orthodox interpretation rather than the Gnostic view. A passage in a letter that Paul supposedly wrote to Timothy makes a point about the expected behavior of women in church and reads as though Paul preached ideas consistent with literalist Christianity in the first century.

Let the woman learn in silence with all subjection. But I suffer not a woman to teach, nor to usurp authority over the man, but to be in silence. For Adam was first formed, then Eve. And Adam was not deceived, but the woman being deceived was in the transgression. — 1 Timothy 2:11–14

Clement of Alexandria was an orthodox early church father claiming to have more than one version of the Gospel of Mark. One of them contained a secret teaching imparted to the Apostles by Jesus. The teaching passed down from the Apostles through secret transmission to a few spiritually advanced individuals who were ready to receive and be changed by gnosis. A letter attributed to Clement to someone named Theodore apparently to refute “unspeakable teachings of the Carpocratians” contained manuscript pages with unknown passages of Mark's Gospel. In the letter, Clement claimed that the secret, more spiritual gospel was for the use of believers being perfected in Egypt. So valuable was this gospel that Clement noted the church in Alexandria had to keep careful guard of it and to allow only those spiritually advanced individuals who had undergone initiation into the great mysteries to read it.

The only reference scholars had to this secret teaching of Jesus was the one mention of it in the letter attributed to Clement. Authorship of the letter has been the focus of a heated scholarly debate in recent times. Some Christians find the letter to be theologically offensive because of its homoerotic overtones and the reference to a great sound inside the tomb of Lazarus before Jesus removed the stone and raised him from the dead. Could Lazarus have called out or signaled Jesus in that great noise if he were already dead? Although some Clementine scholars believe the letter to be written by Clement, other biblical scholars say the letter is a forgery.

Which version of the Gospel of Mark known to Clement is the one in the New Testament?

Of the three versions — the longer “secret” version aimed at those spiritually advanced, the shorter version for new Christians, or the suspected forgery — it is generally accepted that the shorter version is the one included in the canonical New Testament.

As the spread of Gnosticism in the second and third centuries gathered steam, the orthodox element of the literalist Christian church worked to define and maintain its identity as distinct and apart from that of the Gnostics. Helping in that effort was a young presbyter from Caesarea by the name of Eusebius, a scholar with an interest in antiquities, who in the fourth century wrote a ten-volume history of Christianity that proved invaluable to the orthodox church through the ages and greatly aided the work of modern biblical scholars.

Three Views of Salvation: Gnostic, Jewish Christian, Pauline Christian

The Gnostics believed that salvation came through the grace of God and the secret spiritual knowledge that Jesus the Christ (redeemer figure) imparted to humankind. The Gnostics also believed that humans were imperfect and therefore could not secure salvation by themselves through good deeds. They believed that through self-discovery and inner knowledge that came from direct contact with the Divine, their sacred spark could awaken from beneath the dark spell of the Demiurge to return to the realm of Light. The inner spiritual resurrection, not the physical, gave each seeker access to God without the intercession of priests or the death of Jesus.

The Jewish Christians, those closest to Jesus, who saw themselves as a sect within Judaism, believed that salvation came from following Mosaic laws and abiding by the rules governing purity, diet, behavior, and sacrifice in the Temple as well as honoring the Jewish holy days and the Sabbath.

An early Christian view of salvation can be found in the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke (collectively known as the synoptic Gospels because of their similarities in content, language, and style). These gospels reveal part of the message that salvation comes through individual good deeds and kindly treatment of others, especially the poor (Matthew 25:31–46 and Luke 10:25–27). The Gospel of John emphasizes salvation through faith in Jesus as the Son of God: “Behold the Lamb of God, which taketh away the sin of the world” (John 1:29). The early Christians did not elaborate on exactly what one needed in order to be “saved,” but Paul believed that salvation came from belief in the Son of God (see 2 Corinthians 5:10–21) and faith in Jesus. He wrote to the Corinthians about the certainty of the resurrection of the dead: “For since by man came death, by man came also the resurrection of the dead. For as in Adam all die, even so in Christ shall all be made alive” (1 Corinthians 15:21–22).

The Pauline Christian view of salvation stresses belief in Jesus, son of God, who died for the sins of humankind, and was resurrected. Pauline Christianity describes the beliefs, theology, moral behavior, and acts of faith necessary for salvation as espoused by the Apostle Paul in his letters and supported also by the writer of the book of Acts of the Apostles. Pauline Christianity today is expressed through Roman Catholicism but also Protestant denominations as well.

Soteriology is the study of the biblical doctrine of salvation through Jesus Christ. The term “salvation” derives from the Greek word soteria , which can also mean redemption. When humans satisfy the condition of faith in Christ, they receive salvation (see Paul's letter to the Romans 1:16–17).

A Call for Unity

Early Christian communities, while endeavoring to stay close to Jesus' teachings and words of wisdom, began to diverge as they developed their own ideas and traditions. Both the canonical and the Gnostic Gospels reveal instances when Jesus, within his own inner circle, had to clarify particulars of his teachings, patiently explain a point, or redirect a disciple whose frustration and anger required a rebuke. There were twelve disciples in Jesus' inner circle — twelve witnesses to informal conversations, private teachings, and talks before multitudes. Yet these twelve often disagreed and at times were contentious with each other.

The disciples all had been raised in the patriarchal society of first-century Palestine. In that milieu, women were not usually educated nor considered equal to men, yet the Gnostic texts portray Mary Magdalene as having a special relationship with Jesus, and spiritual insights and understanding better than all her co-disciples. Her spiritual comprehension shines in the Pistis Sophia . The Gospel of Philip stresses her personal relationship with Jesus. In the Gospel of Mary (Magdalene), while Peter and the others are mourning Jesus, he tells Mary that he (Peter) and the others know that Jesus loved her more than them and urges her to share any words the Savior might have told her. She offers a secret teaching that Jesus gave her, and afterwards Andrew disbelieves her and Peter is incredulous, asking those gathered if Jesus would speak secretly with a woman. It is Levi who calms everyone and reminds Peter that the Savior made her worthy and it was not Peter's place to reject her.

The canonical texts reveal that there were disagreements among members of Jesus' core group while he dwelt among them and that dissension continued after his death. Each Apostle had his own group of followers. After Jesus' death, the Apostles separated. Those adhering to their Jewish traditions remained in their sect of Judaism, which they now considered “reformed.” Pauline Christians evangelized to non-Jews. Paul found himself at odds with Peter and James, head of the community in Jerusalem. Community leaders had to deal with rising tensions over what was expected in Christian belief and practice. In an effort to counsel, instruct, and unite the Christians of Ephesus, Paul sent a letter telling them that the death of Jesus united Jew and Gentile. In this letter, he also laid out clear guidelines for all to follow.

I, therefore, the prisoner of the Lord, beseech you that ye walk worthy … forbearing one another in love; endeavoring to keep the unity of the Spirit in the bond of peace. There is one body, and one Spirit … One Lord, one faith, one baptism, one God and Father of all, who is above all, and through all, and in you all. — Ephesians 4:1–6

Many Christian leaders, including Gnostic, Jewish Christian, and literalist Christians, understood that the unity of the faithful depended on agreeing upon key elements of doctrine. There was a growing consensus among many Christians by the late second century that the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John represented inspired narrative and the best authoritative accounts of Jesus' life and teachings as well as his divinity. These four gospels, although they portrayed differing understandings of Jesus, served as a means of unifying different communities of Christians in the absence of a canon.

The literalist Christians focused on the group and growing its “family,” while the Gnostics continued to emphasize the individual and the process of inner spiritual discovery. This may partially account for the decline of Gnosticism after several centuries, while Christianity continued to grow even in spite of persecution, but there was another reason as well. Through a process of selection over several centuries Christian leaders chose some texts over others for the emerging church. Those that they considered tainted by heresies were destroyed prior to the reign of Constantine. The fifty-two once-suppressed Gnostic texts found at Nag Hammadi indicate that some Gnostics must have defied the order to destroy those sacred writings and instead hid them in a jar in the desert cave to be discovered at some future time. The writings of Nag Hammadi were collected by Christians. The texts took many forms, including among them hymns, acts, myths, prayers, and gospels.

What's in a Gospel?

Jesus charged the Apostles with a commission to go into the world and share the gospel. Gospel was initially oral teaching — an imparting of “good news.” The word “gospel” is usually thought of as a written account of Jesus' life and teachings. More generally, a gospel may simply be a teaching or doctrine of a religious teacher. The New Testament contains only four (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) out of the many circulating in the first few centuries. In the Gnostic Bible, there are six: the Gospels of Thomas, Philip, John, Truth, Mary (Magdalene), and the Secret Supper. In the collection of Gnostic texts found in the clay jar at Nag Hammadi, there were five: the Gospels of Truth, Thomas, Philip, the Egyptians, and Mary. These gospels, along with other texts in the jar, offer glimpses into ancient Judaism and early Christianity as well as into the life of Jesus. Of course these gospels, like the canonical texts, can only reveal how Jesus' life was described by later followers. There is no way to know about the actual details of the life of Jesus and his followers, whether they were Jews, Egyptians, or Gentiles, or Gnostics from around the Greco-Roman empire.

The Canonical Gospels and the Synoptic Problem

The synoptic Gospels (Matthew, Mark, and Luke) possess similar stories about Jesus' life and sayings attributed to him told in similar phrases and, in some cases, identical wording (the Gospel of John is quite different in literary style and content). So, were the three similar gospels separate accounts by three different writers or was one account written and the others generated from it? An eighteenth-century German scholar named J. J. Gries-bach positioned the three gospels in a three-column table (a “synopsis”) to study their relationship. It became apparent that not only were many of the same stories occurring in the same sequences but being told in the same or similar ways.

While the canonical and the Gnostic Gospels had differences, they also had some areas of agreement. One of those was the practice of asceticism. It was a moral and religious behavior that both groups respected and practiced, although some biblical scholars say the point was played down or sidestepped in polemics against Gnostic heresies.

Scholars have debated many different reasons for the similarities. It is plausible that the gospels are written versions of popular stories about Jesus that were told and repeated innumerable times. However, they would have been told in Aramaic, Jesus' language, and the New Testament was written in Greek. The synoptic Gospels share many of the same Greek words, suggesting that perhaps one gospel was written, and the other two either were written independently, borrowing from a third source or simply from the original gospel. Modern scholarship indicates that Mark was likely the first gospel written, and that Matthew and Luke depended on it as a source.

The “Q” Source

A collection of the sayings of Jesus' deemed “Q” by some scholars and called the “Sayings Gospel Q” by others, provides sayings contained in Matthew and Luke that are not found in Mark. The Sayings Gospel Q is part of the “Two Source theory” solution to the synoptic problem surrounding the three synoptic Gospels. Most scholars agree that the Gospel of Mark was written in the late 60s A.D., and that Matthew and Luke both borrow from Mark. In addition, both Matthew and Luke use the hypothetical Q source to attribute sayings to Jesus. Finally, both Matthew and Luke use their own original oral source material not contained in Mark. The Gospel of Matthew may have been written around A.D. 70 to A.D. 100 and the Gospel of Luke may have been written around A.D. 80 to 100 (many scholars believe it was circa A.D. 85).

The Gospels Fight It Out

Imagine churches spread out in lands all around the Mediterranean and into Africa. Perhaps many of these churches had sacred texts that had been translated or copied by scribes from original source material. Or perhaps itinerant preachers making their pilgrimages around the region brought new ideas, pieces of texts, a different version of a particular gospel account, etc. into these fledgling Christian communities and churches. The gospels in these churches may not have been exactly the same as their earliest versions. Errors may have been introduced, scribes might have edited out or redacted material to shorten passages, translations might not have been exact, and new material could have been inserted.

The Gnostics were influenced by and perhaps borrowed ideas from a variety of other belief systems available to them during the first and second centuries, including the cults of Isis and Osiris, Attis and Cybele, Mithraism (based on Mithras, ancient god of light), and Zoroastrianism.

Certainly, there were lots of gospels circulating in the early centuries of the church. If a gospel bore the name of an Apostle, it would have more of an impact on the early Christians than one that didn't. The authorship and authority of many of the gospels were questioned. Had they been altered to reflect a particular viewpoint? Had material been added or deleted? Even in the early centuries of the church, everyone knew that if someone wanted others to notice his ideas, he could put an Apostle's name on his gospel. As you already know, many of the Gnostic Gospels do bear the name of someone close to Jesus.

The process of selecting the gospels that would be included in the New Testament took centuries to complete. It required collecting, scrutinizing, accepting, and rejecting. The gospels had to fight it out. In many ways, the battle against heresies helped the leaders of the fledgling early church refine exactly what they did believe and enabled them to determine which texts best represented their understanding of the truth about Jesus, his life, times, words, and ministry.

In the second century and much later, a group of gospels known as the Infancy Gospels began to circulate. They focused on the life of young Jesus. None of those gospels made it into the canon, and so are designated as apocryphal texts. They include the Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew, Gospel of James, Infancy Gospel of Thomas, and the Life of John the Baptist, History of Joseph the Carpenter, and the Arabic Infancy Gospel. Sometimes a gospel deviated too much from the literalist positions of what was then an acceptable doctrine to some Christian leaders and faithful followers. If it were deemed at variance with acceptable ideas of the emerging core community of Christians, it would remain outside the canon. Many such gospels were excluded for this reason. Other reasons that a gospel would not be considered useful is if its authorship was dubious or thought to be an outright forgery. Marcion (who died in circa A.D. 160) was said to have edited his version of the Gospel of Luke, and he, in turn, thought that Matthew, Mark, and John were forgeries. Early church father and historian Irenaeus of Lyons (about A.D. 130 to about 200) did not hesitate to call Marcion a heretic.

The Council at Nicaea

Did the Christian leaders during the three hundred years after Jesus' death decide one day that things were getting a little out of control and they needed to call a meeting during which they would establish for all time what Jesus had said and meant? Was their intent to iterate a canon, excommunicate those who disagreed with it, and thereby establish what all Christians of future generations would believe? Biblical scholars say it was more complicated than that, but basically that is what happened.

A pivotal moment in church history took place in A.D. 325 when a dispute that had long been brewing over the Christology of Jesus erupted between two branches of the early church, prompting Emperor Constantine to convene a council of Christian leaders. The Father, Son, and Holy Spirit represented then, as it does now, the Trinity of the Godhead. Bishop Alexander of the church of Alexandria, Egypt, and his followers believed in the divinity of Jesus. For Alexander, the Son existed co-eternally with the Father and was of the same substance as the Father. Arius, a well-respected presbyter of the time, opposed the idea of a divine Jesus. Arius and his followers believed that the Son, though a most spectacular and perfect creation, was still a creation. The Son, the Arians reasoned, was created after the Father and therefore could not be eternal.

Some Gnostics believed that the Redeemer/Savior dwelled within Jesus from his birth, while others thought the Savior descended upon him at his baptism and departed before the moment of death. Still others taught that the wrathful Demiurge caused Jesus' death. Finally, some Gnostics believed that Simon of Cyrene died in place of Jesus.

Alexander believed that the words “born,” “begotten,” and “created” all meant the same thing. Arius disagreed. Alexander and his followers argued that Arius was defying the unity of the Godhead as expressed in the Gospel of John, chapter 10, verse 30, in which Jesus says, “I and my Father are One.” The divinity of Jesus became the critical boiling-point issue around which the leaders of the church would come together to resolve for all future time this theological problem and others.

Who Attended?

Roman Emperor Constantine convened the meeting, which was modeled upon Roman senate sessions, and empowered the Council with the power of the state to enforce its resolutions. This was a critical turning point in the development of Christianity. Prior to the convening of the council, church leaders and authors could argue strongly for a doctrine, but had no way to enforce it. Of the 1,800 Christian bishops invited, only 250 to 300 from both the eastern and western provinces attended. This was the first large gathering of Christians following the Edict of Milan in A.D. 313, when Emperors Constantine and Licinius decreed an end to Christian persecution. Some of the bishops at the Council of Nicaea still bore marks of persecution. Many priests and acolytes accompanied their bishops for the session, which lasted more than a month. Emperor Constantine attended as an observer but did not vote.

What Was Decided?

During the month-long convocation, a host of issues were decided and conflicts resolved. The council overwhelmingly agreed with Bishop of Alexandria and against Arius (only two voted for the Arian position). Arius was excommunicated, declared a heretic, and exiled. The council also reached an agreement on the Christian Passover. Henceforth they called it Easter and would celebrate on the first Sunday following the first full moon after the vernal equinox. The council voted to prohibit young women in the homes of clerics, self-castration, usury among clerics, kneeling during the liturgy on Sundays and during the fifty days of Pentecost, and the removal of priests. Among other actions, it voted to establish a minimum term for catechumens (those who studied the faith in preparation for being initiated in the sacred mysteries), recognize the Holy See of Jerusalem as having honorary rights, establish the highest authority for the bishops of Alexandra and Rome and their regions, allow two annual synods to be held, ensure that bishops and presbyters receive the Holy Eucharist before deacons, and declare the invalidity of baptism by Pauline heretics.

Establishment of the Canon

For the first time, the assembled bishops sought to unify all Christian factions and formulate one creed that articulated Christian beliefs. They sought a statement using scriptural language that precisely represented the church's orthodox doctrine and excluded any heresies (particularly the Arian heresies). Subsequent councils would deal with other heresies. They began with the baptismal creed used by Bishop Eusebius of Caesarea, adding clarifications as they worked through it. This newly formulated creed became known as the Nicene Creed.

New language in the creed included phrases such as “God from God, Light from Light, true God from true God; begotten, not made; from the substance of the Father.” Arius and his followers could recite other creeds but could not truthfully recite these precise words. Emperor Constantine followed through with a statement that anyone refusing to sign the creed would be exiled. Arius, Theonas of Marmarica in Libya, and Secundus of Ptolemais refused and were excommunicated and exiled. Arius's works were ordered to be destroyed.

Out of a response to heresies, the young Christian church had together established rules for itself and a creed. Their next challenge was to establish the New Testament canon.