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Who Were the Authors of the Gnostic Gospels?

The New Testament offers one version of Jesus' life and times. It is a view that has been supported by the church for over 2,000 years. Modern feminist scholars say the church and its patriarchal traditions have all but erased the contributions of women who also followed Jesus. Gnostic-influenced communities in the earliest centuries of the church had a more egalitarian social structure than the more patriarchal Christian communities. The Gnostic Gospels offer another approach to Jesus, his women followers, and the early groups that believed in him.

Gnostic View of Gender Equality

The Gnostic writings celebrate women as bearers of truth, wisdom, and light. The Gnostic God is often regarded in the context of a dyad possessing both masculine and feminine attributes. The orthodox Christians speak of God the Father and his Son. For the Trinity, the Holy Spirit is added. Mary, the holy mother of Jesus, is not accorded the same stature as God the Father, though she may be reverently referred to as “Mary, Mother of God,” according to religious scholar Elaine Pagels, an expert on the Gnostics. But Mary is not considered the same as God the Father in feminine form. Yet the Jewish wisdom literature in the Hebrew scriptures (Ecclesiastes, Proverbs, Sirach, the Wisdom of Solomon, etc.), in which Christianity has roots, personifies Wisdom as a female.

Of the fifty-two Gnostic texts found at Nag Hammadi, four feature the feminine spiritual aspect of God. They are The Sophia of Jesus Christ, The Thought of Norea, The Exegesis on the Soul, and The Thunder, Perfect Mind. The texts survive in Egyptian Coptic but were originally written in Greek.

The Gnostic Gospel of Truth addresses both the masculine and feminine forms of God as Father and Mother. In the Dialogue of the Savior, God appears in the text as “Mother of All.” The Divine Mother in Gnostic tradition was called by many names. She was Helena to Simon Magus (a magician and sorcerer mentioned in the book of Acts); Barbelo (Mother) in the Gnostic Holy Trinity and also in the Secret Book of John; Sophia to Valentinus; and Thunder in The Thunder, Perfect Mind.

In the Gnostic Gospels, it is clear that women are as capable as men of receiving and understanding spiritual teachings. In The Dialogue of the Savior, Jesus gives a special teaching to some of the disciples. Mary Magdalene asks him why she has come into the world of matter, to which he replies that she “makes clear the abundance of the revealer.” How might she make abundance clear unless she was conveying or transmitting a teaching that the Savior has revealed to her? The Gospel of Mary, of which there are three copies in existence but no complete version, shows that female followers of Jesus served as teachers. That gospel with others — Gospel of Philip, Dialogue of the Savior, and Gospel of Thomas — show Peter, Jesus' chief male disciple, as a man somewhat intolerant of women, especially Mary Magdalene. When, during a session with Jesus and the other disciples, he complains of Mary Magdalene talking too much (presumably usurping the time available for men to ask questions), Jesus rebukes not Mary Magdalene but Peter.

Who Wrote the Gospels?

The authorship of the gospels (both the New Testament and the Gnostic) is generally attributed to the Apostles, but most scholars agree that the authorship of the ancient sacred texts is not known. Scholars have been able to piece together information about the gospels that suggest possible authorship for some. Early church fathers writing polemics against certain Gnostic texts, among them gospels that some Christians claimed to possess, have made modern scholars aware that such texts existed, but only recently with the Nag Hammadi find have many of these texts become available to scholars to translate and study. Sometime in the second century, the gospels were given their names. Generally, the names given were associated with the Apostles or others important to the early church. Many New Testament scholars agree that the Apostles did not write the gospels that bear their names.

Authorship of the New Testament Gospels

John Mark, the attendant of Peter, is widely considered the best candidate for the authorship of the New Testament Gospel of Mark because he was familiar with Palestine, the language of Aramaic, and Jewish customs, culture, and institutions. Matthew, originally written in Greek, probably was written for Jews rather than Gentiles. Some sources consider it the “most Jewish” of the four New Testament gospels. Its author is unknown, but he obviously relied heavily upon the Gospel of Mark (thought to be the first of the New Testament gospels written) as well as a large body of material not found in Mark but closely corresponding to the Sayings Gospel Q.

The earliest known version of Luke dates from the second century, since it is clear that Marcion used it. Early church fathers believed that Luke, a physician and companion of the Apostle Paul, wrote the Gospel of Luke and also the Acts of the Apostles. Clement, the early church father, called the Gospel of John the “spiritual gospel.” Tradition assigns the authorship of that gospel to John, son of Zebedee. Some scholars, however, challenge that attribution, citing the sophistication of theology in that gospel. The Gospel of John varies greatly from the synoptic Gospels in the stories that are told and their sequence. It is written in a highly symbolic and literary style and features a splendid prologue. No baptism of Jesus takes place in that gospel, and the gospel is full of signs. Some biblical scholars assert that if not written by John, son of Zebedee, then possibly it was written by a Greek convert to Christianity.

Paraenesis is a term often used by scholars to describe the advice or exhortation of a moral nature found within a sacred text. It also can mean an urgent warning of impending evil. Several of the ancient Christian scriptures contain such a warning, especially for new initiates and converts to Christianity.

Authorship of the Gnostic Gospels

The Gospel of Thomas features 114 sayings of Jesus in the form of wisdom sayings, prophecies, parables, and rules. The Gospel of Thomas is attributed to Didymos Judas Thomas the twin, because the gospel itself states as much. Didymos (in Greek) and Thomas (in Aramaic) both mean “twin.” Scholars say that in the Syrian church this Thomas was known as Jesus' brother. Gnostic scholar Marvin Meyer writes in the introduction to The Gospel of Thomas: The Hidden Sayings of Jesus that there is some speculation that this gospel was used (perhaps even written by) the Manichaeans, followers of Mani who were Gnostic mystics.

The Gospel of Mary (Magdalene) is the only Christian gospel bearing the name of a woman. The work reflects tensions in early Christianity. The Gospel of Mary was written in Greek and dates to the second century. Significantly, it was in the latter part of that century that the orthodox communities of Christians established the apostolic hierarchy of leadership within their churches and left Mary out of it. The Gospel of Mary affirms the death and resurrection of Jesus but interprets his teachings in ways that depart radically from orthodox interpretations.

The Gospel of Truth most likely dates to the middle of the second century. Although the authorship is unknown, Valentinus, a Gnostic teacher who lived in the early part of the second century, has been suggested. The teachings of Valentinus seem to correspond to the Gospel of Truth. That gospel is not precisely a gospel in the sense that it tells the “good news,” because it moves between narrative and warnings of imminent evil. The early church father Irenaeus may have been referring to this gospel, among others, when he accused the Gnostics of possessing more gospels “than there really are.”

How many gospels are there?

Scholars are aware of more than fifty complete gospels, including the four canonical gospels, but have fragmentary information on only sixteen others, including Peter, Philip, Matthias, Hebrews, Egyptians, Thomas, Nicodemus, the Twelve Apostles, Basilides, Valentinus, Marcion, Eve, Judas, Teleiosis, The Writing of Genna Marias, and the Proto Evangelium of James.

Egyptian churches during the second and third centuries may have used the Gospel of the Egyptians as a sacred text. The gospel advocates a return to a primordial and androgynous state through celibacy. The authorship of this divinely inspired gospel is listed as Seth, an interesting attribution considering that the heavenly, mythological Seth has been referred to as Father of the Gnostic race.

The Secret Gospel of John (also known as the Apocryphon of John) is a secret teaching of the Savior given to John, who declares himself brother of James, one of the sons of Zebedee. The tractate offers a narrative mythological revelation of creation, the fall, and salvation of humanity. It focuses on the origin of evil and how to escape it in order to return to heaven. It has been described as offering the most insightful detailing of dualistic Gnostic mythology so far found, and, as such, is notable among the tractates found in Nag Hammadi discovery.

The Gospel of Philip appears to be a collection of excerpts from a Christian Gnostic book of sacramental catechisms. The text is not organized in any helpful or obvious way. It contains a few stories about Jesus and offers meanings of sacred names, discusses the significance of sacramental rites, reveals meaning in Biblical passages, and provides a few of Jesus' sayings that fit into a Gnostic context and warnings of evil (paraenesis). Authorship is unknown.

Differences Between the Gnostic and the Canonical Gospels

Orthodox Christians labored in the first few centuries to root out the Gnostics and the taint of Gnosticism as well as other heresies in their sacred scriptures. It was work that did not cease for over 2,000 years as new heresies and challenges arose. The Gnostics now again have a voice through the discovery of their hidden sacred texts found at Nag Hammadi. Interestingly, some of their texts, such as the Second Treatise of the Great Seth, Testimony of Truth, and Apocalypse of Peter, decry orthodox Christians as ones who don't know who Christ is, are unknowing and empty, and lead astray those who seek the freedom of gnosis. Both the Gnostics and the orthodox Christians recognized the authority of Jesus and share some common linkage. However, the differences between them and their interpretations of Scripture were often great.

For example, the Gnostic Valentinus separated Jesus (the man) from Christ (the Savior figure). He believed that Christ descended upon Jesus when he was baptized but left before Jesus expired on the cross. Of course, early church father Irenaeus argued against the idea that Jesus and the Christ were separate and of two substances. He did not believe that there was a divine spark in humans to rekindle. There was no self-knowledge that equated with God-knowledge. Valentinus and the conservative leaders in the early Christian church believed in Jesus and his words, but they just interpreted him and his teachings differently.

There is no canonical equivalent to the Gospel of Thomas. The sayings of Jesus in the Gospel of Thomas are similar to those found in the New Testament Gospels, although some do conflict. The Gospel of Thomas declares that the sayings offer salvation if you correctly understand them. Further, those who do understand them will not “taste death.” This salvation is available through individual effort. Jesus, in the Gospel of Thomas, suggests that you need to know yourself at the deepest level, for it is there you get to know God. Early church father Irenaeus stated that in order to approach God, you must come through the church, or there is no salvation. The Gospel of Thomas did not make it into the canon for at least a couple of possible reasons. The canonizers may have thought its content was heretical and possibly believed that the gospel was not authentic.

Early church father Irenaeus provides the first mention of Cerinthus in Against Heresies. Cerinthus was a Gnostic, belonging to the Ebionites. He may have been Egyptian. Although none of his writings survive to today, his doctrines have been described by hostile sources as mixing Judaism, Gnosticism, Ebionitism, and Chiliasm.

The canonical Gospel of John has been the subject of vigorous scholarly debate. Was the author a Gnostic, like Cerinthus, even though the canonical Gospel of John presents anti-Gnostic theology? The Gospel of John is written in a literary style similar to Gnostic writing in its use of opposites (light/dark, death/life, flesh/spirit, etc.). Could orthodox Christian scribes have edited it? Was it based on an earlier Gnostic text that did not survive? Scholars debate these and many other questions about this gospel.

The canonical Gospel of John provides some mystery. The prologue is a beautiful hymn that was undoubtedly adapted and added to open the gospel. More than one author might have worked on this gospel, with one of them writing in a different style of Greek than found in the rest of the text. Scholars noticed the discrepancy in chapter twenty-one. Also, there are two endings to the time Jesus spent discoursing in the Upper Room with his disciples. Chapter 14:31 reads, “But that the world may know that I love the Father; and as the Father gave me commandment, even so I do. Arise, let us go hence.” Chapter 18:1 states, “When Jesus had spoken these words, he went forth with his disciples over the brook Cedron, where was a garden, into the which he entered, and his disciples.”

Detractors, Redactors, and Scribes

Ancient writers were known as scribes. From the earliest centuries, they copied from the Greek or translated the written material of the sacred texts. Scribes sometimes shortened works while aiming for clarity and attempting to remain close to the original in meaning and message. Scholars have a job deciphering some of those texts because of a lacuna or hole in the papyrus where a word should be found. Scholars must then guess the meaning to supply the right word. In these ways, sacred works are sometimes changed.

Both the Gnostic and the canonical scriptures began as oral traditions and early writings that were handed down through the ages. Sometimes a text was written and in some cases (at least in the canonical gospels) a little was added or a small amount removed as the text was used. Some Biblical scholars suggest that the author of the Secret Gospel of John (who wrote about John's vision of the Holy Spirit in female terms) may have been a Gnostic, and that Gnostics in the second century may have used that gospel as one of their sacred texts. They argue that the author's writings shared similarities with two other Gnostic Gospels, Thomas and Philip. Some experts suggest that the Apostle John may have written the original Gospel of John only to have it vigorously edited by others with a more orthodox Christian view. The editing may have even been done at Ephesus, where John wrote Revelation. However, some people feel that there is little support for the idea that John wrote both the Gospel bearing his name and also Revelation.

The Secret Gospel of John reveals a vision that the grieving disciple has after the death of Jesus in which he sees a dazzling light and hears the Savior's voice speaking to him, asking whether or not John recognizes him. Then the voice declares itself as the Father, Mother, and Son. John is first shocked, then realizes that the Divine Mother is the Holy Spirit in the feminine aspect. Of course, the canonical gospels did not espouse the Divine Mother as the third person of the Trinity but rather the Holy Spirit.

In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God … All things were made by him; and without him was not any thing made that was made. In him was life; and the life was the light of men. And the light shineth in darkness; and the darkness comprehended it not. — John 1:1–5

Some modern readers of the Bible have said that John, son of Zebedee, was not educated enough to write the Fourth Gospel. John was one of three in the core group of Jesus' disciples. Passages in the New Testament suggest that some thought John, a former fisherman, to be ignorant and without the benefit of a higher education. Acts 4:13 makes a point of Peter and John's ignorance: “Now when they saw the boldness of Peter and John, and perceived that they were unlearned and ignorant men, they marveled; and they took knowledge of them, that they had been with Jesus.” Yet John is widely credited with the authorship of the Gospel of John, the most spiritual and sophisticated (from a theological and literary standpoint) gospel of the New Testament. Scholar Ramon Jusino has an interesting theory that Mary Magdalene may have been the author or served as the eyewitness source for the Fourth Gospel. See http://ramon_k_justino.tripod.com/magdalene.html .

Some of the early literalist Christians would not have been comfortable with portrayals of powerful women in their sacred texts. Particularly offensive would be the portrayal of a woman with status and authority or as an expression of the Divine. Such mention of a woman, outside of a traditional subordinate role, might have warranted an orthodox redaction or some editing that would bring the offending passage back in alignment with the Christian literalist viewpoint. But the Gnostics' dualistic concepts embraced the feminine as the necessary complement to the masculine, whether as expressed through the Divine or through humans.

The Gospel of John and the book of Revelation are similar in both language and theology. However, one theory suggests that a disciple of John, rather than the Apostle himself, wrote the book of Revelation.

Textual Inferiority or Just a Different Lens?

The patristic early fathers called the Gnostic writings textually inferior because they contained blasphemies and heresies. But perhaps the very texts against which they felt they must vigorously defend the faith were simply providing another lens for viewing fledgling Christianity. For the young Christian church with its patristic views and an emerging male hierarchy, Mary Magdalene presented something of a conundrum. Her central role as eyewitness to the resurrected form of Jesus would have been well known in oral tradition and also in the later gospel accounts. But some feminist theologians have stated that her story may have been edited to marginalize her presence and minimize her power and leadership. In the Gnostic texts, however, Mary Magdalene is honored and venerated. What were the early orthodox fathers to do with Gnostic texts like the Gospel of Mary, the Dialogue of the Savior, and the Gospel of Philip, among the early Christian writings that presented Mary Magdalene as Jesus' pre-eminent disciple with a thorough grasp of gnosis?

Mary Magdalene saw a vision of Jesus and asked him how it was that she could see him, whether it was through the spirit or soul. He answered, “Through the mind.” The Gnostics learned to interpret their visions as spiritual insights into the “real” world, the inner realms of truth, rather than the apparition of the material universe.

The orthodox Christian church emerged as the dominant religion and its canon, creed, and sacred texts are those that endure. The powerful and dominant record history as they want it remembered, excluding historical accounts that do not support their view. After Constantine, orthodox leaders ordered sacred texts known to contain blasphemies and heresies to be burned or otherwise destroyed.

Jesus in the Canon and in Gnostic Belief

Jesus is the most important figure in Christianity. Variously called Master, Lord, Messiah, Son of God, and Savior, everything the church teaches revolves in some way around Jesus. In the canon, he is the Bridegroom and his bride is the church. The church teaches that sinners authored and administered the sufferings that Jesus had to endure during his crucifixion. The cruel and violent death did not come about as the juncture of certain circumstances coming together, but rather as a part of the mystery of God's plan. Jesus' death enables sinners to reconcile with God. The Gospel of Matthew says that John the Baptist baptized Jesus in the River Jordan and the Spirit of God descended upon Jesus like a dove (Matthew 3:15–16). John in the Gospel of John sees Jesus approaching and calls him the Lamb of God (John 1:29). The “Lamb of God” phrase alluded to the redemption of Israel at the first Passover and also to the prophecy Jesus was fulfilling as the Son of God, permitting himself to be led to slaughter for the sins of the multitudes. Jesus transformed the Passover meal into the Last Supper with a new blood covenant. That Eucharist would forever after symbolize his sacrifice. The mission of Jesus the Christ and the Holy Spirit arrive at completion in the church. In Roman Catholicism today, the church is called the Temple of the Holy Spirit. Christ is the light of the church, and he endows it with holiness.

The term ecclesia is a Greek word meaning “an assembly,” but when used in a Christian context, it is almost always translated as “church.” In contrast, the word “church” derives from the Greek word kyriake and also the German word kirche , meaning “what belongs to the Lord.”

Salvation flows to those who accept him as their Lord and Savior. He is head of the church and the church is his body. Converts are welcomed in the family that is the church. No salvation is possible outside of the church. This has been the position of the church for centuries. It is no accident that the gospels and the other sacred texts selected for inclusion in the New Testament support this position.

The Gnostic Gospels offer a different view of Jesus. He comes to humanity as a Savior bringing gnosis to those who seek knowledge and desire enlightenment. In this way, Jesus is the Redeemer who helps humans save themselves from the pull of the material world. He gives knowledge (secret to those spiritually adept), inspiring souls to turn inward and seek the Light. He is the divine Light Bearer who illuminates the way from darkness, inspiring the soul to rise to enlightenment. Gnostics saw the cosmos as the very embodiment of God. The path to finding God was to them an inward path. They may have pointed to the Gospel of Luke for verification from Jesus' own words.

And when he was demanded of the Pharisees, when the kingdom of God should come, he answered them and said, The kingdom of God cometh not with observation: Neither shall they say, Lo here! or, lo there! for, behold, the kingdom of God is within you. — Luke 17:20–21

The Gnostics distinguish between rational and experiential knowledge, or, in other words, that which must be directly, intuitively experienced in order to be known. Jesus is a vessel carrying the secret knowledge (gnosis) to enable and empower them on the soul's inward and upward journey. Jesus is the inward guide, and when they reach the stage of enlightenment where the darkness has fallen away and their divine spark has merged into the ocean of Light, they, too, will have become Christ, no longer different or separate from him.