The most important terms and names are highlighted in the text with an asterisk (*).
Achilles Tatius. A second-century A.D. *rhetorician who wrote Cleitophon and Leucippe, a Greek romance novel.
Age to come. Many Jewish people divided history into at least two eras, the present age and the age to come. “*Eternal life” was the life of the coming age.
Akiba. A late-first- to early-second-century *rabbi whose opinions became very influential in rabbinic Judaism. After wrongly supposing Bar Kochba to be the *Messiah, he was flayed to death by the Romans and reportedly died reciting Judaism’s basic creed: “The LORD is one.”
*Apocalypses, apocalyptic literature. The broadest use of the term today (usually followed in this commentary) refers to the thought world of literature dealing with the end time, often replete with symbols. The most precise sense of the term refers to a category of ancient Jewish literature growing out of *Old Testament *prophecy (especially Daniel and parts of Isaiah, Ezekiel, Zechariah, etc.) in which visions or travels through the heavens reveal divine secrets, usually including many about the future. Nonfuturistic Jewish mysticism was probably like a truncated apocalyptic with future expectations played down.
Apocrypha. A group of books accepted as part of the Catholic *canon between the *Old and *New Testaments but not part of the Protestant and Jewish canons. Most of these books circulated in the most common form of the *Septuagint, but ancient Jewish writers (e.g., *Philo, *Josephus and the *rabbis) did not treat them as Scripture. The New Testament never expressly cites these books with Scripture formulas but alludes to them fairly often. The books are 1–2 Esdras, Tobit, Judith, Additions to Esther, Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach (also known as Ben Sira or Ecclesiasticus), Baruch, Letter of Jeremiah, Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Young Men, Susanna, Bel and the Dragon, Prayer of Manasseh, and 1–2 Maccabees.
*Apostle. The term applies literally to a sent or commissioned messenger; in Palestinian Jewish custom such a messenger (a shaliakh, or agent) acted on the full authority of his sender, to the extent that he accurately represented the sender’s message. The closest *Old Testament equivalent to God’s “apostles” in this sense was the prophets, although the apostles seem to have added an overseeing and evangelistic function that prophets (both Old Testament and *New Testament) did not always incorporate. Those prophets commissioned with special authority to oversee prophetic awakening (e.g., perhaps Elijah, Elisha, Jeremiah) or to lead God’s people (e.g., Moses, Deborah, Samuel) thus may provide the best Old Testament models (cf. 2 Cor 3:6-18).
Apuleius. A second-century A.D. *rhetorician who may have dabbled in *magic and was initiated into the cult of Isis. He is most famous for his book Metamorphoses, now often called The Golden Ass.
*Aramaic. A language related to Hebrew that was the standard international language of the ancient Near East before Alexander the Great’s conquests made Greek the standard in the cities; it was still widely spoken in different forms in Syria-Palestine (especially in rural areas) and farther east in Jesus’ day. Most Jewish people in first-century Judea and Galilee probably spoke both Greek and Aramaic, though most were probably more fluent in one or the other. The Galilean peasants to whom Jesus often spoke were probably often more fluent in Aramaic.
Aristeas, Letter of. The *pseudepigraphic story of seventy wise translators of the *Septuagint (LXX) and how they impressed the ruler of Egypt. An Alexandrian document probably from the second century B.C., it seeks to portray Judaism in a positive light to Greeks.
Aristotle. A fourth-century B.C. student of *Plato who wrote treatises on logic, *rhetoric, nature and ethics. Many of his views became influential; his teachings were preserved especially by the school of philosophy known as the Peripatetics.
Ascetic. Austere and self-denying; some ancient religious and philosophical groups required this discipline as a matter of policy (often to show one’s lack of attachment to mortal, bodily pleasures and pains). Asceticism grew in popularity in late antiquity, influencing the shape of later Christian monasticism.
Atone, atonement. The satisfaction of God’s anger by venting it on a substitute instead of on the guilty person, attested in a wide range of ancient cultures and literature. Laying down one’s life for another was highly regarded in Greek culture; some elements in Judaism came to emphasize that martyrs paid the price for others. But the concept especially derives from one kind of Old Testament sacrifice, in which the death of a sacrifice provides cleansing from sin’s impurity and appeases God’s anger so the sinner can be forgiven.
*Baptism. The *Old Testament and the ancient world emphasized ceremonial washings to remove various kinds of impurity; Judaism had developed these washings more fully by the time of Jesus, and some sects (particularly the community that authored the *Dead Sea Scrolls) were especially scrupulous. One once-for-all ritual designed to purify *Gentiles of pagan impurity when they converted to Judaism (attested in the *rabbis, in *Epictetus and elsewhere) may have provided the most significant model for John the Baptist’s and subsequently Christian baptism: it indicated an act of conversion, of turning from the old life to the new. This conversion-baptism, like regular Jewish washings in purity pools, involved immersion. Scholars generally presume that this practice was continued by the earliest Christians (though exceptions soon came to be allowed where needed; see Didache 7.1-3, probably from the late first century).
2 Baruch. A Jewish *apocalypse from the late first or early second century A.D.
*Canon. The minimum of books agreed to constitute the absolutely authoritative, divinely inspired body of literature, by which other claims to revelation may be evaluated. Most of ancient Palestinian Judaism accepted the present *Old Testament as canonical; some groups added other works (probably some others works such as *1 Enoch were accepted at *Qumran, and some *Diaspora Jews apparently highly valued other works now considered part of the *Apocrypha). Early Christians came to accept the books of the present *New Testament in addition to the Jewish canon. Some books were widely accepted very early (such as the four Gospels and most of Paul’s letters); others were debated for some time before the majority of Christians agreed on them (such as 2 Peter) or rejected them (such as 1 Clement or Shepherd of Hermas).
Chiasmus. An inverted parallel literary structure, in which the last line or idea corresponds with the first one, the next to the last corresponds with the second one, and so forth. The title for this structure is first attested later than the *New Testament, but scholars find examples of it as early as Homer.
*Christ. The Greek equivalent of the Hebrew term for “*Messiah.” Some *Gentile readers, unfamiliar with the Jewish sense of the term, may have taken it merely as Jesus’ surname, a usage that became more common over time.
*Church. The Greek term used in the *New Testament reflects one of the terms often used in the *Septuagint to translate the Hebrew word for the “congregation” (qahal) of Israel: “church” (assembly); the other was “*synagogue” (gathering). Although some scholars have suggested that Jesus could not have spoken about the church during his earthly ministry, the *Dead Sea Scrolls used the Hebrew term for God’s community; hence Jesus could use this word in talking about his future community (Mt 16:18; 18:17). The term was in common use in Greek culture for “assemblies,” especially citizen assemblies in cities. (The popular modern surmise that the Greek word for “church,” ekklesia, means “called-out ones” is mistaken; that sense is actually more appropriate for “*saints,” i.e., “those separated” or “consecrated” [for God].)
Cicero. A famous Roman orator and statesman who wrote on a variety of subjects and flourished in the first century B.C.
*Client. A person socially dependent on a *patron in Roman society (see patron).
Colony. A city either literally founded by the Romans or given honorary privileges as if it had been; its citizens were thus treated as citizens of Rome itself. In an early period Rome sometimes gave veterans land grants, settling them in these areas as Roman colonies.
Cynic. One type of antiworldly philosopher who expressed independence from social needs by begging. Cynics owned only the barest necessities (e.g., cloak, staff, begging purse) and often greeted passersby with harsh, antisocial words.
*Dead Sea Scrolls. Writings from a strict Jewish sect (usually agreed to be *Essenes) that lived in the Judean desert, near modern Khirbet *Qumran. (A number of Qumran scholars today doubt whether the scrolls come from Essenes, but the sectarian scrolls do seem to fit the Essenes depicted in *Philo, Pliny the Elder and *Josephus. Some scholars also argue that Qumran was not a residence but merely a library, at least in some periods.) The writings include the War Scroll, the Manual of Discipline (Community Rule), the Damascus Document, the Thanksgiving Hymns, the Genesis Apocryphon, the Temple Scroll and commentaries on and expansions of various biblical books. Many of the most prominent and distinctive scrolls appear to have been written in the second century B.C.; most scholars believe that the site was abandoned during the Judean-Roman War (A.D. 66–70), although a few scholars allow that the site may have been revisited in later times.
Demons. Although the Greek term so translated often had a neutral sense in Greek (for souls or various kinds of spirits), Judeans and Galileans less shaped by Greek thought used especially the negative sense of the term. Negatively, it applied to nonhuman spirits other than God and the angels subservient to him; they were hostile to God’s people. Exorcists typically employed various means for their extraction, such as stinky roots and magical formulas.
*Diaspora. The Jewish dispersion outside Palestine. The technical term “Diaspora Judaism” is thus used interchangeably with “non-Palestinian Judaism” in this commentary.
Diatribe. A style of teaching used in ancient philosophical schools, generally characterized by *rhetorical questions and imaginary interlocutors.
Digression. A change of subject (usually brief) before returning to the previous point; this was a standard technique in ancient speeches and literature.
*Disciples. Students or adherents of *rabbis or philosophers, normally committed to memorizing and living according to their master’s teachings. Members of schools could pass the teachings on as canonical from one generation to the next.
Elect. Predestined, chosen. One of the most important tenets of Judaism was that the Jewish people were chosen in Abraham; the *New Testament applies the term to all of Jesus’ followers, who are a chosen people in Christ. The vast majority of Jewish people followed the biblical emphasis that God was sovereign in human affairs; apparently the majority (exemplified in Josephus’s depiction of the Pharisees) did not treat God’s sovereignty as incompatible with human decisions and responsibility.
1 Enoch. An *apocalypse whose five sections may derive from different authors, 1 Enoch is mainly (excepting the *Similitudes of Enoch) from the second century B.C. Probably written in *Aramaic, it circulated especially in *Essene circles and survives in part in the *Dead Sea Scrolls and in full in later Ethiopic manuscripts.
2 Enoch. Although a Semitic original might derive from the first century, the current, edited work is from a later period and preserved in Slavonic.
3 Enoch. An *apocalypse from the perspective of rabbinic mysticism that is no later than the fifth century A.D. (probably from the third century).
Epictetus. A first-century *Stoic philosopher, originally a slave.
Epicureans. A philosophical school that valued pleasure (the absence of pain and disturbance) and disbelieved in the gods of ancient myths; see comment on Acts 17:18.
Eschatological. Dealing with the end time.
*Essenes. A strict group of pietists, some of whom withdrew into the wilderness as monastics. The *Dead Sea Scrolls are probably from one group of Essenes. *Josephus estimates that there were about four thousand Essenes altogether.
*Eternal life. In Jewish texts, the term literally means “the life of the world to come,” bestowed after the *resurrection from the dead; taken from Daniel 12:2, it became a standard concept in most of early Judaism and was sometimes abbreviated “life.” Some *New Testament passages speak of it as a present as well as future gift, because Jesus’ resurrection has inaugurated salvation for the present.
4 Ezra. The bulk of this work (chaps. 3–14) is a Jewish *apocalypse from the late first (or possibly early second) century A.D.
Freedperson. A former slave who had been manumitted, legally freed.
Gehenna. A Greek transliteration of the Hebrew Gehinnom, which in Judaism had come to describe the abode of the wicked dead in torment. Various Jewish sources differ on the duration of punishment in Gehenna and whether the wicked would eventually be annihilated, continue to be detained or be released; the Gospels, Acts and Revelation are much more united in their picture of a *resurrection to eternal judgment.
Genre. The kind of writing a work is: for example, letter, historical *narrative, poem, science fiction or bomb threat. Although modern genres bearing the same title as ancient ones (e.g., letter, historical narrative, biography) have much in common with their predecessors, they typically differ in some features (see the introductions to the Gospels and Letters).
*Gentile. Anyone who is not Jewish. In ancient Jewish parlance, this was often roughly the equivalent of how someone today might use “pagan” in a negative sense.
*Gnosticism. A fusion of Greek, Jewish and Christian ideas that began by the early second century and presented a major challenge to early Christianity. The blanket term actually encompasses a variety of schools and movements that would not have all identified with one another, but some common features include an emphasis on “secret” knowledge outside the widely shared public traditions of other early Christian groups. Some scholars have seen tendencies toward developed Gnosticism in opponents presupposed in Pauline letters (especially in Colossians and the *Pastoral Epistles) and in the Gospel and letters of John. The same Greek ideas that later produced Gnosticism and Neo-Platonism were probably already at work in the first century, but we can reconstruct these from other sources without recourse to Gnosticism per se.
Gospel. The term so translated means literally “good news”; it was the sort of good news heralds would bring, and in Isaiah it refers to the specific message of God’s restoration and salvation for his people. (“Gospel” as a literary *genre, a type of book in the *New Testament, is different, although these works do proclaim good news; on this sense of the term, see the introduction to the Gospels.)
Grace. In the *New Testament, the term generally represents the *Old Testament concept of God’s unearned covenant love, which was expressed in passages like Deuteronomy 4:37; 7:7-9 and 10:15. The Greek term appears in inscriptions with reference to gifts and benefaction, and in the ancient ideology of reciprocity it invites gratitude.
Hagiography. A highly elaborated account of a holy person, meant to praise him or her.
*Hellenistic. Although the commentary usually uses the term “Greek,” “Hellenistic” is the more accurate technical term for the cultural fusion of classical Greek culture with Near Eastern cultures carried out in the eastern Mediterranean by Alexander the Great and his successors. “Hellenistic” Judaism is thus Judaism heavily influenced by Greek culture, i.e., “Hellenized.”
High priests. Although the phrase applied to only the highest priest in the *Old Testament, *Josephus shows that in this period, the plural title applied to the aristocratic priests generally. Many prominent members of these aristocratic families in and around Jerusalem served on its municipal assembly (the Sanhedrin), and many were *Sadducees.
Hillel. A famous Jewish teacher contemporary with *Shammai and with Jesus’ early childhood; usually more lenient than Shammai, his school’s opinions generally prevailed after A.D. 70.
*Holy Spirit. Although used only twice in the *Old Testament (Ps 51; Is 63), this term became a common title for the *Spirit of God in *New Testament times. Many people believed that the Spirit had been quenched since the completion of the Old Testament or that *prophecy continued only in muted form; but the Old Testament had promised an outpouring of the Spirit in the end, when the *Messiah would come. Jewish people especially associated the Spirit with prophecy and divine illumination or insight, and many also (especially the *Essenes) associated it with God purifying his people in the end time. The New Testament includes both uses, although it also speaks of the Spirit as a person like the Father and Son (especially in John 14–16), which Judaism did not do.
Hyperbole. A *rhetorical exaggeration or overstatement, a figure of speech often used by Jewish wisdom teachers to underline their point. The point of Jesus’ hyperbolic illustrations is generally to grab the hearer’s attention and force that hearer to take his point seriously.
Joseph and Asenath. An Alexandrian, *Hellenistic Jewish romance novel, describing the winning of Joseph’s bride; probably non-Christian, it may derive from the first century A.D.
*Josephus. A first-century Jewish historian who lived through the war of A.D. 66–70, which he describes along with the events leading up to it. His works (Jewish War, Jewish Antiquities and Against Apion, and his autobiography, the Life) are useful sources of information concerning first-century Palestine. Intended for a *Diaspora audience, his writings are quite Hellenized.
Jubilees. A theologically shaped *midrashic reworking of Genesis and part of Exodus. It circulated in (and probably derived from) *Essene circles in the second century B.C.
Justin Martyr. A philosopher both before and after his conversion to Christianity. Writer of two Apologies and the Dialogue with Trypho, he was a prominent Christian apologist (defender of the faith) in the second century A.D., until his martyrdom.
Juvenal. A Roman satirist who wrote especially in the early second century A.D. He is especially known for his invective against women, foreigners and *freedpersons who appeared to be encroaching on rights and privileges once reserved for aristocratic Roman males.
*Kingdom. This term means “rule,” “reign” or “authority” (not normally a king’s people or land, as the English term could imply). Jewish people recognized that God rules the universe now, but they prayed for the day when he would rule the world unchallenged by idolatry and disobedience. The coming of this future aspect of God’s reign was widely associated with the *Messiah and the *resurrection of the dead. Because Jesus came and will come again, Christians believe that the kingdom has been inaugurated but awaits consummation or completion. “Kingdom of heaven” is another way (Matthew’s usual way) of saying “kingdom of God.” Jewish people sometimes used “heaven” as a polite way of referring to “God” (as in Lk 15:21).
*Law. Torah (the Hebrew word behind the Greek word translated “law”) means literally “instruction” and “teaching,” not just regulations. It was also used as a title for the first five books of the *Old Testament (the Pentateuch, the books of Moses) and sometimes for the whole Old Testament. This commentary uses the translation “law” because it is familiar to readers of most translations, even though the English term’s semantic range is much narrower than the Jewish concept.
Livy. A first-century B.C. Roman historian.
Lucian. A second-century A.D. Greek satirist and *rhetorician.
LXX. The common abbreviation for the *Septuagint.
Maccabees. A priestly family who led the Jewish revolt against the *Hellenistic-Syrian empire in the second century B.C., they became the Hasmonean dynasty, an aristocracy that ruled Palestine until the time of Herod the Great.
3 Maccabees. A historical novel of Alexandrian Judaism; it may have been written in the first century B.C.
4 Maccabees. A Jewish treatise full of Greek (especially *Stoic) philosophy; probably written by an Alexandrian Jew in the early first century A.D.
Magic. Whether particular acts were attributed to magic or to positive divine power often depended on whether the observer approved of the person and his or her acts. Most people considered sorcery and magic to be secretive, antisocial and selfish, but it was widely practiced though sometimes associated with centers of magic such as Egypt and Ephesus. Popular magic included love charms, curses against opponents (even in sports), manipulation of spirits, and the like.
*Messiah. The rendering of a Hebrew term meaning “anointed one,” equivalent to the original sense of the Greek term translated “Christ.” In the *Old Testament, different kinds of people were anointed, and some of the *Dead Sea Scrolls mention two main anointed ones in the end time, a king and a priest. But the common expectation reflected in the biblical Psalms and Prophets was that one of David’s royal descendants would take the throne again when God reestablished his *kingdom for Israel. Many and probably most Jewish people in Palestine believed that God would somehow have to intervene to put down Roman rule so the Messiah’s kingdom could be secure; many seem to have thought this intervention would be accomplished through force of arms. Various messianic figures arose in first-century Palestine, expecting a miraculous intervention from God; all were crushed by the Romans. (Jesus was the only one claimed to have been resurrected; he was also one of the only messiahs claiming Davidic descent, proof of which would be more difficult for any claimants arising after A.D. 70.)
Midrash. Jewish commentary or exposition on Scripture. The forms varied considerably but often included reading a text in the light of other texts, with careful attention to all nuances of details supposedly filled with divine significance. Because such methods of reading Scripture were common, early Christians could employ them in relating their message to other ancient Jewish Bible readers.
*Mystery cults. A diverse group of Greek cults entered only by special initiation. The details of the initiation were to be kept entirely secret, although one could join a number of these societies. Apart from secrets and initiations, they varied widely in popularity, antiquity and appeal to different social classes.
Narrative. Story form (applied to both true and fictitious stories), as opposed to other literary forms, like explanatory discourse.
*New Testament. The common modern term for the early Christian literature finally declared canonical by the *church and accepted by nearly all Christians today. Although it includes information about the new covenant (as does Jer 31:31-34), it is not technically a “testament” in itself; speaking of “Scripture written after Jesus’s coming,” however, would be cumbersome.
*Old Testament. The common modern term for the Hebrew Bible (including *Aramaic portions) as defined by the Jewish and Protestant Christian canons; Jewish readers generally call this the Tanakh. Although it includes information about God’s covenant with Israel, it is not technically a “testament” in itself.
Papyri. Documents contemporary to the *New Testament, especially business documents and correspondence, written on papyrus scrolls (writing material from the papyrus reed) and preserved especially in the dry climate of Egypt.
*Parable. Jewish teachers regularly illustrated their teachings with brief stories, similar to the use of sermon illustrations today (though often with less verisimilitude). Jesus’ parables, like those of other teachers, were meant to illustrate his points graphically, hence many details in these parables appear there only to advance the story line. Modern interpreters who read too much into such secondary details run the risk of overlooking the parable’s real point or points. At the same time, parables sometimes had multiple points of contact with the realities they represented (e.g., the four soils in the parable of the sower); explicit interpretations often followed ancient Jewish parables, and they often contained such multiple points of contact. The Greek word for “parable” normally means a comparison; the Jewish practice behind Jesus’ usage included a wide range of meanings (riddles, proverbs, fables, etc.) suggested in the Hebrew term mashal.
Pastoral Epistles. Three Pauline letters—1 and 2 Timothy and Titus—that give Paul’s advice to young ministers carrying on his work.
*Patron. The social superior in the Roman patron-*client relationship, who granted favors to and acted as political sponsor for his clients, or social dependents. The obligations in the relationship were viewed as reciprocal; clients were to grant the patrons honor as their benefactors. In the technical sense, patronage was a Roman political institution; *New Testament scholars today often apply the designation more generally to include what was technically benefaction in the Greek-speaking eastern Mediterranean world (and to encompass the English sense of “patron” as well).
Petronius. A first-century A.D. satirist who indulged in pleasure. After incurring the jealousy of Nero’s guide and reputed sexual partner Tigellinus, Petronius killed himself when it became obvious what his fate would be.
*Pharisees. A movement of several thousand (*Josephus estimates six thousand) pious Jewish men who sought to interpret the *law carefully and according to the traditions of previous generations of the pious. They lacked much direct access to political power in Jesus’ day but were highly respected and thus influential among the larger population. They emphasized their own version of purity rules and looked forward to the *resurrection of the dead. Although early Christians more often emphasized occasions on which the Pharisees differed from Jesus, many of their other views resembled his.
*Philo. A first-century Jewish philosopher committed to both the Greek translation of the Torah and to Greek education, especially eclectic Middle Platonic philosophy. He lived in Alexandria, Egypt, and held a position of great influence and prestige in the Jewish community there.
Pilate. Pontius Pilate was governor of Judea from A.D. 26 to 36. His position was probably secure as long as his patron Sejanus remained in power in Rome; but after Sejanus’s execution on October 19, A.D. 31, he undoubtedly had to act more carefully. *Josephus and *Philo both portray Pilate as insensitive to Judean concerns. He brought Roman standards, which Jewish people viewed as idolatrous, into Jerusalem under cover of night, provoking public protests that forced him to withdraw them. He diverted funds from the temple treasury for an aqueduct and otherwise infuriated Judeans. His massacre of *Samaritans finally provoked his recall to Rome.
Plato. A student of Socrates whose idealism and dualistic worldview became influential in subsequent Greek thought. He flourished in the fourth century B.C., but his thinking influenced Middle Platonists (such as Philo) in the first century A.D. and later; a developed form of Platonism became a dominant philosophic force later in antiquity.
Plutarch. A Greek biographer and moralist whose writings illustrate many of the views prevalent in the first and second centuries A.D.
Prophecy. Speaking forth God’s message by his inspiration. It can, but need not, involve prediction. Although “prophet” technically refers to anyone who prophesies, most Jewish people reserved this title for God’s spokespeople of the distant past.
*Proselyte. A convert (as used in this commentary, a convert to Judaism).
Psalms of Solomon. Jewish psalms from the mid-first century B.C., somewhat like the *Qumran hymns. Probably all from one author, they might reflect early Pharisaic piety, or at least the form of early Judaism in which Pharisaism was also at home.
Pseudepigrapha. A broadly defined, modern collection of very diverse ancient Jewish texts outside the Jewish and Christian canons and other collections such as the *Apocrypha, *Dead Sea Scrolls and *rabbinic literature. So named because most of them are *pseudepigraphic. These works include (among others) *2 Baruch; *1, 2 and *3 Enoch; *4 Ezra; *Jubilees; *Letter of Aristeas; Life of Adam and Eve; *3 and *4 Maccabees; Martyrdom of Isaiah; *Psalms of Solomon; *Sibylline Oracles; *Testament of Job; *Testament of Solomon; and *Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs.
*Pseudepigraphic. Purporting to be written by someone other than the real author, something like writing under a pen name today.
Pseudo-Philo. Pseudo-Philo’s Biblical Antiquities retraces biblical history from Adam to the death of Saul. Possibly from Palestine, the work probably derives from the late first or early second century A.D. but betrays no specific Christian influence.
Pseudo-Phocylides. A probably Jewish work of moral wisdom, influenced by *Stoic ethics. It may date to the late first century B.C. or early first century A.D.
Pythagoreanism. A mystical philosophy attributed to Pythagoras, a Greek thinker of the sixth century B.C. Like other Greek philosophical schools, it had its own unique traits; one of its most basic tenets was the mystical significance of numbers. Pythagoreans also practiced strict vegetarianism.
Quintilian. An influential first-century Roman *rhetorician.
Qumran. The place where the *Dead Sea Scrolls were found (Khirbet Qumran); hence “Qumran community” is used to describe the people who lived there and wrote the Scrolls.
*Rabbi. Jewish teacher (“my master”). Sometime after A.D. 70 the term became a technical one for those ordained in the rabbinic movement, which probably consisted primarily of Pharisaic *scribes. (To accommodate customary usage this commentary sometimes applies the term to Jewish teachers of the *law in general, although such common usage may have technically been later; it also applies the term to the teachings of Jewish legal experts collected in *rabbinic literature.)
Rabbinic literature. The massive body of literature containing opinions attributed to various Jewish teachers considered part of the rabbinic movement. The earliest written edition of some of this material comes from the early third century A.D. (mostly citing second-century *rabbis). Although all the written sources and most of the rabbis they cite are later than the *New Testament, this literature is useful to illustrate one stream of Jewish tradition. Rabbinic works include the Mishnah, Tosefta, Mekilta on Exodus, Sifra on Leviticus, Sifre on Numbers and Deuteronomy, and later (after the third century) the Babylonian and Palestinian Talmuds and various works in the Midrash Rabbah.
Repentance. In the *New Testament, this term does not merely mean “change of mind” (as some have gathered from the Greek term); it reflects the *Old Testament and Jewish concept of “turning around” or “turning away” from sin. Jewish people were to repent whenever they sinned; the New Testament uses the term especially for the once-for-all kind of turning that a *Gentile would undergo when converting to Judaism or any sinner would undergo when becoming a follower of Jesus.
*Resurrection. Although some scholars in the early twentieth century associated the idea of Jesus’ resurrection with Greek *mystery cults, it is now widely understood that early Christian belief shared little in common with the mysteries’ myths, which simply reenacted a seasonal revivification of fertility. Rather, Jesus’ resurrection was rooted in a Jewish hope, which in turn was rooted in notions of God’s covenant, promise and justice from early in Israel’s history. Ancient Jewish sources show that most Palestinian Jews believed that God would resurrect the bodies of the dead (at least the righteous, and many believed also the wicked), at the end of the age, as articulated in Dan 12:2. There was, however, never any thought that one person would rise ahead of everyone else; thus Jesus’ resurrection, as an inauguration of the future *kingdom within history, caught even the *disciples by surprise.
*Rhetoric. The art or study of proper forms and methods of public speaking, highly emphasized in antiquity. Although only the well-to-do had much training in it (as the more popular of the two forms of advanced education in antiquity), the rhetorical forms and ideas they used filtered down to the rest of urban society through public speeches, in a manner similar to that in which television permeates modern Western society.
*Sadducees. Most belonged to the priestly aristocracy that had prospered due to its good relationship with the Romans; they pacified the people for the Romans and the Romans for the people. They controlled the prosperous temple cult, were skeptical of Pharisaic traditions and apparently supernaturalistic emphasis on angels and other spirits, and most of all were disturbed by talk of the *resurrection of the dead, other end-time beliefs, and anything that could arouse unrest. Messianic beliefs about the end time or revolutionary demands for change could—and ultimately did—challenge the stability of their own position in Palestine.
Saints. Some translations use this term (hagioi, singular hagios) for the “holy ones,” that is, for those who have been consecrated to God. This title for believers indicates their ritual status as set apart exclusively for God’s use (even when some of them fail to recognize it).
Samaritans. A people of mixed Jewish and *Gentile ancestry who claimed descent from Jacob and worshiped the God of Israel, but felt that Mount Gerizim rather than Jerusalem was the holy site for worship. They engaged the Jews in bitter rivalry, often leading to political hostilities in Jesus’ day, sometimes requiring Roman intervention.
Sanhedrin. The term designates an assembly; major cities could have their own senates, or assemblies. Jerusalem’s Sanhedrin decided local Judean affairs, though they remained answerable to Rome’s appointed agents.
Satan. Originally “the satan,” “the adversary” (as in the Hebrew text of Job), but used as the devil’s name by the end of Israel’s exile (2 Chronicles, Zechariah) and standard by the *New Testament period, although many Jewish people also called him by other names. In contrast to some modern theologians, the first readers of the New Testament would have viewed him as a literal, personal, evil spiritual being. Developing *Old Testament themes, early Judaism viewed Satan as accuser (cf. Job 1:6–2:7; Zech 3:1-2), tempter (cf. 1 Chron 21:1) and deceiver.
Savior. A title often used for gods and divine rulers in Greek culture but also used in the *Septuagint for Israel’s God as the deliverer of his people (e.g., Is 45:15, 21).
*Scribes. Throughout the Roman Empire, local executors of legal documents. In Jewish Palestine these presumably would be the people who also taught children how to read or recite the Scriptures; at least some of them were experts in the legal issues contained in the *law of Moses (i.e., they were predecessors of the *rabbis); some of them were *Pharisees.
Seneca. A Roman *Stoic philosopher, an adviser to Nero in that emperor’s early days.
*Septuagint. The Greek version of the Old Testament widely circulated in the *New Testament period. (It is commonly abbreviated *LXX because of the tradition that seventy scholars were responsible for it.) Although various recensions, or versions, of the Septuagint existed, this commentary, for the sake of avoiding technical questions beyond its scope, refers to the most widely accepted standardized form.
Shammai. A famous Jewish teacher contemporary with *Hillel and with Jesus’ early childhood; usually stricter than Hillel’s, his school’s opinions usually prevailed in the time of Jesus.
Shroud of Turin. The purported burial cloth of Jesus. Against its authenticity are the results of its radiocarbon dating; in its favor are its many Palestinian features (including traces of Palestinian plant fibers) and indications of first-century Jewish burial customs. The origin and character of the image have still not been resolved by investigators.
Sibylline Oracles. *Pseudepigraphic Jewish oracles modeled after pagan oracles of the same name, attributed to the ancient prophetess Sibyl and believed to have been collected from Jewish circles in Alexandria, Egypt and Asia Minor. Their composition spans a wide range of time, but most believe them to be mainly pre-Christian.
Similitudes of Enoch. These *parables of *1 Enoch (chaps. 37–71) may be from the first century B.C. or as late as the first century A.D. Because this section of Enoch alone is not represented in fragments from *Qumran, it remains disputed whether it is pre-Christian, although the majority of Enoch scholars currently argue that it is.
*Son of God. The phrase meant many things to many different people in the ancient world, but it could strike some Roman pagans as portraying Jesus as a rival to the emperor. Most *New Testament texts evoke *Old Testament usage, where the term was applied generically to all Israel (Ex 4:22) but specifically to the Davidic king (2 Sam 7:14), especially (after 2 Samuel) the ultimate restorer (Ps 2:7; 89:27). Although most Jewish texts from the time of Jesus do not use it to designate the *Messiah, some do (*Essene interpreters of 2 Sam 7:14).
*Son of Man. Hebrew and *Aramaic used the expression to mean “a human being,” but Jesus used it as a designation for himself, based on the particular use in Daniel 7:13-14. There “one like a son of man,” a representative for the *saints who suffer before receiving the *kingdom (7:25-27), receives the right to rule eternally. This passage was not usually applied to the *Messiah in Jesus’ day, and not until he clearly cited Daniel 7 at his trial did his opponents fully understand the claim he was making.
Spirit. When capitalized in this commentary, it refers to the Spirit of God, the *Holy Spirit.
Stoicism. The most popular form of Greek philosophy in Paul’s day. Although most people were not Stoics, many Stoic ideas were widely disseminated. For more detail, see comment on Acts 17:18.
Suetonius. A Roman historian whose early-second-century A.D. biographies of first-century A.D. emperors contain much useful information.
*Synagogues. Assembly places used by Jewish people for public prayer, Scripture readings and community meetings.
Synoptic Gospels. Matthew, Mark and Luke; called “synoptic” because they overlap so much, sharing common sources (probably especially Mark and “Q”).
Tacitus. A Roman historian whose early-second-century history of first-century Rome is among our most dependable sources for that era (albeit often tainted with Tacitus’s cynicism).
Targum. A paraphrase of the Hebrew Bible into the *Aramaic vernacular. Although it is impossible to date the extant written targums, the activity of translation is as old as Nehemiah 8:8 and could have developed into expanded paraphrases at an early date.
*Tax gatherers. A despised group of Jewish people who collected taxes for the government at a profit. Rome allowed wealthy men to contract with their own cities or districts to see to it that taxes were paid; because they had to cover any shortfall themselves, they were not inclined to have mercy on their clients. Herod the Great had used local taxes to finance not only the Jerusalem temple and his palaces but also pagan temples in *Gentile enclaves in Palestine, an action that had undoubtedly further alienated his people. Tax collectors thus appeared as collaborators with the occupying pagan power. Some tax collectors were customs agents, collecting customs taxes from traveling merchants. “Publican” is a modern English mistranslation of a Greek term that simply meant “*tax gatherer.” The Romans did not use literal publicanoi, a special kind of tax farmers, in the Palestine of Jesus’ day, but there were many tax collectors there.
Testament of Job. A *Hellenistic Jewish account of Job’s suffering and triumph, maybe from Egypt and often dated to the first century B.C. or the first century A.D. (though some argue that at least part of the work is no earlier than the late second century).
Testament of Moses. Some think this document derives from the Maccabean era; it could also be dated after A.D. 70 (cf. 6:9), but probably it dates to around the mid-first century A.D. (it describes only part of the temple being burned).
Testament of Solomon. Probably a non-Christian Jewish work from about the third century A.D., possibly from Asia Minor; its exorcist rites reflect thorough familiarity with ancient magical texts.
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs. Probably a mainly pre-Christian Jewish work with some Christian interpolations. Its date is uncertain. *Pseudepigraphic “testaments,” or final instructions, are left by each of Jacob’s twelve sons for their children.
Theon. A Greek *rhetorician whose manual of rhetoric is helpful in reconstructing ancient speaking and writing styles (along with handbooks by *Quintilian and others).
*Zealots. Jewish revolutionaries who became prominent by this name especially shortly before the first Jewish war (A.D. 66–70). Seeking to exonerate his people before the Romans, *Josephus marginalized them as robbers and troublemakers, but Zealot sympathizers were almost certainly widespread, apparently even among many *Pharisees and some younger Sadducees. Although “Zealots” technically refers to only one of the resistance groups, modern writers have often used the term as a convenient title for the entire resistance movement.