The Myth of Repressed Memory

REFERENCES

CHAPTER 1.

For more details on the Souza case, see the cover story of Newsweek, April 19, 1993.

CHAPTER 2.

For more infomation on research on the malleability of memory, interested readers can look at these sources:

Loftus, E. F. (1979). Eyewitness Testimony. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Loftus, E. F. (1980). Memory. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. (Reprinted by NY: Ardsley Press 1988.)

Loftus, E. F. and K. Ketcham. (1991). Witness for the Defense: The Accused, the Eyewitness, and the Expert Who Puts Memory on Trial. NY: St. Martin’s Press.

CHAPTER 3.

For additional stories of people who have retracted their memories and accusations of sexual abuse, see Goldstein, E. & Farmer, K. (1993). True Stories of False Memories. Boca Raton, FL: SIRS Books.

CHAPTER 4.

Bass, Ellen and Laura Davis. (1988). The Courage to Heal: A Guide for Women Survivors of Child Sexual Abuse. NY: Harper & Row.

Blume, E. S. (1990). Secret Survivors: Uncovering Incest and its Aftereffects in Women. NY: Ballantine.

CHAPTER 6.

The authors are deeply indebted to Harry MacLean, author of Once Upon a Time (HarperCollins, 1993), and Dr. David Spiegel for their contributions to this chapter.

O’Brien, Tim (1990). The Things They Carried. NY: Penguin Books, pp. 203–204.

Baddeley, Alan (1990). Human Memory: Theory and practice. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Klatzky, Roberta L. (1980). Human Memory: Structures and Processes. San Francisco: Freeman and Co.

Zeckmeister, Eugene B., and Stanley E. Nyberg. (1982). Human Memory: An Introduction to Research and Theory. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing.

Herman, J. L. (1981). Father–Daughter Incest. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Miller, A. (1981). The Drama of the Gifted Child. NY: Basic Books, pp. 111–112.

Freud’s definition of repression in “Repression” (originally published in 1915), in Strachey, J. (ed.) The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Vol. 14, London: Hogarth Press, 1957. Elizabeth von R. and Miss Lucy are discussed in Breuer, J., and S. Freud. (1895) “Studies on Hysteria.” Strachey (1955), volume 2. “The Wolfman” case can be found in Strachey (1955), volume 17.

Erdelyi, M. H., and B. Goldberg. (1979). “Let’s Not Sweep Repression Under the Rug: Toward a Cognitive Psychology of Repression.” In Kihlstrom, J. F., and F. J. Evans. (eds.) Functional Disorders of Memory. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, pp. 355–402.

Blume, E. S. (1990), pp. 67.

Bass & Davis (1988), p. 21–22.

Poston, C. & Lison, K. (1990). Reclaiming Our Lives: Hope for Adult Survivors of Incest, NY: Bantam.

Farmer, S. (1989). Adult Children of Abusive Parents, NY: Ballantine.

Davis, L. (1990). The Courage to Heal Workbook: For Women and Men Survivors of Child Sexual Abuse. NY: HarperCollins, p. 217.

Olio, K. (1989). “Memory retrieval in the treatment of adult survivors of sexual abuse,” Transactional Analysis Journal, 19, pp. 95–96.

The case of Betsey is described in Frawley, M. G. (1990). “From secrecy to self-disclosure: Healing the scars of incest,” in Stricker, G., and M. Fisher. (eds). Self-disclosure in the Therapeutic Relationship. NY: Plenum Press, p. 255.

Smith, M. and L. Pazder, M. D. (1980). Michelle Remembers. NY: Pocket Books.

Bass & Davis, p. 137.

Rosenfeld, A., C. Nadelson, and M. Krieger. (1979). “Fantasy and reality in patients’ reports of incest,” Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 40, pp. 159–164.

Rosenfeld et. al. state: “Litin et. al. have proposed that the therapist’s insistence that a patient’s memory was a fantasy may have driven some patients, who in fact had been molested, out of therapy or into psychosis because of the therapist’s repeated denial of the reality of their experience.” Litin, E. M., M. Giffin, A. Johnson. (1956). “Parental influence in unusual sexual behavior in children,” Psychoanal Q, 25:37–55.

Terr, L. (1990). Too Scared to Cry. NY: Basic Books. Definition of suppression: pp. 111–112; “Horrible experience” quote from pp. 170–172; “The memory of trauma is shot with higher intensity light…” p. 170.

Terr, L. (1991). “Childhood Traumas: An Outline and Overview,” Am J. Psychiatry, 148, 1, pp. 10–20.

Lenore Terr’s discussion of Steven King’s train trauma can be found on pp. 251–260, Too Scared to Cry.

King, S. (1983). Danse Macabre. NY: Berkley, pp. 83–84.

Loftus, E., and T. Burns. (1982). “Mental shock can produce retrograde amnesia.” Memory and Cognition, 10, pp. 318–323.

Loftus, E. F., and M. Banaji. (1989). “Memory modification and the role of the media.” In Gheorghiu, V. A., P. Netter, H. J. Eysenck, and R. Rosenthal. (eds.) Suggestibility: Theory and Research, Berlin: Springer-Verlag, p. 279–294.

Spiegel, D. (in press). “Dissociated or fabricated? Psychiatric issues in the case of the People vs. George Franklin,” International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis.

Beyerstein, B. (1988). “Neuropathology and the legacy of spiritual possession,” The Skeptical Inquirer, pp. 248–262.

Ellen White anecdote: Beyerstein, pp. 254–255, citing Clapp (1982). “Was Ellen White merely an epileptic?” Christianity Today: 26:56.

Hildegard is discussed on page 258 of Beyerstein’s article. Beyerstein cites Sacks, O. (1970). Migraine: The Evolution of a Common Disorder, London: Faber & Faber, 1970, chapter 3.

Sagan, C. (1993, March 7). “What’s really going on?” Parade Magazine.

Franklin, E., and W. Wright. (1991). Sins of the Father. NY: Crown.

On page 111–112 Eileen Franklin discusses her therapist’s interpretations of her repressed memories: “My main motive in telling Kirk was to learn if it was possible to forget such a powerful event. I also wanted his help in dealing with the memory, perhaps reducing its hold over me. As I told him the story, I began to cry and couldn’t stop until I finished. As I expected, Kirk was soothing and understanding. He told me that now that I’d brought the memory into my consciousness, it could no longer hurt me. He urged me to believe that I had made a sizable step toward psychic health … Kirk did not think me crazy … My relief was enormous.”

On page 279 of Too Scared to Cry Terr writes: “In children and in the untreated children who turn out to be troubled adults, these monotonous, literal, specific repetitions—the dreams, play, reenactments, and visualizations—are the surest cues we get to childhood trauma.”

CHAPTER 7.

For information on Penfield’s work, see: Loftus, E. F., and G. Loftus. (1980). “On the permanence of stored information in the human brain,” American Psychologist, 35, pp. 409–420.

For a discussion of the Tony Conigliaro tragedy, see Anderson, D. (1990, Feb. 27). “Handcuffed in history to Tony C.,” The New York Times, p. B9.

Piaget, J. (1962). Play, Dreams and Imitation in Childhood. NY: Norton.

Pynoos, R. S., and K. Nader. (1989). “Children’s memory and proximity to violence,” Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 28, pp. 236–241.

Haugaard, J. J., N. D. Reppucci, J. Laurd, and T. Nauful. (1991). “Children’s definitions of the truth and their competency as witnesses in legal proceedings,” Law and Human Behavior, 15, 253–272.

Clarke-Stewart, A., W. Thompson, and S. Lepore. (1989, April). “Manipulating children’s interpretations through interrogation.” Paper presented at the meeting of the Society for Research in Development, Kansas City, Mo. A discussion of the study can also be found in Goodman, G. S., and A. Clarke-Stewart. (1991). Suggestibility in children’s testimony: Implications for sexual abuse investigations. In Doris, J. (ed.) The Suggestibility of children’s recollections, pp. 92–105. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association Press. Commentaries on the chapter by Max Stellar, John Brigham, and Lucy S. McGough, also contained in the Doris volume, are worth reading.

Spanos, N., E. Menary, N. Gabora, S. DuBreuil, and B. Dewhirst. (1991). “Secondary Identity Enactments During Hypnotic Past-Life Regression: A Sociocognitive Perspective,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 61, pp. 308–320.

The Marilyn Van Derbur story appears in an article titled “The Darkest Secret,” People, June 10, 1991, pp. 88–94.

The Roseanne Arnold story appears in an article titled “A star cries incest,” People, October 7, 1991, pp. 84–88 and Darton, N., October 7, 1991, “The pain of the last taboo,” Newsweek, pp. 70–72.

Toufexis, A. (October 28, 1991). “When can memories be trusted?” Time, pp. 86–88.

Smiley, J. (1992). A Thousand Acres. NY: Ballantine Books, p. 228.

Petersen, B. (1992). Dancing with Daddy: A Childhood Lost and a Life Regained. NY: Bantam Books, pp. 64–65.

Collier, D. v Collier, J. (1991, December). Deposition of plaintiff, Case No. 711752, Superior Court, County of Santa Clara, California.

Rogers, M. L. (1992, March). “A case of alleged satanic ritualistic abuse,” paper presented at the American Psychology-Law Society meeting, San Diego.

Ganaway, G. K. (August 1991). “Alternative hypotheses regarding satanic ritual abuse memories,” paper presented at the American Psychological Assocation Annual Meeting, San Francisco.

Ganaway, G. K. (1989). “Historical versus narrative truth: Clarifying the role of exogenous trauma in the etiology of MPD and its variants,” Dissociation, 2: 205–220.

Dr. Paul R. McHugh has also written extensively on MPD and with Dr. Ganaway is one of the most articulate proponents of the “created MPD” position. See McHugh, P. R. (1993). “Multiple personality disorder,” Harvard Mental Health Letter, vol. 10, pp. 4–7. On page 6, Dr. McHugh recommends:

“Close the dissociation services and disperse the patients to general psychiatric units. Ignore the alters. Stop talking to them [the alter personalities], taking notes on them, and discussing them in staff conferences. Pay attention to real present problems and conflicts rather than fantasy. If these simple, familiar rules are followed, multiple personalities will soon wither away and psychotherapy can begin.”

For more information on the variety of views regarding MPD see:

Braun, B. G., and R. G. Sachs, (1988, October). “Recognition of possible cult involvement in MPD patients,” paper presented at the Fifth International Conference on Multiple Personality/Dissociative States, Chicago IL.

Kluft, R. P. (1993, October). “Multiple personality disorder: A contemporary perspective,” Harvard Mental Health Letter, Vol 10, pp. 5–7.

Weissberg, M. (1993). “Multiple personality disorder and iatrogenesis: The cautionary tale of Anna O,” The International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, Vol. XLI, pp. 15–34.

For another source for the difficulty of distinguishing real from imagined events see: Bonanno, G. A. (1990). “Remembering and psychotherapy,” Psychotherapy, 27, pp. 175–185.

For similar difficulties with children’s testimony, see Ceci, S., and M. Bruck. (1993). “Suggestibility of the child witness,” Psychological Bulletin, 113, pp. 403–439.

In a letter dated April 4, 1994, George Ganaway further elaborated on his ideas regarding the phenomenon of repression and the workings of the unconscious:

“Perhaps the most important contribution to our knowledge about memory and reality from a century of clinical psychoanalytic literature is an awareness of the existence from childhood of a realm of unconscious fantasies called ‘psychic reality.’ The tension created by intrapsychic and interpersonal needs contributes to the formation of wishes, worries, and unconscious fantasies, which constantly inform and influence our conscious thoughts, emotions and behaviors, distorting our perceptions and memories of personal experiences in the service of preconceived beliefs.

“Psychotherapists and others are currently involved in the argument over the existence of ‘robust repression’—whether an individual can keep extensive, important, personal information outside of conscious awareness for years, only to retrieve it later during therapy sessions. Assuming our patients are not consciously lying when they say they are not ‘making up’ their memories—and I have rarely found them to be lying—then, in fact, pseudomemories could not be created without a mechanism such as repression or dissociation. Confabulated memories come to conscious awareness in such an effortless manner, especially while in trance, that they seem always to have been there, waiting to be ‘discovered.’ This may fool the patient and therapist alike. There must be some unconscious or ‘repressed’ organizing factor that strings together these bits and pieces of fact and fantasy in order to present the unconscious mind with such a convincing scenario.

“Throwing the concept of repression and/or the ‘unconscious’ out entirely, as some investigators in social and cognitive psychology might prefer to do, makes it much more difficult to explain the entire spectrum of pseudomemories you see in patients, especially when careful attempts are made by most therapists to avoid any leading or reinforcing suggestions. In my opinion, only the concept of an active unconscious mental life can explain some of the material that comes up spontaneously in patients during waking states of reverie and in formal dream states during the night.”

Neisser, U., and N. Harsch. (1992). “Phantom flashbulbs: False recollections of hearing the news about Challenger,” in Winograd, E., and U. Neisser. (eds.) Affect and Accuracy in Recall: Studies of “Flashbulb” Memories. NY: Cambridge University Press, pp. 9–31. For more information on flashbulb memories in general, see the entire volume.

For another perspective on memory for very significant events, see Wright, D. (1993). “Recall of the Hillsborough Disaster over time: Systematic biases of ‘flashbulb’ memories,” Applied Cognitive Psychology, 7, pp. 129–138.

See also: Loftus, E. F., and L. Kaufman. (1992). Why do traumatic experiences sometimes produce good memory (flashbulbs) and sometimes no memory (repression)? In Winograd, E., and U. Neisser. (eds.) Affect and Accuracy in Recall: Studies of “Flashbulb” Memories. NY: Cambridge University Press.

Cannon, L. (1991). President Reagan: The Role of a Lifetime. NY: Simon & Schuster.

Loftus, E. F., and J. Coan. (in press). The construction of childhood memories. In Peters, D. (ed.) The Child Witness in Context: Cognitive, Social and Legal Perspectives. NY: Kluwer.

“Questions about sex (even the most adventurous Cosmo girls want answered),” by Helen Singer Kaplan, M.D., pp. 150–151, July 1992 Cosmopolitan.

CHAPTER 8.

Many articles, both popular and scholarly, advance the idea of the generational nature of incest. See for example, Wells, R. H. (1994, January). “There’s no such thing as ‘mis-remembering,’” Adolescence.

CHAPTER 9.

Books and articles used in this chapter are listed below:

Bass, E., and L. Thornton. (1991). I Never Told Anyone: Writings by Women Survivors of Child Sexual Abuse. NY: HarperPerennial (originally published by Harper in 1983).

Bass, E., and L. Davis. (1988) The Courage to Heal: A Guide for Women Survivors of Child Sexual Abuse, NY: Harper & Row.

Bishop-Milbradt, M. (1984; revised by Terri Platt, 1988) Incest: A Book for Adult Survivors, Tacoma, WA: Pierce County Rape Relief.

Blume, E. S. (1990). Secret Survivors: Uncovering Incest and its Aftereffects in Women, NY: Ballantine Books.

Bradshaw, J. (1990). Homecoming. NY: Bantam Books.

Bradshaw, J. (July 1992). “Discovering what we want,” Lear’s, 5, p. 49.

Bradshaw, J. (August 1992). “Incest: When you wonder if it happened to you,” Lear’s, 5, pp. 43–44.

Braun, B. G., and R. G. Sachs. (1988, October). “Recognition of possible cult involvement in MPD patients.” Paper presented at the Fifth International Conference on Multiple Personality/Dissociative States, Chicago, IL.

Brenneis, B. (1993). “On the relationship of dream content to trauma.” Unpublished manuscript.

Brewin, C., B. Andrews, and I. Gotlib. (1993). “Psychopathology and early experience: A reappraisal of retrospective reports,” Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 113, pp. 82–98.

Briere, J. (1992). “Studying delayed memories of childhood sexual abuse,” The Advisor (Publication of the American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children), 5, pp. 17–18.

Briere, J. (1989). Therapy for Adults Molested as Children: Beyond Survival. NY: Springer Pub. Co.

Briere, J., and J. Conte. (1993). “Self-reported amnesia for abuse in adults molested as children,” Journal of Traumatic Stress, Vol 6, pp. 21–31.

Claridge, K. (1992). “Reconstructing memories of abuse: A theory-based approach,” Psychotherapy, Vol. 29, pp. 243–252.

Courtois, C. (1988). Healing the Incest Wound. NY: Norton.

Courtois, C. (1992). “The memory retrieval process in incest survivor therapy,” Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, vol. 1(1).

Davis, L. (1990). The Courage to Heal Workbook: For Women and Men Survivors of Child Sexual Abuse, NY: HarperCollins.

Davis, P., and G. Schwartz. (1987). “Repression and the inaccessibility of affective memories,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 52, no. 1.

Dinges, D. F., W. G. Whitehouse, E. C. Orne, J. W. Powell, M. T. Orne, and M. H. Erdelyi. (1992). “Evaluating hypnotic memory enhancement (hyperamnesia and reminiscence) using multitrial forced recall,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 18, pp. 1139–1147.

Engel, B. (1989). The Right to Innocence. NY: Ivy Books.

Farmer, S. (1989). Adult Children of Abusive Parents. NY: Ballantine.

Forrest, M. (1993). “An interview with John Briere, Ph.D.,” Treating Abuse Today, Vol. 3, no. 1.

Forward, S., and C. Buck. (1988). Betrayal of Innocence: Incest and its Devastation. NY: Penguin Books.

Fredrickson, R. (1992). Repressed Memories: A Journey to Recovery from Sexual Abuse. NY: Simon and Schuster.

Gudjonsson, G. (1985). “Comment on ‘The use of hypnosis by the police in the investigation of crime: Is guided imagery a safe substitute?” British Journal of Experimental and Clinical Hypnosis, Vol. 3, p. 37.

Herman, J. L. (1981). Father-Daughter Incest. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Herman, J. L. (1992). Trauma and Recovery. NY: Basic Books.

Herman, J. L., and E. Schatzow. (1987). “Recovery and verification of memories of childhood sexual trauma,” Psychoanalytic psychology, 4, pp. 1–14.

Holmes, D. (1990). “The evidence for repression: An examination of sixty years of research.” In J. Singer (ed.) Repression and Dissociation: Implications for personality, theory, psychopathology and health. Chicago: Chicago University Press, pp. 85–102. Holmes has recently updated his review in a piece to be published in the Harvard Mental Health Letter.

Howell, R. J. (1965). A verified childhood memory elicited during hypnosis. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 8, pp. 141–142. A psychologist hypnotized a 15-year-old girl and regressed her back to 11 months when she recalled falling down a long flight of stairs. However, even the hypnotist admitted “obviously there is no way of knowing if the subject had ever heard of this incident from her parents or her grandmother” (p. 142).

Kaminer, W. (1992). I’m Dysfunctional, You’re Dysfunctional: The Recovery Movement and Other Self-help Fashions. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Laurence, J-R., and C. Perry. (1983). “Hypnotically created memory among highly hypnotizable subjects,” Science, 222, pp. 523–524.

Laurence, J-R., R. Nadon, H. Nogrady, and C. Perry. (1986). “Duality, dissociation, and memory creation in highly hypnotizable subjects,” International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 34, 4, pp. 295–310.

Lew, M. (1988). Victims No Longer: Men Recovering from Incest and Other Sexual Child Abuse. NY: HarperCollins.

Lindsay, S., and D. Read. (in press). “Psychotherapy and memories of childhood sexual abuse,” Applied Cognitive Psychology.

Lynn, S., M. Milano, and J. Weekes. (1991). “Hypnosis and pseudomemories: The effects of prehypnotic expectancies,” Journal of personality and social psychology, 60, pp. 318–326.

Lynn, S., and M. Nash. (1994). “Truth in memory: Ramifications for psychotherapy and hypnotherapy,” American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, Vol. 36. pp. 194–208.

Maltz, W. (1992). The Sexual Healing Journey: A Guide for Survivors of Sexual Abuse. NY: HarperCollins.

Maltz, W., and B. Holman. (1986). Incest and Sexuality: A Guide to Understanding and Healing. NY: Free Press.

McHugh, P. R. (1992). “Psychiatric misadventures,” The American Scholar, 61, pp. 491–510.

McHugh, P. R. (1993). “Psychotherapy Awry,” The American Scholar, 62, pp. 17–30.

McHugh, P. R. (1993, September). “Multiple personality disorder,” Harvard Mental Health Letter, Vol 10, pp. 4–6.

Miller, A. (1981) The Drama of the Gifted Child: The Search for the True Self. NY: Basic Books.

Mulhern, S. (1991). “Satanism and psychotherapy: A rumor in search of an inquisition.” In Richardson, J. T., J. Best, and G. Bromley. (eds.) The Satanism Scare, NY: Aldine de Gruyter.

Nash, M. (1987). “What, if anything, is regressed about hypnotic age regression? A review of the empirical literature,” Psychological Bulletin, 102, pp. 42–52.

Nash, M. (1992). “Retrieval of childhood memories in psychotherapy.” Paper presented at the annual convention of the American Psychological Association, Washington, D.C.

Neisser, U. (1991). “A case of misplaced nostalgia,” American Psychologist, 46, 1, pp. 34–36.

Olio, K. A. (1989). “Memory retrieval in the treatment of adult survivors of sexual abuse,” Transactional Analysis Journal, Vol. 19, pp. 93–94.

Orne, M. T. (1979). “The use and misuse of hypnosis in court,” International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 27, pp. 311–341.

Poston, C., and K. Lison. (1990). Reclaiming Our Lives: Hope for Adult Survivors of Incest. NY: Bantam (originally Little Brown, 1989).

Roland, C. (October 1993). “Exploring childhood memories with adult survivors of sexual abuse: Concrete reconstruction and visualization techniques,” Journal of Mental Health Counseling, Vol. 15, No. 4.

Root, M. (1992). “Reconstructing the impact of trauma on personality,” in Brown, L., and M. Ballou. (eds.) Personality and psychopathology: Feminist Reappraisals, NY: The Guilford Press.

Rosenfeld, A., C. Nadelson, and M. Krieger. (April 1979). “Fantasy and reality in patients’ reports of incest,” Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 40, pp. 159–164.

Russell, D. E. H. (1984). Sexual exploitation: Rape, child sexual abuse and sexual harassment. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Salter, S., and C. Ness. (April 4–9, 1993). “Buried Memories/Broken Families,” San Francisco Examiner.

Sgroi, S. M. (1989). “Stages of recovery for adult survivors of child sex abuse.” Chapter in Sgroi, S. M. (ed.) Vulnerable Populations: Sexual abuse treatment for children, adult survivors, offenders and persons with mental retardation, vol. 2, Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.

Sherman, S. J., R. B. Cialdini, D. F. Schwartzman, and K. D. Reynolds. (1985). “Imagining can heighten or lower the perceived likelihood of contracting a disease,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 11, pp. 118–127.

Singer, M., and R. Ofshe. (1990). “Thought reform programs and the production of psychiatric casualties,” Psychiatric Annals, Vol 20, pp. 188–193. Margaret Singer has also co-authored a chapter with Richard Ofshe: Ofshe, R. J., and M. T. Singer. (1993). “Recovered memory therapies and robust repression: A collective error.” Unpublished manuscript, University of California, Berkeley.

Smith, M. (1983). “Hypnotic memory enhancement of witnesses: Does it work?” Psychological Bulletin, 94, pp. 387–407.

Summit, R. (1992). “Misplaced attention to delayed memory,” The Advisor (published by the American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children), 5, pp. 21–25.

Tavris, C. (1992). The Mismeasure of Woman. NY: Simon and Schuster.

Tavris, C. (January 3, 1993). “Beware the incest-survivor machine,” The New York Times Book Review. (See also: “Real Incest and Real Survivors: readers respond,” in The New York Times Book Review, February 14, 1993).

Terr, L. (1988). “What happens to early memories of trauma? A study of 20 children under age five at the time of documented traumatic events,” J. Amer Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 27, pp. 96–104.

Terr, L. (1990) Too Scared to Cry: How trauma affects children … and ultimately us all, NY: Basic Books.

Van der Kolk, B., and O. Van der Hart. (1991). “The intrusive past: The flexibility of memory and the engraving of trauma,” American Imago, 48, pp. 425–454.

Weekes, J. R., S. J. Lynn, J. P. Green, and J. T. Brentar. (1992). “Pseudomemory in hypnotized and task-motivated subjects,” Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101, pp. 356–360.

Williams, L. M. (1992). “Adult memories of childhood abuse: Preliminary findings from a longitudinal study,” The Advisor, 5, pp. 19–20. A more complete version of this research will be published by the Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology.

Yapko, M. (1988). When Living Hurts. NY: Brunner/Mazel.

Yapko, M. (1989). “Disturbance of temporal orientation as a feature of depression,” in Yapko, M. (ed.) Brief Therapy Approaches to Treating Anxiety and Depression. Brunner/Mazel.

Yapko, M. (1990). Trancework: An introduction to the Practice of Clinical Hypnosis (2nd ed.). NY: Brunner/Mazel.

Yapko, M. (1994). “Suggestibility and repressed memories of abuse. A survey of psychotherapists’ beliefs,” American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 36, pp. 163–171. Readers might also be interested in commentaries by P. B. Bloom, D. M. Ewin, E. Loftus et al. M. Gravitz, and S. J. Lynn et al. that accompany the Yapko article in the same issue of the American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis.

Yapko, M. (1994). Suggestions of Abuse. NY: Simon & Schuster.

CHAPTER 11.

CNN Special Assignment, “Guilt by Memory,” Kathy Slobogin, May 1993.

Nathan, D. (October 1992). “Cry Incest,” Playboy, Vol. 39 #10

For an alternative view on cult ritual abuse, see Rose, E. (January/February 1993). “Surviving the Unbelievable: A first-person account of cult ritual abuse,” Ms., vol III, no. 4.

Lanning, footnote: Lanning, K. V. (1991). “Ritual abuse: A law enforcement view or perspective,” Child Abuse & Neglect, 15, pp. 171–173. The full context of Lanning’s comment:

“For at least eight years, American law enforcement has been aggressively investigating the allegations of victims of ritual abuse. There is little or no evidence for the portion of their allegations that deals with large-scale baby breeding, human sacrifice, and organized satanic conspiracies. Now it is up to mental health professionals, not law enforcement, to explain why victims are alleging things that don’t seem to be true. Mental health professionals must begin to accept the possibility that some of what these victims are alleging just didn’t happen and that this area desperately needs study and research by rational, objective social scientists.”

Wielawski, I. (October 3, 1991). “Unlocking the secrets of memory,” Los Angeles Times.

Taylor, B. (May 16, 1992). “What if sexual abuse memories are wrong?” Toronto Star; and Taylor, B. (May 18, 1992) “True or False?” Toronto Star.

Goleman, D. (July 21, 1992). “Childhood Trauma: Memory or Invention?” The New York Times, p. B5.

Sauer, M., and J. Okerblom. (Sept. 13, 14, and 15, 1992). “Haunting Accusations, San Diego Union-Tribune.

Darrell Sifford wrote a series of articles on the subject of false accusations, all of which appeared in the Philadelphia Inquirer. (“Accusations of sex abuse, years later,” November 24, 1991; “When tales of sex abuse aren’t true,” Jan 5, 1992; “Perilous journey: The labyrinth of past sexual abuse,” Feb. 13, 1992; and “Her mission: Heal families, don’t blame,” Feb. 23, 1992).

Ofshe, R., and E. Watters. (1993, March/April). “Making Monsters,” Society, pp. 4–16.

Berliner, L., and E. Loftus. (1992). “Sexual abuse accusations: Desperately seeking reconciliation,” Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 7, pp. 570–578.

For information on anterograde amnesia, see the books on human memory mentioned in the endnotes for chapter 6. Also see Loftus, E. F. (1980). Memory. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. (Re282 282printed by Ardsley Press, 1988).

“PN” was discussed in Schacter, D. L., P. L. Wang, E. Tulving, and M. Freedman. (1982). “Functional retrograde amnesia: A quantitative case study,” Neuropsychologia, 20, pp. 523–532.

For other research on amnesia by Schacter see: Schacter, D. L. (1983). “Amnesia observed: Remembering and forgetting in a natural environment,” Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 92, pp. 236–242, and Schacter, D. L. and J. F. Kihlstrom. (1989). “Functional amnesia,” In Boller, F., and J. Grafman (eds). Handbook of Neuropsychology, 3, pp. 209–231.

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual—3rd edition, revised.

Whitley, G. (1991 October). “The seduction of Gloria Grady,” D Magazine, pp. 45–49, 66–71.

Tavris, C. (January 3, 1993). “Beware the incest-survivor machine,” The New York Times Book Review. (See also: “Real incest and real survivors: Readers respond,” in The New York Times Book Review, February 14, 1993).

Robinson, K. (August 11, 1993). “Memories of Abuse,” Seattle Weekly. Letters to the editor appeared in the “Letters” column on August 25, 1993.

The article on repressed memories was written by Karen S. Peterson and appeared in USA Today, August 31, 1992, p. D1.

CHAPTER 12.

Richard Ofshe is a professor of sociology at the University of California, Berkeley. His research focuses on extreme techniques of influence and social control. Ofshe shared in a 1979 Pulitzer Prize for an expose of Synanon.

Lawrence Wright’s two-part article on the Paul Ingram case (“Remembering Satan,” published on May 17 and May 24, 1993 in The New Yorker) has been expanded into a groundbreaking book: Remembering Satan (NY: Knopf, 1994). The book was reviewed in Newsweek on April 4, 1994. “This is a cautionary tale of immense value, told with rare intelligence, restraint and compassion,” the reviewer noted, “Remembering Satan catapults Wright to the front rank of American journalists.”

Ofshe, R. (1989). “Coerced confessions: The logic of seemingly irrational action,” Cultic Studies Journal, 6, pp. 1–15.

Ofshe has written extensively about the Ingram case. See:

Ofshe, R. J. (1992). “Inadvertent hypnosis during interrogation: False confession due to dissociative sate, misidentified multiple personality and the satanic cult hypothesis,” International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, XL, pp. 125–126.

Ofshe, R., and E. Watters. (1993, March/April). “Making monsters,” Society, pp. 4–16.