South asia is considered the ancient home of ginger cultivation and remains the primary source today. This plant is related to turmeric and like turmeric has been used for thousands of years as both a culinary spice and a therapeutic medicine. Fresh ginger is traditionally used as both a flavoring for many foods and drinks and as a key component in curries from India.
In recent studies, in the late twentieth century and early twenty-first century, gingerols, a primary chemical constituent of ginger, has been shown to be potent antidotes to certain cancers, such as ovarian and skin cancer. Its overall therapeutic effects are similar to those documented for onions and garlic.
Inhibition of acetyl cholinesterase activities and some pro-oxidant induced lipid peroxidation in rat brain by two varieties of ginger (Zingiber officinale). Oboh G, Ademilyui AO, Akinyemi AJ. Exp Toxicol Pathol. 2010 Oct 15. {Epub ahead of print}. Key Finding: “Some possible mechanism by which ginger extracts exert anti-Alzheimer properties could be through the inhibition of acetyl cholinesterase activities and prevention of lipid peroxidation in the brain.”
Suppression of the nuclear factor-kappaB activation pathway by spice-derived phytochemicals: reasoning for seasoning. Aggarwal BB, Shishodia S. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2004 Dec;1030:434-41. Key Finding: “The activation of nuclear transcription factor kappaB has now been linked with a variety of inflammatory disease, including cancer, atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, diabetes, allergy, asthma, arthritis, Crohn’s disease, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s disease, osteoporosis, psoriasis, septic shock, and AIDS. Extensive research in the last few years has shown that the pathway that activates this transcription factor can be interrupted by phytochemicals derived from spices such as turmeric (curcumin), red pepper (capsaicin), cloves (eugenol), ginger (gingerol), cumin, anise, and fennel (anethol), basil and rosemary (ursolic acid), garlic (diallyl sulfide, S-allylmercaptocysteine, ajoene), and pomegranate (ellagic acid). For the first time, therefore, research provides ‘reasoning for seasoning.’”
Herbal Antioxidants in Clinical Practice. Weiner MA. Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine. 1994; vol 9, no. 3:167-176. Key Finding: This paper present a discussion of herbs (ginger, ginkgo, licorice, schizandra, turmeric, quercetin) that may add to the optimization of antioxidant status and offer preventive values for overall human health.
Suppression of the nuclear factor-kappaB activation pathway by spice-derived phytochemicals: reasoning for seasoning. Aggarwal BB, Shishodia S. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2004 Dec;1030:434-41. Key Finding: “The activation of nuclear transcription factor kappaB has now been linked with a variety of inflammatory disease, including cancer, atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, diabetes, allergy, asthma, arthritis, Crohn’s disease, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s disease, osteoporosis, psoriasis, septic shock, and AIDS. Extensive research in the last few years has shown that the pathway that activates this transcription factor can be interrupted by phytochemicals derived from spices such as turmeric (curcumin), red pepper (capsaicin), cloves (eugenol), ginger (gingerol), cumin, anise, and fennel (anethol), basil and rosemary (ursolic acid), garlic (diallyl sulfide, S-allylmercaptocysteine, ajoene), and pomegranate (ellagic acid). For the first time, therefore, research provides ‘reasoning for seasoning.’”
Ginger extract consumption reduces plasma cholesterol, inhibits LDL oxidation and attenuates development of atherosclerosis in atherosclerotic, apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. Fuhrman B, Rosenblat M, Hayek T, Coleman R, Aviram M. J Nutr. 2000 May;130(5):1124-31. Key Finding: “We conclude that dietary consumption of ginger extract by mice significantly attenuates the development of atherosclerotic lesions. This antiatherogenic effect is associated with a significant reduction in plasma and LDL cholesterol levels and a significant reduction in the LDL basal oxidative state.”
6-Shogaol, an active constituent of ginger, inhibits breast cancer cell invasion by reducing matrix metalloproteinase-9 expression via blockade of nuclear factor-kB activation. Ling H, Yang H, Tan SH, Et al. Br J Pharmacol. 2010 Dec;161(8):1763-77. Key Finding: “6-Shogaol from ginger is a potent inhibitor of MDA-MB-231 cell invasion, and the molecular mechanism involves at least in part the down-regulation of MMP-9 transcription by targeting the NF-kB activation cascade.”
6-Dehydrogingerdione, an active constituent of dietary ginger, induces cell cycle arrest and apoptosis through reactive oxygen species/c-Jun N-terminal kinase pathways in human breast cancer cells. Hsu YL, Chen CY, Hou MF, Et al. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2010 Sep;54(9):1307-17. Key Finding: “6-dehydrogingerdione is an active constituent of dietary ginger. These findings suggest that a critical role for reactive oxygen species and c-Jun N-terminal kinase in 6-dehydrogingerdione-mediated apoptosis of human breast cancer.”
Induction of apoptosis by {6}-gingerol associated with the modulation of p53 and involvement of mitochondrial signaling pathway in B{a{P-induced mouse skin tumorigenesis. Nigam N, George J, Srivastava S, Et al. Cancer Chemother Parmacol. 2010 Mar;65(4):687-96. Key Finding: “On the basis of the results we conclude that {6}-gingerol possesses apoptotic potential in mouse skin tumors as mechanism of chemoprevention hence deserves further investigation.”
Induction of apoptosis by {8}-shogaol via reactive oxygen species generation, glutathione depletion, and caspase activation in human leukemia cells. Shieh PC, Chen YO, Kup DH, Et al. J Agric Food Chem. 2010 Mar 24;58(6):3847-54. Key Finding: “One of the pungent phenolic compounds in ginger, {8}-shogaol, was able to induce apoptosis in a time- and concentration-dependent manner. Taken together these results suggest for the first time that reactive oxygen species production and depletion of glutathione that contributed to {8}-shogaci-induced apoptosis in HL-60 human leukemia cells.”
Ginger extract inhibits human telomerase reverse transcriptase and c-Myc expression in A549 lung cancer cells. Tuntiwechapikul W, Taka T, Songsomboon C, Et al. J Med Food. 2010 Dec;13(6):1347-54. Key Finding: “Ginger extract can inhibit the expression of the two prominent molecular targets of cancer, the human telomerase reverse transcriptase and c-Myc, in A549 lung cancer cells in a time- and concentration-dependent manner.”
Increased growth inhibitory effects on human cancer cells and anti-inflammatory potency of shogaols from Zingiber officinale relative to gingerols. Sang S, Hong J, Wu H, Liu J, Yang CS, Pan MH, Badmaey V, Ho CT. J Agric Food Chem. 2009 Nov 25;57(22):10645-50. Key Finding: “Ginger has received extensive attention because of its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antitumor activities. Most researchers have considered gingerols as the active principles and have paid little attention to shogaols, the dehydration products of corresponding gingerols. In this study, we have purified and identified eight major components from ginger extract and compared their anticarcinogenic and anti-inflammatory activities. Our results showed that shogaols had much stronger growth inhibitory effects than gingerols on human lung cancer cells and human colon cancer cells.”
{6}-Gingerol induces reactive oxygen species regulated mitochondrial cell death pathway in human epiermoid carcinoma A431 cells. Nigam N, Bhui K, Prasad S, George J, Shukla Y. Chem Biol Interact. 2009 Sep 14;181(1):77-84. Key Finding: “These results firmly suggest that {6}-gingerol can be effectively used for the treatment of skin cancer.”
Potential of spice-derived phytochemicals for cancer prevention. Aggarwal BB, Kunnumakkara AB, Harikumar KB, Tharakan ST, Sung B, Anand P. Planta Med. 2008 Oct;74(13):1560-9. Key Finding: “The potential of turmeric (curcumin), red chili (capsaicin), cloves (eugenol), ginger (zerumbone), fennel (anethole), kokum (gambogic acid), fenugreek (diosgenin), and black cumin (thymoquinone) in cancer prevention has been established. Additionally, the mechanism by which these agents mediate anticancer effects is also becoming increasingly evident. The current review describes the active components of some of the major spices, their mechanisms of action and their potential in cancer prevention.”
Ginger inhibits cell growth and modulates angiogenic factors in ovarian cancer cells. Rhode J, Fogoros S, Zick S, Wahl H, Griffith KA, Huang J, Liu JR. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2007 Dec 20;7:44. Key Finding: “Ginger inhibits growth and modulates secretion of angiogenic factors in ovarian cancer cells. The use of dietary agents such as ginger may have potential in the treatment and prevention of ovarian cancer.”
Role of chemo preventive agents in cancer therapy. Dorai T, Aggarwal BB. Cancer Lett. 2004 Nov 25;215(2): 129-40. Key Finding: “Chemo preventive agents include genistein, resveratrol, diallyl sulfide, S-allyl cysteine, allicin, lycopene, capsaicin, curcumin, 6-gingerol, ellagic acid, ursolic acid, silymarin, anethol, catechins and eugenol. Because these agents have been shown to suppress cancer cell proliferation, inhibit growth factor signaling pathways, induce apoptosis, inhibit NF-kappaB, AP-1 and JAK-STAT activation pathways, inhibit angiogenesis, suppress the expression of anti-apoptotic proteins, inhibit cyclooxygenase-2, they may have untapped therapeutic value. These chemo preventive agents also have very recently been found to reverse chemo resistance and radio resistance in patients undergoing cancer treatment.”
Suppression of the nuclear factor-kappaB activation pathway by spice-derived phytochemicals: reasoning for seasoning. Aggarwal BB, Shishodia S. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2004 Dec;1030:434-41. Key Finding: “The activation of nuclear transcription factor kappaB has now been linked with a variety of inflammatory disease, including cancer, atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, diabetes, allergy, asthma, arthritis, Crohn’s disease, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s disease, osteoporosis, psoriasis, septic shock, and AIDS. Extensive research in the last few years has shown that the pathway that activates this transcription factor can be interrupted by phytochemicals derived from spices such as turmeric (curcumin), red pepper (capsaicin), cloves (eugenol), ginger (gingerol), cumin, anise, and fennel (anethol), basil and rosemary (ursolic acid), garlic (diallyl sulfide, S-allylmercaptocysteine, ajoene), and pomegranate (ellagic acid). For the first time, therefore, research provides ‘reasoning for seasoning.’”
Functional properties of spice extracts obtained via supercritical fluid extraction. Leal PF, Braga ME, Sato DN, Carvalho JE, Marques MO, Meireles MA. J Agric Food Chem. 2003 Apr 23;51(9):2520-5. Key Finding: “In the present study the antioxidant, anticancer and antimicrobacterial activities of extracts from ginger, rosemary and turmeric were evaluated. The rosemary extracts exhibited the strongest antioxidant and the lowest antimicrobacterial activities. Turmeric extracts showed the greatest antimicrobacterial activity. Ginger and turmeric extracts showed selected anticancer activities.”
Anti-tumor promoting potential of selected spice ingredients with antioxidative and anti-inflammatory activities: a short review. Surh YJ. Food Chem Toxicol. 2002 Aug;40(8):1091-7. Key Finding: “This review summarizes the molecular mechanisms underlying chemo preventive effects of the spice ingredients curcumin, [6]-gingerol, and capsaicin, in terms of their effects on intracellular signaling cascades, particularly those involving NF-kappaB and mitogen-activated protein kinases.”
Botanicals in cancer chemoprevention. Park EJ, Pezzuto JM. Cancer Metastasis Rev. 2002;21(3-4):231-55. Key Finding: “In this review, we discuss the cancer chemo preventive activity of cruciferous vegetables such as cabbage and broccoli, Allium vegetables such as garlic and onion, green tea, citrus fruits, tomatoes, berries, ginger and ginseng. Phytochemicals of these types have great potential in the fight against human cancer, and a variety of delivery methods are available as a result of their occurrence in nature.”
Anti-tumor promoting activities of selected pungent phenolic substances present in ginger. Surh YJ, Park KK, Chun KS, Lee LJ, Lee E, Lee SS.J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol. 1999;18(2):131-9. Key Finding: “In our study, we found anti-tumor promoting properties of [6]-gingerol and [6]-paradol. These substances also significantly inhibited the tumor-promoter-stimulated inflammation, TNF-alpha production, and activation of epidermal ornithine decarboxylase in mice. In another study, [6]-gingerol and [6]-paradol suppressed the superoxide production stimulated by TPA in differentiated HL-60 cells. Taken together, these findings suggest that pungent vanilloids found in ginger possess potential chemo preventive activities.”
Antihypercholesterolaemic effect of ginger rhizome (Zingiber officinale) in rats. ElRokh el-SM, Yassin NA, Sl-Shenawy SM, Ibrahim BM. Inflammopharmachology. 2010 Dec;18(6):309-15. Key Finding: “The results revealed that the hypercholesterolemic rats treated with aqueous ginger infusion in the three doses used after 2 and 4 weeks of treatment induce significant decrease in all lipid profile parameters which were measured and improved the risk ratio.”
Ginger extract consumption reduces plasma cholesterol, inhibits LDL oxidation and attenuates development of atherosclerosis in atherosclerotic, apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. Fuhrman B, Rosenblat M, Hayek T, Coleman R, Aviram M. J Nutr. 2000 May;130(5):1124-31. Key Finding: “We conclude that dietary consumption of ginger extract by mice significantly attenuates the development of atherosclerotic lesions. This antiatherogenic effect is associated with a significant reduction in plasma and LDL cholesterol levels and a significant reduction in the LDL basal oxidative state.”
Suppression of dextran sodium sulfate-induced colitis in mice by zerumbone, a subtropical ginger sesquiterpene, and nimesulide, separately and in combination. Murakami A, Hayashi R, Tanaka T, Kwon KH, Ohigashi H, Safitri R. Biochem Pharmacol. 2003 Oct 1;66(7):1253-61. Key Finding: “Ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease are inflammatory disorders of unknown cause and difficult to treat. The present study was undertaken to explore the suppressive efficacy of zerumbone, a sesquiterpenoid used as a condiment in Southeast Asian countries. Our results suggest that zerumbone is a novel food factor for mitigating experimental ulcerative colitis and that use of a combination of agents, with different modes of action, may be an effective anti-inflammatory strategy.”
Suppression of the nuclear factor-kappaB activation pathway by spice-derived phytochemicals: reasoning for seasoning. Aggarwal BB, Shishodia S. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2004 Dec;1030:434-41. Key Finding: “The activation of nuclear transcription factor kappaB has now been linked with a variety of inflammatory disease, including cancer, atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, diabetes, allergy, asthma, arthritis, Crohn’s disease, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s disease, osteoporosis, psoriasis, septic shock, and AIDS. Extensive research in the last few years has shown that the pathway that activates this transcription factor can be interrupted by phytochemicals derived from spices such as turmeric (curcumin), red pepper (capsaicin), cloves (eugenol), ginger (gingerol), cumin, anise, and fennel (anethol), basil and rosemary (ursolic acid), garlic (diallyl sulfide, S-allylmercaptocysteine, ajoene), and pomegranate (ellagic acid). For the first time, therefore, research provides ‘reasoning for seasoning.’”
Targeting inflammation-induced obesity and metabolic diseases by curcumin and other nutraceuticals. Aggarwal BB. Annu Rev Nutr. 2010 Aug 21;30:173-99. Key Finding: “Curcumin-induced alterations reverse insulin resistance, hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia and other symptoms linked to obesity. Other structurally homologous nutraceuticals, derived from red chili, cinnamon, cloves, black pepper and ginger, also exhibit effects against obesity and insulin resistance.”
Aqueous extracts of onion, garlic and ginger inhibit platelet aggregation and alter arachidonic acid metabolism. Srivastava KC. Biomed Biochim Acta. 1984;43(8-9):S335-46. Key Finding: “Aqueous extracts of onion, garlic and ginger inhibited platelet aggregation induced by several aggregation agents, including arachidonate, in a dose-dependent manner. While onion and garlic extracts were found to be weak inhibitors of platelet thromboxane synthesis, ginger extract inhibited the platelet cyclooxygenase products and this effect correlated well with its inhibitory effects on the platelet aggregation induced by the above aggregation agents. The results indicate that if the same were happening in vivo, onion, garlic and ginger could be useful as natural antithrombotic materials.”