1. Hecataeus’s map of the world, nineteenth-century copy of Ancient Greek original. Bridgeman Images
2. Marble torso from Miletus, Greece, fifth century BC. Granger/Alamy
3. Bust of Pericles, Roman copy after a Greek original from c.430 BC. Vatican Museums, Rome. Peter Horree/Alamy
4. The Acropolis, Athens, constructed fifth century BC. Lonely Planet/Getty Images
5. Coin with possible portrait of Hannibal and an elephant, struck in Carthage or Sicily, 221–201 BC. Heritage Images/Getty Images
6. Fresco showing the Good Shepherd (an early representation of Jesus Christ), third century. Catacombs, Rome. Interfoto/Alamy
7. A View of the Forum, Rome, Giovanni Battista Piranesi, c.1775. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Harris Brisbane Dick Fund, 1937, 37.45.3(58)
8. Head from the Colossus of Constantine, c.312–15. Musei Capitolini, Rome. Deco Images/Alamy
9. The Meeting of Pope Leo the Great and Attila, Raphael, 1514. Stanza d’Eliodoro, Vatican. Stuart Robertson/Alamy
10. Emperor Justinian I, Byzantine mosaic, c.547. San Vitale, Ravenna. Bridgeman Images
11. Empress Theodora, Byzantine mosaic, c.547. San Vitale, Ravenna. Bridgeman Images
12. Reliquary bust of Charlemagne, German school, 1349. De Agostini/Getty Images
13. Interior of the Great Mosque of Cordoba, ninth century. Mauritius Images/Alamy
14. The death of King Harold, from the Bayeux Tapestry, eleventh century. Musée de la Tapisserie, Bayeux. Bridgeman Images
15. Carved dragon head excavated from the Oseberg Viking ship burial, 834. Photo12/Alamy
16. Folio from the Flateyjarbók, Icelandic school, fourteenth century. Árni Magnússon Institute, Reykjavik. Werner Forman Archive/Bridgeman Images
17. The Crusader assault on Jerusalem in 1099, French school, fourteenth century. Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris. Bridgeman Images
18. King Henry II with Thomas Becket, illustration from the Chronicle of England, English school, c.1307–27. British Library, London. Hirarchivium Press/Alamy
19. Pope Innocent III, Italian school, thirteenth century. Museo di Roma, Rome. Bridgeman Images
20. The Black Death at Tournai, Gilles Le Muisit, 1349. Bibliothèque Royale de Belgique, Brussels. Bridgeman Images
21. The execution of Jan Hus (or one of his priests) at the Council of Constance, Ulrich von Richental, fifteenth century. Private collection. Bridgeman Images
22. The month of October, from the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry, the Limbourg Brothers, fifteenth century. Musée Condé, Chantilly. Bridgeman Images
23. The Taking of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, from Voyage d’outremer de Bertrand de la Broquière, French school, 1455. Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris. Leemage/Getty Images
24. The Calling of SS. Peter and Andrew, Domenico Ghirlandaio, 1481. Vatican Museums and Galleries, Vatican City. Bridgeman Images
25. Johannes Gutenberg, Flemish school, 1695. Granger Collection/Alamy
26. Queen Isabella of Castile, Flemish school, c.1490. Prado, Madrid. Bridgeman Images
27. Girolamo Savonarola, Italian school, fifteenth century. Palazzo Giovio, Como. Toni Spagone/Alamy
28. Martin Luther, Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1529. Artexplorer/Alamy
29. Lisbon, from Civitates Orbis Terrarum, Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg, c.1572. The Stapleton Collection/Bridgeman Images
30. Charles V of Spain, Bernaert van Orley, 1519. Heritage Image Partnership/Alamy
31. François I, Jean Clouet, 1525–30. Louvre, Paris. Bridgeman Images
32. Henry VIII, Joos van Cleve, c.1535. Royal Collection Trust. © Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II, 2018. Bridgeman Images
33. Suleiman I, Nakkas Osman, 1579. Topkapi Palace Museum, Istanbul. Bridgeman Images
34. The St Bartholomew’s Day Massacre, François Dubois, c.1529. Science History Images/Alamy
35. Catherine de’ Medici, François Clouet, c.1580. Utcon Collection/Alamy
36. Henry IV, Frans Pourbus, c.1610. Louvre, Paris. Bridgeman Images
37. The Defenestration of Prague, 1618, engraving by Matthias Merian from Theatrvm Evropevm, mid-seventeenth century. Prisma Archivo/Alamy
38. The Hanging, from The Miseries and Misfortunes of War, Jacques Callot, 1633. Grosjean Collection, Paris. Bridgeman Images
39. Louis XIV of France and his family, Jean Nocret, c.1670. Château de Versailles, France. Roger Viollet/Getty Images
40. A View of the Castle and Gardens of Versailles, Pierre Patel, 1668. Château de Versailles, France. Leemage/Getty Images
41. Battle of Blenheim, tapestry, Flemish school, early eighteenth century. Blenheim Palace, Woodstock. Bridgeman Images
42. Frederick II of Prussia, German school, 1740. Castello Sforzesco, Milan. Mondadori Portfolio/Getty Images
43. Maria Theresa of Austria, detail from a family portrait, Martin van Meytens, 1764. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. De Agostini/Getty Images
44. Title-page of Diderot’s Encyclopédie, 1751. Historic Images/Alamy
45. Marble bust of Voltaire, Jean-Antoine Houdon, 1778. De Agostini/Getty Images
46. Catherine II of Russia, after Alexander Roslin, 1776. Museum of Art, Serpukhov. Bridgeman Images
47. The Tennis Court Oath, 20 June 1789, Jacques-Louis David. Musée Carnavalet, Paris. Active Museum/Alamy
48. Plan of the Battle of Trafalgar, 21 October 1805, by Alexander Johnston, showing the British breaking the French and Spanish line, c.1830s. Private Collection. Stapleton Collection/Bridgeman Images
49. Napoleon I, Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, 1806. Musée de l’Armée, Paris. Bridgeman Images
50. The Retreat from Russia in 1812, Nicolas Toussaint Charlet, 1836. Beaux-Arts Museum, Lyon. Leemage/Getty Images
51. The Congress of Vienna, 1815, print after a painting by Jean-Baptiste Isabey. Granger/Bridgeman Images
52. Liberty Leading the People, 28 July 1830, Ferdinand Victor Eugène Delacroix, c.1830–31. Louvre, Paris. Louvre-Lens/Bridgeman Images
53. Barricades in Märzstrasse, Vienna, Edouard Ritter, 1848. Wien Museum Karlsplatz, Vienna. Bridgeman Images
54. A View of Bradford, William Cowen, 1849. Bradford Art Galleries and Museums. Bridgeman Images
55. Georg William Frederick Hegel, 1831. GL Archive/Alamy
56. Karl Marx, c.1870. Photo12/Alamy
57. The Opening of the Great Exhibition, Henry Selous, 1851–52. Private Collection. Bridgeman Images
58. The Relief of the Light Brigade, 25 October 1854, Richard Caton Woodville Jr, 1897. National Army Museum, London. Bridgeman Images
59. Giuseppe Garibaldi during the landing of the Thousand at Marsala, 11 May 1860, Gerolamo Induno. Museo Nazionale del Risorgimento, Turin. PVDE/Bridgeman Images
60. Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, Franz Seraph von Lenbach, 1890. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore. Bridgeman Images
61. Fallen statue of Napoleon I in the Place Vendôme, Paris, 1871. Marguerite Millan Collection. Hulton Archive/Getty Images
62. Archduke Franz Ferdinand and Archduchess Sophie of Austria at Sarajevo, Bosnia, 28 June 1914. Granger/Alamy
63. The Taking of Vimy Ridge, Easter Monday 1917, Richard Jack, 1919. Canadian War Museum, Ottawa. Bridgeman Images
64. Female munitions workers, Germany, 1915. akg-images
65. The Signing of the Treaty of Versailles in the Hall of Mirrors, Joseph Finnemore, 1919. Australian War Memorial, Campbell, Australia.
66. Reich Party Congress, Nuremberg, Germany, 1937, Hugo Jaeger. The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images
67. Adolf Hitler with Nazis at the Eiffel Tower, Paris, June 1940. The Print Collector/Getty Images
68. Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin at the Yalta Conference, February 1945. Photo12/Alamy
69. The destroyed city of Dresden, 1945, Richard Petersen. Deutsche Fotothek/dpa picture alliance/Alamy
70. US C-47 cargo plane flying over locals during the Berlin Airlift, 1948, Walter Sanders. The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images
71. Czech citizens on top of a Soviet Tank, Wenceslas Square, Prague, 1968. Sovfoto/Getty Images
72. Fall of the Berlin Wall, 1989, Peter Timm. ullstein bild/Getty Images
73. Margaret Thatcher meeting Mikhail Gorbachev at the Russian embassy in Paris, 1990. PA Photos/TopFoto
74. German Chancellor Angela Merkel with migrants, Berlin, 2015. Sean Gallup/Getty Images
75. Inauguration of Vladimir Putin at the Kremlin, Moscow, 2018, Alexander Zemlianichenko. AFP/Getty Images
76. Angela Merkel with Donald Trump at the G7 summit, Charlevoix, Canada, 2018, Jesco Denzel. Bundesregierung/Getty Images