NOTES

Preface

1. J. H. Wellbank, Denis Snook, and David T. Mason, John Rawls and His Critics: An Annotated Bibliography (Garland Publishing, 1982). More generally, the philosophical literature on Rawls is vast. For influential interpretations, see Thomas Pogge, Realizing Rawls (Cornell University Press, 1989); Norman Daniels, ed., Reading Rawls: Critical Studies of Rawls’s “A Theory of Justice” (Stanford University Press, 1975); Chandran Kukathas and Philip Pettit, Rawls: “A Theory of Justice” and Its Critics (Stanford University Press, 1990); Samuel Freeman, Rawls (Routledge, 2007).

2. The paradigmatic statement that political theory was “dead” was made in Peter Laslett, “Introduction,” in Philosophy, Politics, and Society, ed. Peter Laslett (Basil Blackwell, 1956), vii. This death and revival narrative has frequently been reproduced by political philosophers, even where it is contested. See Brian M. Barry, Political Argument: A Reissue with a New Introduction (University of California Press, 1992), lxix.

3. On this folk narrative, see Mark Bevir and Andrius Gališanka, “John Rawls in Historical Context,” History of Political Thought 33, no. 4 (2012): 701–25.

4. Daniel T. Rodgers, Age of Fracture (Harvard University Press, 2010); Samuel Moyn, The Last Utopia: Human Rights in History (Harvard University Press, 2010).

5. For the most powerful statement of this view, see Samuel Moyn, Not Enough: Human Rights in an Unequal World (Harvard University Press, 2018), 39–40.

6. For accounts of the limits and contradictions of postwar liberalism in the United States, see, for example, Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton University Press, 1996); Judith Stein, Running Steel, Running America: Race, Economic Policy, and the Decline of Liberalism (University of North Carolina Press, 1998); Elizabeth Hinton, From the War on Poverty to the War on Crime: The Making of Incarceration in America (Harvard University Press, 2016). Gabriel Emmet Winant, “Crucible of Care: Economic Change and Inequality in Postwar Pittsburgh, 1955–1995”, PhD dissertation, Yale University (2018). For postwar Britain, see David Edgerton, The Rise and Fall of the British Nation: A Twentieth-Century History (Allen Lane, 2018).

7. For the earlier origins of neoliberalism, see Angus Burgin, The Great Persuasion: Reinventing Free Markets since the Depression (Harvard University Press, 2012); Quinn Slobodian, Globalists: The End of Empire and the Birth of Neoliberalism (Harvard University Press, 2018).

8. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Harvard University Press, 1971), 3. All references are to the original edition.

9. Alan Brinkley, The End of Reform: New Deal Liberalism in Recession and War (Alfred A. Knopf, 1995).

10. James T. Sparrow, Warfare State: World War II Americans and the Age of Big Government (Oxford University Press, 2011).

11. Aaron L. Friedberg, In the Shadow of the Garrison State: America’s Anti-Statism and Its Cold War Grand Strategy (Princeton University Press, 2000).

12. Marc Stears, Demanding Democracy: American Radicals in Search of a New Politics (Princeton University Press, 2010); Anne Kornhauser, Debating the American State: Liberal Anxieties and the New Leviathan (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015); Ira Katznelson, Desolation and Enlightenment: Political Knowledge after Total War, Totalitarianism, and the Holocaust (Columbia University Press, 2003).

13. For the postwar decline of American philosophy’s “potency,” see Bruce Kuklick, A History of Philosophy in America: 1720–2000 (Clarendon Press, 2001), 199. For its Cold War narrowing, see John McCumber, “Time in the Ditch: American Philosophy and the McCarthy Era,” Diacritics 26, no. 1 (1996): 33–49; George A. Reisch, How the Cold War Transformed Philosophy of Science: To the Icy Slopes of Logic (Cambridge University Press, 2005); cf. Thomas L. Akehurst, The Cultural Politics of Analytic Philosophy: Britishness and the Spectre of Europe (Continuum, 2010). On sociology, see Andrew Abbott and James T. Sparrow, “Hot War, Cold War: The Structure of Sociological Action, 1940–1955,” in Sociology in America: A History, ed. Craig Calhoun (University of Chicago Press, 2007).

14. P. Mackenzie Bok, “To the Mountaintop Again: The Early Rawls and Post-Protestant Ethics in Postwar America,” Modern Intellectual History 14, no. 1 (2017): 153–85; David A. Reidy, “Rawls’s Religion and Justice as Fairness,” History of Political Thought 31 (2010): 309–43.

15. Ben Jackson, Equality and the British Left: A Study in Progressive Political Thought, 1900–64 (Manchester University Press, 2007); Alice O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge: Social Science, Social Policy, and the Poor in Twentieth-Century US History (Princeton University Press, 2001).

16. See, for example, the essays in Thom Brooks and Martha C. Nussbaum, Rawls’s Political Liberalism (Columbia University Press, 2015).

17. Nils Gilman, Mandarins of the Future: Modernization Theory in Cold War America (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003); John G. Gunnell, “The Rise and Fall of the Democratic Dogma and the Emergence of Empirical Democratic Theory,” in Modern Pluralism: Anglo-American Debates since 1880, ed. Mark Bevir (Cambridge University Press, 2012), 129–53.

18. On “eventfulness,” see William H. Sewell Jr., “The Temporalities of Capitalism,” Socio-Economic Review 6, no. 3 (July 2008): 517–37.

19. Niall Ferguson, Charles S. Maier, Erez Manela, and Daniel J. Sargent, eds., The Shock of the Global: The 1970s in Perspective (Harvard University Press, 2010).

20. Robert Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia (Basic Books, 1974), 183.

21. Matthew G. Specter, Habermas: An Intellectual Biography (Cambridge University Press, 2010).

22. Greta R. Krippner, Capitalizing on Crisis: The Political Origins of the Rise of Finance (Harvard University Press, 2011); Alasdair Roberts, The Logic of Discipline: Global Capitalism and the Architecture of Government (Oxford University Press, 2010); Bruce Schulman, “The Privatization of Everyday Life,” in Living in the Eighties , ed. Gil Troy and Vincent J. Cannato (Oxford University Press, 2009).

23. I borrow the notion of “conscripts of liberalism” from Duncan Bell’s borrowing from David Scott and Talal Asad; Duncan Bell, “What Is Liberalism?,” Political Theory 42, no. 6 (2014): 682–715; David Scott, Conscripts of Modernity: The Tragedy of Colonial Enlightenment (Duke University Press, 2004), chap. 3.

24. Joel Isaac, Working Knowledge: Making the Human Sciences from Parsons to Kuhn (Harvard University Press, 2012), 1–30.

25. David Runciman, “What Is Realistic Political Philosophy?,” Metaphilosophy 43, nos. 1–2 (2012): 58–70; Jacob T. Levy, “Political Theory and Political Philosophy,” assembled from April 2003 blog posts, http://profs-polisci.mcgill.ca/levy/theory-philosophy.html (accessed September 10, 2012).

26. On the formation of political theory, see John G. Gunnell, The Descent of Political Theory: The Genealogy of an American Vocation (University of Chicago Press, 1993); Benjamin Barber, “The Politics of Political Science: ‘Value-Free’ Theory and the Strauss-Wolin Dust-Up of 1963,” American Political Science Review 100, no. 4 (2006): 539–45. For the influence of Arendt and Wolin, see Emily Hauptmann, “A Local History of ‘the Political,’” Political Theory 32, no. 1 (2004): 34–60; for Straussianism, see Tony Burns and James Connelly, The Legacy of Leo Strauss (Imprint, 2010).

27. Raymond Geuss, Philosophy and Real Politics (Princeton University Press, 2008).

28. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (Free Press, 1992).

29. On the political origins of global justice theory and its paths not taken, see Samuel Moyn, “The Political Origins of Global Justice,” in Joel Isaac, James T. Kloppenberg, Michael O’Brien, and Jennifer Ratner-Rosenhagen, The Worlds of American Intellectual History, ed. (Oxford University Press, 2016). On what the “protected status” of Rawls’s text entailed for the question of what gets to count as political philosophy, particularly from the point of view of his feminist interlocutors see Sophie Smith, “Rawls, Okin, and the Politics of Political Philosophy,” unpublished paper (2017).

30. The trajectories of political philosophy elsewhere have their own postwar histories, as does the reception (or not) of Rawls’s ideas in different national and transnational scholarly contexts. For the reception of Rawls in various European countries, see Mathieu Hauchecorne, La Gauche Américaine en France: La Réception de John Rawls et des Théories de la Justice (CNRS Éditions, 2019), and the special issue of European Journal of Political Theory 1, no. 2 (2002); see also Satoshi Fukuma, “Rawls in Japan: A Brief Sketch of the Reception of John Rawls’s Philosophy,” Philosophy East and West 64, no. 4 (2014): 887–901.

31. On Rawls and the history of political thought, see, for example, Michael L. Frazer, “John Rawls: Between Two Enlightenments,” Political Theory 35/36, no. 6 (2007): 756–80; Stefan Eich, “The Theodicy of Growth: John Rawls, Political Economy, and Reasonable Faith,” unpublished paper (2018); Eric Nelson, The Theology of Liberalism: Political Philosophy and the Justice of God (Harvard University Press, 2019), chaps. 3–6. For recent efforts to expand or contest the canon of political philosophy, see, respectively, Robert Gooding-Williams, In the Shadow of Du Bois: Afro-Modern Political Thought in America (Harvard University Press, 2011); Charles Mills, “Decolonizing Western Political Philosophy,” New Political Science 37, no. 1 (2015): 1–24.

32. Scott, Conscripts of Modernity, 3–5; cf. Quentin Skinner, Visions of Politics, vol. 1, Regarding Method (Cambridge University Press, 2002), 1–57.

Chapter 1. The Making of Justice

1. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, viii.

2. Thomas Pogge, John Rawls: His Life and Theory of Justice (Oxford University Press, 2007), 5–11. For Rawls’s reflections on these events, see John Rawls, “Just Jack,” in “Autobiographical Notes—John Rawls,” Box 42, Folder 12, HUM 48, John Rawls Papers, Harvard University Archives (hereafter JRP).

3. For wonderful biographical detail, see Priscilla Mackenzie Bok, “The Early Rawls and His Path to a Theory of Justice,” PhD thesis, University of Cambridge (2015).

4. John Rawls, “Hume’s Method,” p. 1a, Box 52, Folder 7, JRP.

5. For the importance of Hegel to Rawls, see Jeffrey Bercuson, John Rawls and the History of Political Thought: The Rousseauvian and Hegelian Heritage of Justice as Fairness (Routledge, 2014).

6. Sparrow, Warfare State; Barry D. Karl, The Uneasy State: The United States from 1915 to 1945 (University of Chicago Press, 1983).

7. Robert Griffith, “Dwight D. Eisenhower and the Corporate Commonwealth,” American Historical Review 87, no. 1 (1982): 87–122.

8. Brinkley, The End of Reform; Robert M. Collins, More: The Politics of Economic Growth in Postwar America (Oxford University Press, 2000). For the parallel retreat from planning in Britain, see Daniel Ritschel, The Politics of Planning: The Debate on Economic Planning in Britain in the 1930s (Clarendon Press, 1997), chap. 8.

9. Benjamin L. Alpers, Dictators, Democracy, and American Public Culture: Envisioning the Totalitarian Enemy, 1920s–1950s (University of North Carolina Press, 2003); David Ciepley, Liberalism in the Shadow of Totalitarianism (Harvard University Press, 2006); cf. Eric Shickler and David Caughey, “Public Opinion, Organized Labor, and the Limits of New Deal Liberalism, 1936–1945,” Studies in American Political Development 25, no. 2 (2011): 162–89.

10. Harold Lasswell, “The Garrison State,” American Journal of Sociology 46, no. 4 (1941): 455–68.

11. Kim Phillips-Fein, Invisible Hands: The Businessmen’s Crusade against the New Deal (W. W. Norton, 2010); Mark R. Wilson, American Business and the Winning of World War II (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016).

12. Kornhauser, Debating the American State, chap. 2; Daniel R. Ernst, Tocqueville’s Nightmare: The Administrative State Emerges in America, 1900–1940 (Oxford University Press, 2014); cf. Jeremy Kessler, “The Struggle for Administrative Legitimacy,” Harvard Law Review 129, no. 3 (2016): 718.

13. Meg Jacobs, Pocketbook Politics: Economic Citizenship in Twentieth-Century America (Princeton University Press, 2007), chap. 5; Nelson Lichtenstein, State of the Union: A Century of American Labor (Princeton University Press, 2002), chap. 2.

14. Edward D. Corwin, Total War and the Constitution (Alfred A. Knopf, 1947), 52–53; cf. Friedberg, In the Shadow of the Garrison State, 40; Laura Kalman, The Strange Career of Legal Liberalism (Yale University Press, 1996), 13–59; Herman Belz, “Changing Conceptions of Constitutionalism in the Era of World War II and the Cold War,” Journal of American History 59, no. 3 (1972): 650.

15. Brinkley, The End of Reform, 160; Theodore Rosenof, “Freedom, Planning, and Totalitarianism: The Reception of F. A. Hayek’s Road to Serfdom,” Canadian Review of American Studies 5, no. 2 (1974). For more recent interpretations of Hayek that minimize his anti-statism, see Burgin, The Great Persuasion, chap. 1; Slobodian, Globalists, chap. 7.

16. Kornhauser, Debating the American State, chaps. 3–5.

17. Kuklick, A History of Philosophy in America, 232–37.

18. Edward A. Purcell Jr., The Crisis of Democratic Theory: Scientific Naturalism and the Problem of Value (University Press of Kentucky, 1973), chap. 9.

19. For the “threat to democracy” argument, see Mortimer Adler, “God and the Professors,” presentation at the Conference on Science, Philosophy, and Religion (1941).

20. Gunnell, The Descent of Political Theory, chap. 6.

21. Carl J. Friedrich, The New Belief in the Common Man (Little, Brown & Co., 1942), 40–41. On the broader turn to democracy against totalitarianism in the social sciences, see Andrew Jewett, Science, Democracy, and the American University (Cambridge University Press, 2012), 290–301; Howard Brick, “Talcott Parsons’s ‘Shift Away from Economics,’ 1937–1946,” Journal of American History 87, no. 2 (September 2000): 490–514. For the tangled history of invocations of “the common man,” see Andrew Seal, “The Common Man: An Intellectual History of the New Middle Class 1880–1950,” PhD thesis, Yale University (2017). Cf. also Mark Greif, The Age of the Crisis of Man: Thought and Fiction in America 1933–1973 (Princeton University Press, 2015).

22. Walter Terence Stace, The Destiny of Western Man (Reynal & Hitchcock, 1942), 208.

23. Eric Gregory, “Before the Original Position: The Neo-Orthodox Theology of the Young John Rawls,” Journal of Religious Ethics 35, no. 2 (2007): 179–206.

24. Joshua Cohen, “Introduction,” in John Rawls, A Brief Inquiry into the Meaning of Sin and Faith, ed. Thomas Nagel (Harvard University Press, 2009).

25. Rawls, A Brief Inquiry into the Meaning of Sin and Faith, 111–28, 240–48.

26. Samuel Moyn, “Personalism, Community, and the Origins of Human Rights,” in Human Rights in the Twentieth Century, ed. Stefan-Ludwig Hoffmann (Cambridge University Press, 2011), 85–106, 88; Jan-Werner Müller, Contesting Democracy: Political Ideas in Twentieth-Century Europe (Yale University Press, 2011), 137–38.

27. On Rawls’s liberal Protestantism, see Bok, “To the Mountaintop Again,” 153–85. On theodicy in Rawls, see Nelson, The Theology of Liberalism, chap. 3; cf. Reidy, “Rawls’s Religion and Justice as Fairness,” 309–43.

28. Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., The Politics of Hope: American Liberalism in the 1960s (Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1964), 10; Gilbert Allardyce, “The Rise and Fall of the Western Civilization Course,” American Historical Review 87, no. 3 (1982): 695–725.

29. S. M. Amadae, Rationalizing Capitalist Democracy: The Cold War Origins of Rational Choice Liberalism (University of Chicago Press, 2003).

30. Thomas Bender, “Politics, Intellect, and the American University, 1945–1995,” in American Academic Culture in Transformation: Fifty Years, Forty Disciplines, ed. Thomas Bender and Carl E. Schorske (Princeton University Press, 1998), 17–54; Richard M. Freeland, Academia’s Golden Age: Universities in Massachusetts, 1945–1970 (Oxford University Press, 1992), 123–79.

31. Joel Isaac, “The Human Sciences in Cold War America,” Historical Journal 50, no. 3 (2007): 725–46. For a recent survey of the Cold War social science literature, see Nils Gilman, “The Cold War as Intellectual Force Field,” Modern Intellectual History 13, no. 2 (2016).

32. John Rawls, “A Study in the Grounds of Ethical Knowledge: Considered with Reference to Judgements on the Moral Worth of Character,” PhD diss., Princeton University (1950). On the naturalization of consensus by postwar liberals, see Andrew Jewett, “Naturalizing Liberalism in the 1950s,” in Professors and Their Politics, ed. Neil Gross and Solon J. Simmons (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2014), 191–216.

33. Rawls, “A Study in the Grounds of Ethical Knowledge,” 16–17.

34. Ibid., 294.

35. Ibid., 103.

36. Ibid., 8–10.

37. Ibid., 317–43, 1–2, 7.

38. Christian List and Philip Pettit, Group Agency: The Possibility, Design, and Status of Corporate Agents (Oxford University Press, 2013), introduction.

39. John Rawls, “Lecture on the Function of Government,” p. 14, Box 8, Folder 3, JRP.

40. Rawls, “A Study in the Grounds of Ethical Knowledge,” 8.

41. Ibid., 33–38.

42. Ibid., 39. On the rise of tort law, see John Fabian Witt, Patriots and Cosmopolitans: Hidden Histories of American Law (Harvard University Press, 2007), chap. 4. On its relation to anti-statism, see Laura Weinrib, “From Public Interest to Private Rights: Free Speech, Liberal Individualism, and the Making of Modern Tort Law,” Law and Social Inquiry 34, no. 1 (2009): 187–223.

43. Rawls, “A Study in the Grounds of Ethical Knowledge,” 293.

44. Stears, Demanding Democracy, 87–93.

45. Rawls, “A Study in the Grounds of Ethical Knowledge,” 331; cf. Daniele Botti, “Rawls on Dewey before the Dewey Lectures,” Journal of the History of Ideas 78, no. 2 (2017): 287–98.

46. Ibid., 10, 62.

47. On the importance also of “court-like” procedures to rein in the administrative state, see Ernst, Tocqueville’s Nightmare, and Joanna L. Grisinger, The Unwieldy American State: Administrative Politics since the New Deal (Cambridge University Press, 2012). 

48. Gary Gerstle, “The Protean Character of American Liberalism,” American Historical Review 99, no. 4 (1994): 1071–72; Wendy L. Wall, Inventing the “American Way”: The Politics of Consensus from the New Deal to the Civil Rights Movement (Oxford University Press, 2008); Martin Roiser, “The American Reception of The Authoritarian Personality,” in In Practice: Adorno, Critical Theory, and Cultural Studies, ed. Holger Matthias Briel and Andreas Kramer (Peter Lang, 2001), 149–42.

49. Rawls, “A Study in the Grounds of Ethical Knowledge,” 31.

50. Ibid., 265.

51. Ibid., 153–54.

52. Ibid., 157.

53. Joel Isaac, “Pain, Analytical Philosophy, and American Intellectual History,” in Isaac et al., The Worlds of American Intellectual History, 202–17; cf. Andrius Gališanka, “Wittgenstein and Mid-20^th Century Political Philosophy: Naturalist Paths from Facts to Values,” in Wittgenstein and Normative Inquiry, ed. Mark Bevir and Andrius Gališanka (Brill Press, 2016), 1–22.

54. For a critique of the standard vision of postwar analytical philosophy as dominated by logical positivism, see Joel Isaac, “Missing Links: W. V. Quine, the Making of ‘Two Dogmas,’ and the Analytic Roots of Post-Analytic Philosophy,” History of European Ideas 37, no. 3 (2011): 267–79.

55. P. Mackenzie Bok, “‘The Latest Invasion from Britain’: Young Rawls and His Community of Ethical Theorists,” Journal of the History of Ideas 78, no. 2 (2017): 275–85.

56. Bok, “‘The Latest Invasion from Britain,’” 278–80.

57. G.E.M. Anscombe, “Intention,” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 57, no. 1 (1957): 321–32; G.E.M. Anscombe, “On the Grammar of ‘Enjoy,’” Journal of Philosophy 64, no. 19 (1967): 607–14; Philippa Foot, “Moral Beliefs,” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 59, no. 1 (1958): 83–104.

58. John Rawls, “The Concept of Morality and the Person,” p. 12, Box 35, Folder 1, JRP.

59. John Rawls, “Topic VII: Concept of a Morality,” p. 1, Box 35, Folder 1, JRP; cf. Terry Pinkard, “Forms of Thought, Forms of Life,” in Wittgenstein and Hegel: Reevaluation of Difference, ed. Jacob Mácha and Alexander Berg (Degruyter, 2019).

60. John Rawls, “Moral Psychology: Bibliographies,” Box 34, Folder 17, JRP.

61. John Rawls, “Summary: Topic of Moral Feelings,” p. 3, and “Talk on the Concept of a Morality,” p. 4, in “Moral Feelings 1 (1958),” Box 34, Folder 19, JRP.

62. John Rawls, “Points in Ms. Foot’s Discussion of Moral Principles,” and “Talk on the Concept of Morality,” pp. 2–3, Box 34, Folder 18, JRP; Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations (Macmillan, 1953), §282.

63. I owe the idea of an “earned” universalism to Kenzie Bok, to whom the argument in the previous paragraph is indebted. For detail on Rawls’s engagement with Wittgenstein, philosophical psychology, Aristotle’s ethics, Piaget, and psychoanalysis, see Bok, “The Early Rawls,” chaps. 4 and 5.

64. John Rawls, “Wittgenstein on the Hidden,” p. 1, in “Wittgenstein Investigations (ca. 1953),” Box 9, Folder 2, JRP.

65. John Rawls, “Wittgenstein Investigation, Lexicon (undated),” Box 60, JRP.

66. John Rawls, “Philosophy and Social Thought,” p. 2b, Box 35, Folder 10, JRP.

67. Nelson Lichtenstein, “Pluralism, Postwar Intellectuals, and the Demise of the Union Idea,” in The Great Society and the High Tide of Liberalism, ed. Sidney M. Milkis and Jerome M. Mileur (University of Massachusetts Press, 2005); Ben Jackson, “Corporatism and Its Discontents: Pluralism, Anti-Pluralism, and Anglo-American Industrial Relations, c. 1930–1980,” in Bevir, Modern Pluralism, 105–28.

68. Ira Katznelson, “Was the Great Society a Lost Opportunity?,” in The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, 1930–1980, ed. Steve Fraser and Gary Gerstle (Princeton University Press, 1989), 192; Dalia Tsuk Mitchell, “From Pluralism to Individualism: Berle and Means and 20^th-Century American Legal Thought,” Law and Social Inquiry 30, no. 1 (2005): 179–225.

69. Jose Harris, “Political Thought and the Welfare State 1870–1940: An Intellectual Framework for British Social Policy,” Past and Present 135, no. 1 (1992): 127.

70. Gabriel A. Almond and Sidney Verba, The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations (Princeton University Press, 1963); James T. Kloppenberg, “Life Everlasting: Tocqueville in America,” chap. 5 in Kloppenberg, The Virtues of Liberalism (Oxford University Press, 1998), 71–82.

71. Nelson, The Theology of Liberalism, chap. 3.

72. John Rawls, “Notes on Richard T. Ely, Edwin Corwin, and Robert S. Lynd,” Box 7, Folders 15 and 16, JRP; cf. Landon R. Y. Storrs, The Second Red Scare and the Unmaking of the New Deal Left (Princeton University Press, 2012).

73. John Rawls, “Notes on Tocqueville’s ‘Democracy in America,’” p. 22, Box 7, Folder 15, JRP.

74. Ibid., p. 30.

75. For different interpretations of these unpublished essays, cf. Kornhauser, Debating the American State, chap. 5; Andrius Gališanka, “Just Society as a Fair Game: John Rawls and Game Theory in the 1950s,” Journal of the History of Ideas 78, no. 2 (2017): 299–308.

76. John Rawls, “Society as a Game,” pp. 4–6, Box 7, Folder 10, JRP.

77. John Rawls, “Taxation and Justice,” p. 2, Box 7, Folder 2, JRP.

78. John Dewey, “The Historic Background of Corporate Legal Personality,” Yale Law Journal 35, no. 6 (1926): 655–73.

79. Cf. his later account in John Rawls, “Distributive Justice (1959),” Box 36, Folder 4, JRP. On the postwar family and the suburban home, see Margaret Marsh, Suburban Lives (Rutgers University Press, 1990); Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (Basic Books, 1988).

80. John Rawls, “Difficult Moral Decisions,” p. 7, Box 7, Folder 10, JRP.

81. John Rawls, “Society as a Game,” p. 17, Box 8, Folder 3, JRP.

82. John Rawls, “Concept of a Practice and Social Institutions (1960),” p. 8a, Box 35, Folder 9, JRP.

83. Clifford Geertz, “Blurred Genres: The Refiguration of Social Thought,” chap. 1 in Geertz, Local Knowledge: Further Essays in Interpretive Anthropology (Basic Books, 1983), 26.

84. Martin Shubik, “Game Theory at Princeton, 1949–1955: A Personal Reminiscence,” in Toward a History of Game Theory, ed. E. Roy Weintraub (Duke University Press, 1992), 152.

85. John Rawls, “John Rawls: For the Record,” interview by Samuel R. Aybar, Joshua D. Harlan, and Won J. Lee, Harvard Review of Philosophy 1 (1991): 39.

86. See, e.g. “Stages of History Consumer Behavior,” in “Rational Choice and the Concept of Goodness Seminar (1956),” Box 9, Folder 3, JRP.

87. John Rawls, “Lecture on the Function of Government,” p. 1, Box 8, Folder 3, JRP.

88. John Rawls, “Concept of a Social System re Equilibrium (1962),” p. 4a, Box 35, Folder 9, JRP.

89. Isaac, “Pain, Analytical Philosophy, and American Intellectual History,” 215.

90. The contrast he draws is with J. S. Mill. John Rawls, “Footnotes: Chapter 2: Justice as Reciprocity (1959–1960),” p. 2, Box 8, Folder 6, JRP.

91. On Knight’s ambiguous status, see Angus Burgin, “The Radical Conservatism of Frank H. Knight,” Modern Intellectual History 6, no. 3 (2009): 513–38; Ross B. Emmett, Frank Knight and the Chicago School in American Economics (Routledge, 2009), 145–55.

92. Rawls, “John Rawls: For the Record,” 39. For Knight on value and ethics, see Frank H. Knight, “Ethics and the Economic Interpretation” (chap. 1), and “Economic Psychology and the Value Problem” (chap. 3), in Knight, The Ethics of Competition (Routledge, 2017); Frank H. Knight, “Fact and Metaphysics in Economy Psychology,” American Economic Review 15, no. 2 (1925): 247–66; cf. Purcell, The Crisis of Democratic Theory, 43–46; Yuval P. Yonay, The Struggle over the Soul of Economics: Institutionalist and Neoclassical Economists in America between the Wars (Princeton University Press, 1998), chap. 7.

93. Knight, The Ethics of Competition, 58 (PDF of Rawls’s copy in author’s possession). On Knight and Rawls, see Ben Jackson and Zofia Stemplowska, “On Frank Knight’s ‘Freedom as Fact and Criterion,’” Ethics 125, no. 2 (2015): 552–54; Andrew Lister, “Markets, Desert, and Reciprocity,” Politics, Philosophy, and Economics 16, no. 1 (2017): 47–69.

94. Knight, The Ethics of Competition, 295.

95. Ibid., 56–64; Emmett, Frank Knight, 93–97.

96. Rawls, “Society as a Game,” pp. 15–23, Box 8, Folder 3, JRP.

97. Ibid., p. 9.

98. Rawls, “Lecture on the Function of Government,” pp. 4–5, Box 8, Folder 3, JRP.

99. Friedrich A. Hayek, Law, Legislation, and Liberty, vol. 2, The Mirage of Social Justice (University of Chicago Press, 1977), 100.

100. Ben Jackson, “At the Origins of Neo-Liberalism: The Free Economy and the Strong State, 1930–1947,” Historical Journal 53, no. 1 (2010): 138. For the broader use of the game and highway metaphors, see John Maynard Keynes, How to Pay for the War: A Radical Plan for the Chancellor of the Exchequer (Macmillan and Co., 1940), 12–13; cf. Alan Brinkley, “The New Deal and the Idea of the State,” in Fraser and Gerstle, The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, 91–94. Freud also used the traffic metaphor to describe ethics; see Sigmund Freud, Psychoanalysis and Faith: The Letters of Sigmund Freud and Oskar Pfister (Basic Books, 1963), 123.

101. As Michel Foucault later recognized in Foucault, The Birth of Biopolitics: Lectures at the Collège de France, 1978–1979 (Picador Press, 2010), 173. The “rules of the game” metaphor was also commonly used to describe the international monetary system, the gold standard in particular. See John Maynard Keynes, “The Economic Consequences of Mr. Churchill,” in The Collected Writings of John Maynard Keynes, vol. 9, Essays in Persuasion, ed. Elizabeth Johnson and Donald Moggridge (Royal Economic Society, 1978).

102. Ronald H. Coase, “The Lighthouse in Economics,” Journal of Law and Economics 17, no. 2 (1974): 357–78.

103. Rawls, “Lecture on the Function of Government,” p. 5, Box 8, Folder 3, JRP.

104. Collins, More, chap. 1. Margaret Weir, “Ideas and Politics: Th e Acceptance of Keynesianism in Britain and the United States,” in The Political Power of Economic Ideas: Keynesianism across Nations, ed. Peter A. Hall (Princeton University Press, 1989).

105. Rawls, “Lecture on the Function of Government,” p. 9, Box 8, Folder 3, JRP.

106. Rawls, “Taxation and Justice,” p. 9, Box 7, Folder 2, JRP.

107. Rawls, “Lecture on the Function of Government,” pp. 11–12, Box 8, Folder 3, JRP.

108. Ibid., p. 13–14.

109. Ibid., p. 8.

110. Ibid., p. 6.

111. John Rawls, “Essay and Notes on Toleration (1950–1955),” pp. 3–4, Box 7, Folder 11, JRP.

112. Rawls, “Society as a Game,” p. 26, Box 8, Folder 3, JRP.

113. Ibid., p. 14.

114. Rawls, “Lecture on the Function of Government,” p. 9 (emphasis in original), Box 8, Folder 3, JRP.

115. Rawls, “Society as a Game,” pp. 21, 26, Box 8, Folder 3, JRP.

116. Ibid., p. 9; Knight, The Ethics of Competition, 57.

117. Eric Foner, Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party before the Civil War (Oxford University Press, 1995). Rawls, “Notes on Tocqueville’s ‘Democracy in America,’” p. 21, and “Thomas Jefferson and the French Revolution,” p. 8, Box 7, Folder 15, JRP.

118. Alex Gourevitch, From Slavery to the Cooperative Commonwealth: Labor and Republican Liberty in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge University Press, 2014), 32–34, 71.

119. Rawls, “Lecture on the Function of Government,” p. 3, Box 8, Folder 3, JRP.

120. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, §79.

121. Rawls, “Difficult Moral Decisions,” p. 7, Box 7, Folder 10, JRP.

122. On the limiting effects of McCarthyism on American liberalism, see Richard H. Pells, The Liberal Mind in a Conservative Age: American Intellectuals in the 1940s and 1950s (Wesleyan University Press, 1985); Michael Paul Rogin, The Intellectuals and McCarthyism: The Radical Specter (MIT Press, 1967).

123. Gerstle, “The Protean Character of American Liberalism,” 1054.

124. G. J. Warnock, “Saturday Mornings,” in Isaiah Berlin et al., Essays on J. L. Austin (Clarendon Press, 1973); Ved Mehta, Fly and the Fly-Bottle: Encounters with Contemporary British Intellectuals (Little, Brown & Co., 1962), 70.

125. Joshua L. Cherniss, A Mind and Its Time: The Development of Isaiah Berlin’s Political Thought (Oxford University Press, 2013), 54–55, 162–70.

126. Noel Thompson, Political Economy and the Labour Party: The Economics of Democratic Socialism, 1884–2005 (Routledge, 2006), chap. 11, 150–65.

127. Hugh Gaitskell, “Socialism and Nationalisation,” Fabian Tract 300 (Fabian Society, 1956), 3.

128. Ben Jackson, “Revisionism Reconsidered: ‘Property-Owning Democracy’ and Egalitarian Strategy in Post-War Britain,” Twentieth Century British History 16, no. 4 (2005): 416–40.

129. Adolf A. Berle and Gardiner C. Means, The Modern Corporation and Private Property (Macmillan, 1932); James Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, or, What Is Happening in the World Now (Penguin, 1945); J. M. Keynes, “The End of Laissez-Faire” (1926), in Keynes, The Collected Writings of John Maynard Keynes, vol. 9.

130. Howard Brick, Transcending Capitalism: Visions of a New Society in Modern American Thought (Cornell University Press, 2006), chap. 5.

131. Daniel Bell, The End of Ideology: On the Exhaustion of Political Ideas in the Fifties (Harvard University Press, 2000 [1960]).

132. David Riesman, The Lonely Crowd: A Study of the Changing American Character (Yale University Press, 1950); David M. Potter, People of Plenty: Economic Abundance and the American Character (University of Chicago Press, 1954); cf. Daniel Horowitz, The Anxieties of Affluence: Critiques of American Consumer Culture, 1939–1979 (University of Massachusetts Press, 2005), 101–28; Lizabeth Cohen, A Consumer’s Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America (Vintage, 2003).

133. Judith N. Shklar, After Utopia: The Decline of Political Faith (Princeton University Press, 1957), ix, 269.

134. Sheldon S. Wolin, “Review of Judith Shklar, After Utopia,” American Journal of Jurisprudence 5, no. 1 (1960): 175–77.

135. Brick, Transcending Capitalism, 154–66.

136. Jackson, Equality and the British Left, 155–63, 178–80.

137. Anthony Crosland, The Future of Socialism (Jonathan Cape, 2006 [1956]), 390.

138. Anthony Crosland, “The Transition from Capitalism,” in Democratic Socialism in Britain: Classic Texts in Economic and Political Thought 1825–1952, ed. David Reisman, vol. 9 (Routledge, 1996), 33–68; Stephen Brooke, “Atlantic Crossing? American Views of Capitalism and British Socialist Thought 1932–1962,” Twentieth Century British History 2, no. 2 (1991): 107–36.

139. Douglas Jay, The Socialist Case (Faber & Faber, 1947); Nicola Lacey, A Life of H.L.A. Hart: The Nightmare and the Noble Dream (Oxford University Press, 2004), 24. On the “dispersive” tradition of decentralized ownership, see Stuart White, “‘Revolutionary Liberalism?’ The Philosophy and Politics of Ownership in the Post-War Liberal Party”, British Politics 4, no. 2 (2009): 164–187.

140. I.M.D. Little, A Critique of Welfare Economics (Clarendon Press, 1950); Lionel Robbins, An Essay on the Nature and Significance of Economic Science (Macmillan, 1932).

141. Richard Wollheim and Isaiah Berlin, “Equality,” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 56 (1955); Iris Murdoch, “A House of Theory,” in Conviction, ed. Norman Mackenzie (MacGibbon & Kee, 1958), 218–33.

142. Alasdair MacIntyre, “On Not Misrepresenting Philosophy,” Universities and Left Review 4 (1958); Michael Kenny, The First New Left: British Intellectuals after Stalin (Lawrence & Wishart, 1995).

143. C. Wright Mills, The Power Elite (Oxford University Press, 1956); Freddy Foks, “The Sociological Imagination of the British New Left: ‘Culture’ and the ‘Managerial Society,’ c. 1956–1962,” Modern Intellectual History (published online 10 February 2017).

144. Lin Chun, The British New Left (Edinburgh University Press, 1993), 34. My thanks to Charles Taylor for clarification on this point. Personal communication with the author, November 2018.

145. Madeline Davis, “Arguing Affluence: New Left Contributions to the Socialist Debate 1957–1963,” Twentieth Century British History 23, no. 4 (2012): 496–528.

146. Charles Taylor, “What’s Wrong with Capitalism?,” New Left Review 2 (1960): 6–7, 11.

147. Charles Taylor, “Alienation and Community,” Universities and Left Review 5 (Autumn 1958): 11.

148. John Rawls, “Multiplicity of Criteria and Distribution of Income and Wealth (1959 and undated),” Box 35, Folder 8, JRP.

149. John Rawls, “Philosophy 171,” Box 35, Folder 10, JRP; John Rawls, “Chapter V: Justice in Conduct (undated),” p. 1, Box 8, Folder 1, JRP.

150. John Rawls, “Notes,” Box 7, Folder 10, JRP.

151. On the idea of a “pattern of values” in midcentury liberalism, see Christopher Shannon, A World Made Safe for Differences: Cold War Intellectuals and the Politics of Identity (Rowman & Littlefield, 2000); cf. Bevir and Gališanka, “John Rawls in Historical Context.”

152. Rawls, “Functions of General Rules,” p. 1, Box 7, Folder 2, JRP.

153. John Rawls, “Justice: Pure Case,” pp. 3–4, 1, Box 7, Folder 2, JRP.

154. Martin Francis, Ideas and Policies under Labour, 1945–1951: Building a New Britain (Manchester University Press, 1997). For the broader context of economic debates in postwar Britain, see Jim Tomlinson, Managing the Economy, Managing the People: Narratives of Economic Life in Britain from Beveridge to Brexit (Oxford University Press, 2017), chaps. 1 and 2.

155. T. H. Marshall, Citizenship and Social Class and Other Essays (Cambridge University Press, 1950); Richard Morris Titmuss, Essays on The Welfare State (Allen & Unwin, 1958), 28–29, 32, 39–40, 43.

156. On the distinction between size and sources of income, see John Strachey, Contemporary Capitalism (Random House, 1956), 86–87; Douglas Jay, “What Is Socialism? Marx’s Basic Blunder,” Forward (1956): 2–3, discussed in Jackson, Equality and the British Left, 161.

157. Wollheim and Berlin, “Equality,” 316–17.

158. Jackson, Equality and the British Left, 169–76.

159. Rawls, “Notes on Loose Sheet,” Box 7, Folder 10, JRP.

160. Nelson, The Theology of Liberalism, chap. 3; Bok, “To the Mountaintop Again,” 7.

161. Frank Knight, “Socialism: The Nature of the Problem,” Ethics 50, no. 3 (1940): 277.

162. Crosland, The Future of Socialism, 162–64.

163. Frank Knight, The Ethics of Competition, 39 (PDF of Rawls’s copy in author’s possession).

164. John Rawls, “Symposium: Justice as Fairness,” Journal of Philosophy 54, no. 22 (1957): 654.

165. John Rawls, “Justice as Fairness,” Philosophical Review 67, no. 2 (1958): 166.

166. Rawls, “Symposium: Justice as Fairness,” 656–57.

167. Rawls, “Justice as Fairness,” 166, n. 3.

168. John Rawls, “Statement and Discussion of Principles of Explication,” p. 15, Box 7, Folder 10, JRP; Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 74–75.

169. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 106.

170. Ibid., §12 at 73.

171. O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge, chaps. 5–7.

172. Richard M. Titmuss, “The Role of Redistribution in Social Policy,” Social Security Bulletin (1965): 20; Lawrence Black and Hugh Pemberton, eds., An Affluent Society? Britain’s Post-War “Golden Age” Revisited (Ashgate, 2004).

173. John Kenneth Galbraith, The Affluent Society (Houghton Mifflin, 1958); Pells, The Liberal Mind in a Conservative Age, 333.

174. Richard Hofstadter, “The Pseudo-Conservative Revolt—1954,” in Hofstadter, The Paranoid Style in American Politics and Other Essays (Harvard University Press, 1965), 41–65; Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., The Vital Center: The Politics of Freedom (Houghton Mifflin, 1949), 1; Seymour Martin Lipset, Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics (Doubleday & Co., 1960).

175. Robin Marie Averbeck, “‘Want in the Midst of Plenty’: Social Science, Poverty, and the Limits of Liberalism,” PhD diss., University of California, Davis (2013).

176. Rawls, “Distributive Justice (1959),” Box 36, Folder 4, JRP; John Rawls, “Lecture XXIII: Distributive Justice and the Special Psychologies,” Box 35, Folder 8, JRP.

177. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 80–83.

178. For Rawls and Rousseau, see Christopher Brooke, “Rawls on Rousseau and the General Will,” in The General Will: The Evolution of a Concept, ed. James Farr and David Lay Williams (Cambridge University Press, 2015), 429–46.

179. Bok, “The Early Rawls,” chap. 5.

180. John Rawls, “Lecture XXIII: Distributive Justice and the Special Psychologies,” and “Lecture XXII: Liberty,” pp. 16–16a, Box 35, Folder 8, JRP.

181. Ibid., pp. 16–17.

182. Jamie Cohen-Cole, The Open Mind: Cold War Politics and the Sciences of Human Nature (University of Chicago Press, 2014).

183. Rawls, “Lecture XXII: Liberty,” pp. 22–22a, 16–16a, Box 35, Folder 8, JRP.

184. Ibid., p. 15b.

185. Ibid., pp. 16–18, 22a.

186. Ibid., 16a–17.

187. John Rawls, “Distributive Justice” (1967), in Rawls, Collected Papers, ed. Samuel Freeman (Harvard University Press, 1999), 138.

188. Joel Isaac, “The Political Economy of Uncertainty in the Twentieth Century,” unpublished paper (2016), 30.

189. John Rawls, “Four Systems of Control,” Box 8, Folder 6, JRP.

190. John Rawls, “Use of History and Anthropology,” p. 5, Box 34, Folder 19, JRP; John Rawls, “Notes on Heinz Hartmann, ‘Psychoanalysis and Moral Values’ (1960),” Box 34, Folder 16, JRP. For the problem of cultural relativism and cross-cultural comparison in postwar moral philosophy, see Richard B. Brandt, Hope Ethics (University of Chicago Press, 1954); for postwar anthropology, see Peter Mandler, Return from the Natives: How Margaret Mead Won the Second World War and Lost the Cold War (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2013).

191. Rawls, “Distributive Justice (1959),” pp. 14–15, Box 36, Folder 4, JRP; cf. Richard A. Musgrave, The Theory of Public Finance: A Study in Public Economy (McGraw-Hill, 1959).

192. Martin O’Neill and Thad Williamson, eds., Property-Owning Democracy: Rawls and Beyond (Wiley-Blackwell, 2012); Amit Ron, “Visions of Democracy in ‘Property-Owning Democracy’: Skelton to Rawls and Beyond,” History of Political Thought 29, no. 1 (Spring 2008): 168–87.

193. Richard Tuck, “The Rise of Rational Choice,” European Journal of Sociology 46, no. 3 (2005): 587–93; cf. Kenneth Arrow, “A Cautious Case for Socialism,” Dissent (Fall 1978): 476.

194. Rawls, “Distributive Justice (1959),” p. 24, Box 36, Folder 4, JRP.

195. On Rawls’s Kantian turn around 1962, see Bok, “The Early Rawls,” 203–7.

196. Rawls, “Lecture XXI: Distributive Justice and the Conflict of Criteria,” pp. 3, 29, Box 35, Folder 8, JRP.

197. J.J.C. Smart, “Extreme and Restricted Utilitarianism,” Philosophical Quarterly 6, no. 25 (1956): 344–54; Richard B. Brandt, “Toward a Credible Form of Utilitarianism,” in Morality and the Language of Conduct, ed. Hector-Neri Castañeda (Wayne State University Press, 1963).

198. John Rawls, “Review of Stephen Toulmin, ‘An Examination of the Place of Reason in Ethics,’” Philosophical Review 60, no. 4 (1951): 576–77.

199. Stephen E. Toulmin, An Examination of the Place of Reason in Ethics (Cambridge University Press, 1950), 149; Richard Tuck, Free Riding (Harvard University Press, 2008), 148.

200. John Rawls, “Two Concepts of Rules,” in Rawls, Collected Papers, 19.

201. Ibid., 23.

202. Rawls, “Justice as Fairness,” 168, n. 5; Rawls, “Two Concepts of Rules,” 27.

203. Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations, §198–99; G.E.M. Anscombe, “On Brute Facts,” Analysis 18, no. 3 (1958): 69–72; Joel Isaac, “Historicizing Rawls,” unpublished essay (2012).

204. Paul W. Taylor, Normative Discourse (Prentice-Hall, 1961), 294–305.

205. Cf. Peter Winch, The Idea of a Social Science and Its Relation to Philosophy (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1958).

206. Rawls, “Justice as Fairness,” 164, n. 2.

207. Rawls, “Concept of a Social System,” pp. 6–8, Box 35, Folder 9, JRP.

208. On these traditions, see David Runciman, Pluralism and the Personality of the State (Cambridge University Press, 1997); Quentin Skinner, From Humanism to Hobbes: Studies in Rhetoric and Politics (Cambridge University Press, 2018), chap. 12.

209. For recent historical views of that state’s constitution, see James T. Sparrow, William J. Novak, and Stephen W. Sawyer, eds., Boundaries of the State in US History (University of Chicago Press, 2015).

210. David Truman, The Governmental Process: Political Interests and Public Opinion (Alfred A. Knopf, 1951); Robert Dahl, A Preface to Democratic Theory (University of Chicago Press, 1956); John G. Gunnell, “The Declination of the ‘State’ and the Origins of American Pluralism,” in Political Science in History: Research Programs and Political Traditions, ed. John Dryzek, James Farr, and Stephen Leonard (Cambridge University Press, 1995), 19–40.

211. Cf. the later debates among Marxist state theorists: Ralph Miliband, The State in Capitalist Society (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1969), and Nicos Poulantzas, Political Power and Social Classes (New Left Books, 1975). For their uptake in American political science and political sociology, see Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and Theda Skocpol, eds., Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge University Press, 1985).

212. This may have indicated Rawls’s sensitivity to the particular associational dynamics and hybrid public-private nature of the American state, though it may also have been less deliberate. On these dynamics, see Brian Balogh, The Associational State: American Governance in the Twentieth Century (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015); Jennifer Klein, For All These Rights: Business, Labor, and the Shaping of America’s Public-Private American State (Princeton University Press, 2003).

213. John Rawls, “Justice and Social Arrangements”, p. 1 in Box 7, Folder 14, JRP. Rawls, “Concept of a Practice and Social Institutions (1960),” p. 8a, Box 35, Folder 9, JRP.

214. G. A. Cohen, ‘Where the Action Is: On the Site of Distributive Justice,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 26, no. 1 (1997): 3–30.

215. Rawls, “Justice as Fairness,” 167–68.

216. John Rawls, “Justice as Reciprocity” (1958), in Rawls, Collected Papers, 190–224.

217. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 126.

218. John Rawls, “Concept of Morality and Conditions for Considered Judgments,” p. 1, Box 34, Folder 18, JRP.

219. On “moral point of view” theories, see Bok, “To the Mountaintop Again,” 168–72.

220. Roderick Firth, “Ethical Absolutism and the Ideal Observer,” Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 12, no. 3 (March 1952): 317–45.

221. Richard B. Brandt, Ethical Theory: The Problems of Normative and Critical Ethics (Prentice-Hall, 1959); Kurt Baier, The Moral Point of View: A Rational Basis of Ethics (Cornell University Press, 1958).

222. John Harsanyi, “Cardinal Utility in Welfare Economics and in the Theory of Risk-Taking,” Journal of Political Economy 61, no. 5 (1953): 434–35; cf. Marc Fleurbaey, Maurice Salles, and John A. Weymark, eds., Justice, Political Liberalism, and Utilitarianism: Themes from Harsanyi and Rawls (Cambridge University Press, 2008).

223. John Rawls, “Chapter V: Justice in Conduct,” Box 8, Folder 1, JRP.

224. Rawls, “Concept of Morality and Conditions for Considered Judgments,” p. 3, Box 34, Folder 18, JRP.

225. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 16.

226. Rawls, “Concept of Morality and Conditions for Considered Judgments,” p. 3, Box 34, Folder 18, JRP.

227. John Rawls, “Topic VIII: The Implications of Morality,” p. 3, Box 35, Folder 1, JRP.

228. John Rawls, “Lecture X: A General Analytic Framework for Justice II (1962),” p. 1a, Box 35, Folder 12, JRP.

229. John Forrester, “Justice, Envy, and Psychoanalysis,” in Forrester, Dispatches from the Freud Wars: Psychoanalysis and Its Passions (Harvard University Press, 1998).

230. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 146. For the Jeffersonian household, see Annette Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American Controversy (University of Virginia Press, 1997).

231. Judith N. Shklar, “Rousseau’s Two Models: Sparta and the Age of Gold,” Political Science Quarterly 81, no. 1 (1966): 44.

232. For the classic critique of Rawls’s treatment of the family, see Susan Moller Okin, Justice, Gender, and the Family (Basic Books, 1989).

233. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 27.

234. Rawls, “Justice as Fairness,” 186.

235. Ibid., 192.

236. Rawls, “Justice as Fairness,” 186.

237. John Rawls, “Justice: A Philosophical Essay,” Box 10, Folder 1, JRP.

238. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, §9.

239. Ibid., part 3.

240. For the influence of Harvard philosophers on American philosophy, see Jonathan Strassfeld, “American Divide: The Making of ‘Continental’ Philosophy,” Modern Intellectual History (published online 2018): 1–34.

241. Richard B. Brandt, ed., Social Justice (Prentice-Hall, 1962); Carl J. Friedrich and John W. Chapman, eds., Nomos VI: Justice (Atherton Press, 1963); Rawls, “Nature of Political and Social Philosophy (1960–1964),” pp. 6–7, Box 35, Folder 10, JRP.

242. Alan Brinkley, “The Illusion of Unity in Cold War Culture,” in Rethinking Cold War Culture, ed. Peter J. Kuznick and James Gilbert (Smithsonian Institution Press, 2001), 61–73.

243. Ibid., p. 6.

244. Ibid., p. 7.

Chapter 2. Obligations

1. Howard Brick and Christopher Phelps, Radicals in America: The US Left since the Second World War (Cambridge University Press, 2015), chap. 3.

2. For the student movements, see James Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets: From Port Huron to the Siege of Chicago (Simon & Schuster, 1987). For the antiwar movements, see Tom Wells, The War Within: America’s Battle over Vietnam (University of California Press, 1994); Rhodri Jeffreys-Jones, Peace Now! American Society and the Ending of the Vietnam War (Yale University Press, 1999).

3. William Ruddick, “Philosophy and Public Affairs,” Social Research 47, no. 4 (1980): 734–48.

4. Yascha Mounk, “An Interview with T. M. Scanlon (Part VI),” The Utopian, 7 July 2012, http://www.the-utopian.org/T.M.-Scanlon-Interview-6.

5. Rawls, “Nature of Political and Social Thought and Methodology (1960–1964),” pp. 5–7, Box 35, Folder 10, JRP.

6. Isaiah Berlin, “Does Political Theory Still Exist?,” in Philosophy, Politics, and Society, ed. W. G. Runciman and Peter Laslett, 3^rd ed. (Basil Blackwell, 1967), 7.

7. Bryan Burroughs, Days of Rage: America’s Radical Underground, the FBI, and the Forgotten Age of Revolutionary Violence (Penguin, 2015). On the longer history of law-and-order rhetoric, see Naomi Murakawa, “The Origins of the Carceral Crisis: Racial Order as ‘Law and Order’ in Postwar American Politics,” in Race and American Political Development, ed. Joseph Lowndes, Julie Novkov, and Dorian T. Warren (Routledge, 2008), 234–55.

8. Sparrow, Warfare State.

9. Andrea Friedman, Citizenship in Cold War America: The National Security and the Possibilities of Dissent (University of Massachusetts Press, 2014).

10. Katznelson, Desolation and Enlightenment, chap. 3.

11. Elizabeth F. Cohen, Semi-Citizenship in Democratic Politics (Cambridge University Press, 2009), 13–58.

12. Nancy MacLean, “Neo-Confederacy versus the New Deal: The Regional Utopia of the Modern American Right,” in The Myth of Southern Exceptionalism, ed. Matthew D. Lassiter and Joseph Crespino (Oxford University Press, 2010), 308–30. For the explanatory limits of this regional “myth,” see Matthew D. Lassiter, The Silent Majority: Suburban Politics in the Sunbelt South (Princeton University Press, 2006); Eric Schickler, Racial Realignment: The Transformation of American Liberalism, 1932–1965 (Princeton University Press, 2016).

13. Mark Tushnet, The Rights Revolution in the Twentieth Century (American Historical Association, 2009).

14. Karl, The Uneasy State, introduction, and epilogue at 229–36.

15. Gary Gerstle, Liberty and Coercion: The Paradox of American Government from the Founding to the Present (Princeton University Press, 2015), 253–74.

16. Herbert Wechsler, “Towards Neutral Principles of Constitutional Law,” Harvard Law Review 73, no. 1 (1959); Alexander M. Bickel, The Least Dangerous Branch: The Supreme Court at the Bar of Politics (Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1962); cf. Ronald Dworkin, “The Forum of Principle,” New York University Law Review 56 (1981): 468.

17. Owen Fiss, “A Life Lived Twice,” Yale Law Journal 100, no. 5 (1991): 1117–29.

18. Kalman, The Strange Career of Legal Liberalism, 27–65.

19. For the “exemplary” status of the civil rights movement in political theory and its consequences, see Brandon Terry, “Which Way to Memphis? Political Theory, Narrative, and the Politics of Historical Imagination in the Civil Rights Movement,” PhD diss., Yale University (2012).

20. Risa L. Goluboff, “Lawyers, Law, and the New Civil Rights History,” Harvard Law Review 126, no. 8 (2013): 2312–35; Christopher W. Schmidt, “Divided by Law: The Sit-ins and the Role of the Courts in the Civil Rights Movement,” Law and History Review 33, no. 1 (2015): 93–149.

21. Emily Hauptmann, “From Opposition to Accommodation: How Rockefeller Foundation Grants Redefined Relations between Political Theory and Social Science in the 1950s,” American Political Science Review 100, no. 4 (2006): 643–49.

22. William K. Frankena, Ethics (Prentice-Hall, 1963); Chaim Perelman, The Idea of Justice and the Problem of Argument (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1963).

23. See, for example, Toulmin, An Examination of the Place of Reason in Ethics, 144–65; Marcus G. Singer, Generalization in Ethics (Alfred A. Knopf, 1961), 178–210.

24. Tuck, Free Riding, chap. 4.

25. H.L.A. Hart, “Positivism and the Separation of Law and Morals,” Harvard Law Review 71, no. 4 (1958): 593–629; Lon L. Fuller, “Positivism and Fidelity to Law: A Reply to Professor Hart,” Harvard Law Review 71, no. 4 (1958): 630–72.

26. Lacey, A Life of H.L.A. Hart, 181.

27. H.L.A. Hart, The Concept of Law (Oxford University Press, 1961), part V.

28. H.L.A. Hart, “Are There Any Natural Rights?,” Philosophical Review 64, no. 2 (1955): 185.

29. H.L.A. Hart, “Legal and Moral Obligation,” in Essays in Moral Philosophy, ed. A. I. Melden (University of Washington Press, 1958), 90–91.

30. John Ladd, “Legal and Moral Obligation,” in Nomos: Yearbook of the American Society for Political and Legal Philosophy, vol. 12, Political and Legal Obligation, ed. J. Roland Pennock and John W. Chapman (Atherton Press, 1970), 21.

31. Richard Wasserstrom, “The Obligation to Obey the Law,” UCLA Law Review 10 (1962/1963): 780–807, 781.

32. H.L.A. Hart, Law, Liberty, and Morality (Stanford University Press, 1963).

33. Sarah Igo, The Known Citizen: A History of Privacy in Modern America (Harvard University Press, 2018), chap. 4.

34. Baier, The Moral Point of View, 134; Toulmin, An Examination of the Place of Reason in Ethics, 151; T. D. Weldon, The Vocabulary of Politics (Penguin Books, 1953), 57–67.

35. Ladd, “Legal and Moral Obligation,” 17–23.

36. See, for example, Irving Kristol and Robert Penn Warren, “On Civil Disobedience and the Algerian War,” Yale Review 50 (1961); Guenter Lewy, “Superior Orders, Nuclear Warfare, and the Dictates of Conscience: The Dilemma of Military Obedience in the Atomic Age,” American Political Science Review 55, no. 1 (1961): 3–23.

37. Hugo A. Bedau, “On Civil Disobedience,” Journal of Philosophy 58, no. 21 (1961): 653–65.

38. Franz L. Neumann, The Democratic and Authoritarian State: Essays in Political and Legal Theory (Free Press, 1957), 158.

39. Sidney Hook, ed., Law and Philosophy: A Symposium (New York University Press, 1964).

40. John Rawls, “Legal Obligation and the Duty of Fair Play,” in Rawls, Collected Papers, 117.

41. For more on the relationship between Rawls’s concept of morality and the duty of fair play, see Bok, “The Early Rawls,” 137–38.

42. Rawls, “Legal Obligation and the Duty of Fair Play,” 125, 122–23.

43. Ibid., 125.

44. John Rawls, “Duty of Fair Play and Law (ca. 1960),” Box 7, Folder 4, JRP.

45. Rawls, “Footnotes: Chapter 2: Justice as Reciprocity (1959–1960),” Box 8, Folder 6, JRP.

46. Wasserstrom, “The Obligation to Obey the Law,” 780; Richard Wasserstrom, “Rights, Human Rights, and Racial Discrimination,” Journal of Philosophy 61, no. 20 (1964): 629.

47. John Rawls, “Questions Re the 2-S Resolution (suggestions only) (1966),” pp. 2, 5–7, Box 24, Folder 2, JRP.

48. Rawls, “Nature of Political and Social Thought and Methodology (1960–1964),” pp. 5–7.

49. Thomas McCarthy, Race, Empire, and the Idea of Human Development (University of Cambridge, 2009), 23–41; Bernard Boxill, Blacks and Social Justice (Rowman & Allanheld, 1984), 205–25; Howard McGary, Race and Social Justice (Wiley-Blackwell, 1999).

50. David Lyons, “Moral Judgment, Historical Reality, and Civil Disobedience,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 27, no. 1 (1998): 38–39.

51. See the essays in part I of Hook, ed., Law and Philosophy: A Symposium.

52. Nelson Lichtenstein, “A Moment of Convergence,” in The Port Huron Statement: Sources and Legacies of the New Left’s Founding Manifesto, ed. Richard Flacks and Nelson Lichtenstein (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015).

53. Timothy Barker, “Wars of Position: Studies on the Left and the New American Marxism, 1959–1976,” undergraduate thesis, Columbia University (2013), 21–25.

54. Christian Bay, “Civil Disobedience: Prerequisite for Democracy in Mass Society,” in Political Theory and Social Change, ed. David Spitz (Atherton Press, 1967), 181; E. P. Thompson, E. P. Thompson and the Making of the New Left, ed. Cal Winslow (New York University Press, 2014), 65–66, 87; Doug Rossinow, The Politics of Authenticity: Liberalism, Christianity, and the New Left in America (Columbia University Press, 1998), 297.

55. Walter Roy Harding, ed., The Thoreau Centennial: Papers Marking the Observance of the 100^th Anniversary of the Death of Henry David Thoreau (State University of New York Press, 1964).

56. Hauptmann, “A Local History of ‘the Political,’” 34–60.

57. Norman Jacobson, “Civil Disobedience: Philosophy and Tactics,” paper presented at the “Conference on Law Enforcement and Racial Cultural Tensions,” University of California at Berkeley, 9 October 1964, 3–4, p. 8, Box 3, Folder 14, Norman Jacobson Papers, University of California at Berkeley.

58. Andrew Jewett, “The Politics of Knowledge in 1960s America,” Social Science History 36, no. 4 (2012): 551–81; Barber, “The Politics of Political Science.”

59. Hanna Pitkin, “Obligation and Consent I,” American Political Science Review 59, no. 4 (1965): 997.

60. Joseph Tussman, Obligation and the Body Politic (Oxford University Press, 1960), 35–39.

61. Hanna Pitkin, “Obligation and Consent II,” American Political Science Review 60, no. 1 (1966), 49.

62. Ibid., 47.

63. Ibid., 52.

64. Ibid., 49.

65. Michael S. Foley, Confronting the War Machine: Draft Resistance during the Vietnam War (University of North Carolina Press, 2003), chaps. 1 and 2.

66. Robert J. Samuelson, “Faculty Will Consider Second Draft Proposal,” Harvard Crimson, 6 January 1967.

67. John Rawls, “In Support of the Resolution on 2-S Deferment,” p. 4, and “Conscription (1969),” Box 34, Folder 13, JRP; author’s interviews with Michael Walzer, 21 January 2011, and Harvey Mansfield, 18 February 2011 (MP3s in the author’s possession).

68. John Rawls, “Draft Proposals: Explanatory Note on Item IV,” Box 34, Folder 11, JRP.

69. Rawls, “In Support of the Resolution on 2-S Deferment: Suggestions Only,” p. 2, Box 34, Folder 13, JRP.

70. Rawls, “A Proposal for a Military Recruitment Policy,” pp. 7–10, Box 24, Folder 2, JRP; Daniel Patrick Moynihan, The Negro Family: The Case for National Action (US Department of Labor, 1965). On the reception of the report, see Daniel Geary, Beyond Civil Rights: The Moynihan Report and Its Legacy (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015).

71. John Rawls, “In Support of the Resolution on 2-S Deferment: Fac Group Statement Dec (1966),” Box 34, Folder 13, JRP.

72. Jeremy K. Kessler, “The Administrative Origins of Modern Civil Liberties Law,” Columbia Law Review 114 (June 2014).

73. Milton Friedman, “The Case for Abolishing the Draft—and Substituting for It an All Volunteer Army,” New York Times, 14 May 1967.

74. Alan Geyer, “The Just War and the Selective Objector,” Christian Century, 16 February 1966.

75. National Advisory Commission on Selective Service, In Pursuit of Equity: Who Serves When Not All Serve? (US Government Printing Office, 1967).

76. Brick and Phelps, Radicals in America, 137–38.

77. Bedau, “On Civil Disobedience,” 661.

78. Carl Cohen et al., “Civil Disobedience: Working Paper (March 2, 1965),” Box 653, Folder 7, American Civil Liberties Union Records, Princeton University (hereafter ACLUP); Carl Cohen, “Conscientious Objection,” Ethics 78, no. 4 (1968): 269–79; Kevin Mattson, Intellectuals in Action: The Origins of the New Left and Radical Liberalism, 1945–1970 (Penn State University Press, 2002), 187–228.

79. Bedau, “On Civil Disobedience,” 661.

80. Wolfgang Friedmann, “An Analysis of ‘In Defense of Natural Law,’” in Hook, Law and Philosophy, 144–60; Carl Cohen, “Civil Disobedience and the Law,” Rutgers Law Review 21, no. 1 (1966): 1; Alexander M. Bickel, Politics and the Warren Court (Harper & Row, 1965).

81. Edward H. Madden, Civil Disobedience and Moral Law in Nineteenth-Century American Philosophy (University of Washington Press, 1968). For discussion of this tradition, see Alexander Livingston, “Fidelity to Truth: Gandhi and the Genealogy of Civil Disobedience,” Political Theory 46, no. 4 (2018): 511–36.

82. For Gandhi on civil disobedience, see Karuna Mantena, “Another Realism: The Politics of Gandhian Nonviolence,” American Political Science Review 106, no. 2 (2012): 455–70; Faisal Devji, The Impossible Indian: Gandhi and the Temptation of Nonviolence (Harvard University Press, 2012). For King, see Brandon Terry and Tommie Shelby, eds., To Shape a New World: Essays on the Political Philosophy of Martin Luther King Jr. (Harvard University Press, 2018).

83. Michael Walzer, “Michael Walzer: The Art of Theory Interview,” in The Art of Theory: Conversations in Political Philosophy, 2013, https://www.uncanonical.net/walzer (accessed 15 February 2019).

84. Robert Adcock and Mark Bevir, “The Remaking of Political Theory,” in Modern Political Science: Anglo-American Exchanges since 1880, ed. Robert Adcock, Mark Bevir, and Shannon C. Stimson (Princeton University Press, 2007), 220.

85. Andrew Sabl, “History and Reality: Idealist Pathologies and ‘Harvard School’ Remedies,” in Political Philosophy versus History? Contextualism and Real Politics in Contemporary Political Thought, ed. Jonathan Floyd and Marc Stears (Cambridge University Press, 2011), 152–54.

86. For the New Left Club, see Robert Paul Wolff, “Memoirs: Ninth Installment,” The Philosopher’s Stone, 12 April 2010, http://robertpaulwolff.blogspot.com/2010/04/memoirs-ninth-installment.html (accessed 7 September 2012).

87. Michael Walzer, Political Action: A Practical Guide to Movement Politics (Quadrangle Books, 1971); Michael Walzer, “The New Left and the Old” [1967], in Walzer, Radical Principles: Reflections of an Unreconstructed Democrat (Basic Books, 1980), 110–27; cf. Maurice Isserman, If I Had a Hammer: The Death of the Old Left and the Birth of the New Left (Basic Books, 1987).

88. Michael Walzer, Obligations: Essays on Disobedience, War, and Citizenship (Harvard University Press, 1982), 113–15.

89. Tussman, Obligation and the Body Politic, 37; J. P. Plamenatz, Consent, Freedom, and Political Obligation (Oxford University Press, 1968), 170–75.

90. Walzer, Obligations, xii.

91. C. Wright Mills, “Letter to the New Left,” in The Politics of Truth: Selected Writings of C. Wright Mills, ed. John H. Summers (Oxford University Press, 2008), 263.

92. Cf. Robert Paul Wolff, “An Analysis of the Concept of Political Loyalty,” in Political Man and Social Man: Readings in Political Philosophy, ed. Robert Paul Wolff (Random House, 1966), 224.

93. Walzer, Obligations, 17–19, 204.

94. Cf. Mark Bevir and Toby Reiner, “The Revival of Radical Pluralism: Associationism and Difference,” in Bevir, Modern Pluralism, 194–200.

95. Lichtenstein, State of the Union, chap. 4; Reuel E. Schiller, “From Group Rights to Individual Liberties: Post-War Labor Law, Liberalism, and the Waning of Union Strength,” Berkeley Journal of Employment and Labor Law 20, no. 1 (1999): 1–73.

96. Ibid., 12–17.

97. Walzer, Obligations, 117; Michael Walzer, “Democracy and the Conscript,” Dissent (Winter 1966): 20.

98. Hugo Adam Bedau, “Military Service and Moral Obligation,” Inquiry: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Philosophy 14, nos. 1–4 (1971): 263.

99. For the international and anticolonial dimensions of the civil rights and black power movements, see Penny M. Von Eschen, Race against Empire: Black Americans and Anticolonialism, 1937–1957 (Cornell University Press, 1997); Carol Anderson, Eyes off the Prize: The United Nations and the African American Struggle for Human Rights, 1944–1955 (Cambridge University Press, 2003); Nico Slate, ed., Black Power beyond Borders: The Global Dimensions of the Black Power Movement (Palgrave Macmillan, 2012).

100. Wilson Carey McWilliams, “Civil Disobedience and Contemporary Constitutionalism: The American Case,” Comparative Politics 1, no. 2 (1969): 221.

101. Arnold Kaufman, The Radical Liberal: New Man in American Politics (Atherton Press, 1968), 53–54, 70.

102. Walzer, Obligations, 130, 23, 12.

103. Walzer, “Democracy and the Conscript,” 20.

104. Walzer, Obligations, 41.

105. Laura Weinrib, The Taming of Free Speech: America’s Civil Liberties Compromise (Harvard University Press, 2016), 311–30.

106. Virginia Held, “On Understanding Political Strikes,” in Philosophy and Political Action: Essays, ed. Virginia Held, Kai Nielsen, and Charles Parsons (Oxford University Press, 1972), 121–23.

107. On the smile boycott, see Shulamith Firestone, The Dialectic of Sex: The Case for Feminist Revolution (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1970), 81. On the lumpenproletariat, see Eldridge Cleaver, “On the Ideology of the Black Panther Party” (Black Panther Party 1979); cf. Jeffrey O. G. Ogbar, Black Power: Radical Politics and African American Identity (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005), chap. 4; Kathi Weeks, The Problem with Work: Feminism, Marxism, Antiwork Politics, and Postwork Imaginaries (Duke University Press, 2011), chap. 3; cf. also Jefferson Cowie, Stayin’ Alive: The 1970s and the Last Days of the Working Class (New Press, 2010).

108. Walzer, Obligations, 30–31.

109. Reuel Schiller, Forging Rivals: Race, Class, Law, and the Collapse of Postwar Liberalism (Cambridge University Press, 2015), 29; cf. Stears, Demanding Democracy, 109–15.

110. Walzer, Obligations, 12–17, 33.

111. Michael Walzer, “Dissatisfaction in the Welfare State,” in Walzer, Radical Principles.

112. Michael Walzer, “The Obligations of Oppressed Minorities,” Commentary, 1 May 1970.

113. Walzer, Obligations, 28.

114. Michael Walzer, “Civil Disobedience and ‘Resistance’: A Symposium,” Dissent (Winter 1968): 13–15. For Walzer as an exception to political philosophy’s silence about the duties of the oppressed, see Tommie Shelby, Dark Ghettos: Injustice, Dissent, and Reform (Harvard University Press, 2016), 5–6.

115. Lawrence E. Eichel, Kenneth W. Jost, Robert D. Luskin, and Richard Neustadt, The Harvard Strike (Houghton Mifflin, 1970); Todd Gitlin, The Sixties: Years of Hope, Days of Rage (Bantam Books, 1987), 87–104. See Lewis H. Van Dusen Jr., “Civil Disobedience: Destroyer of Democracy,” American Bar Association Journal 55, no. 2 (1969): 123–26; cf. Lewis F. Powell Jr., “A Lawyer’s Case for Civil Disobedience,” Washington and Lee Law Review 23, no. 2 (1966).

116. Walzer, Obligations, 44.

117. Walzer, Political Action, 8; Michael Walzer, “Blacks and Jews: A Personal Reflection,” in Struggles in the Promised Land: Toward a History of Black-Jewish Relations in the United States, ed. Jack Salzman and Cornel West (Oxford University Press, 1997), 403.

118. On critiques by intellectuals of New Left tactics more broadly, see Sandy Vogelgesang, The Long Dark Night of the Soul: The American Intellectual Left and the Vietnam War (Harper & Row, 1974), 135–37.

119. Frank Michelman, “The Supreme Court, 1968 Term: Foreword: On Protecting the Poor through the Fourteenth Amendment,” Harvard Law Review 83, no. 1 (1969): 7–282. On the legal uses of Rawls in this period, see Mark Tushnet, “Truth, Justice, and the American Way: An Interpretation of Public Law Scholarship in the Seventies,” Texas Law Review 57, no. 8 (1979): 1316–23.

120. Paul F. Power, “On Civil Disobedience in Recent American Democratic Thought,” American Political Science Review 64, no. 1 (1971): 45.

121. Hugo Adam Bedau, ed., Civil Disobedience: Theory and Practice (Macmillan, 1969).

122. Hannah Arendt, “Reflections on Civil Disobedience,” New Yorker, 12 September 1970.

123. See, for example, William L. Taylor, “Civil Disobedience—Some Observations on the Strategies of Protest,” in Legal Aspects of the Civil Rights Movement, ed. Donald B. King and Charles W. Quick (Wayne State University Press, 1965), 227–35; Burke Marshall, “The Protest Movement and the Law,” Virginia Law Review 51, no. 5 (1965): 785–803.

124. Bayard Rustin, in Harrop A. Freeman, ed., Civil Disobedience (Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions, 1966), 11–13; John Rawls, “Civil Disobedience and Justice, Bibliography and Notes (ca. 1966),” Box 7, Folder 6, JRP.

125. Power, “On Civil Disobedience in Recent American Democratic Thought,” 36.

126. Morris Keeton, “The Morality of Civil Disobedience,” Texas Law Review 43 (1964/ 1965): 507–25.

127. Alexander Livingston, “Power for the Powerless: Martin Luther King Jr.’s Late Theory of Civil Disobedience,” working paper (2018). On how the emphasis on punishment misrepresented civil rights militancy, see Erin Pineda, “Civil Disobedience and Punishment: (Mis)reading Justification and Strategy from SNCC to Snowden,” History of the Present 5, no. 1 (2015): 1–30.

128. Charles Fried, “Moral Causation,” Harvard Law Review 77, no. 7 (1964): 1269; cf. Sidney Hook, “Law, Justice, and Obedience,” in Hook, Law and Philosophy, 57.

129. On this anticrime agenda, see Hinton, From the War on Poverty to the War on Crime.

130. Kai Nielsen, “Remarks on Violence and Paying the Penalty,” Philosophical Exchange 1, no. 1 (1970): 113–19; Kai Nielsen et al., “Philosophers and Panthers,” New York Review of Books, 2 July 1970; see also Kai Nielsen et al., “Philosophy and Public Policy,” New York Review of Books, 29 January 1970.

131. Howard Zinn, Disobedience and Democracy: Nine Fallacies on Law and Order (Vintage Books, 1968), 30–31, 120–21.

132. Angela Davis, If They Come in the Morning . . . Voices of Resistance (Verso, 2016).

133. Erwin Griswold, “Dissent—1968,” Tulane Law Review 42 (1968): 726–39; Erwin Griswold, “Moral Rights, Legal Duties,” New York Times, 18 April 1968; Abe Fortas, Concerning Dissent and Civil Disobedience (New American Library, 1968); cf. Laura Kalman, Abe Fortas: A Biography (Yale University Press, 1990), 277–92.

134. “Analysis of Differences between Board Statements on Civil Disobedience of January 25, 1968, and October 5, 1969,” 2 November 1968, Box 391, Folder 3, ACLUP.

135. Samuel Walker, In Defense of American Liberties: A History of the ACLU (Southern Illinois University Press, 1990), 282–89.

136. Cohen et al., “Civil Disobedience: Working Paper (March 2, 1965),” Box 653, Folder 7, ACLUP.

137. “ACLU Interdepartmental Letter RE: Civil Disobedience,” 4 January 1967, Box 391, Folder 3, ACLUP.

138. “ACLU Statement on Civil Disobedience: February 1, 1969,”, p. 1, Box 391, Folder 3, ACLUP.

139. “Summary of ACLU Policy Change at October 1968 Meeting,” pp. 1–3; “ACLU News Release: February 2, 1968,” p. 1; both in Box 391, Folder 3, ACLUP.

140. Power, “On Civil Disobedience in Recent American Democratic Thought,” 43; James F. Childress, “On Obligation and Civil Disobedience: The Views of Some ‘One-Eyed Men,’” Worldview 14 (1971): 21–25. For “internal colonialism”, see Kenneth Clark, Dark Ghetto: Dilemmas of Social Power (Harper & Row, 1965); Stokely Carmichael and Charles Hamilton, Black Power: The Politics of Liberation in America (Random House, 1967).

141. Ronald Dworkin, “The Model of Rules,” University of Chicago Law Review 35, no. 1 (1967): 25–28.

142. Ronald Dworkin, “On Not Prosecuting Civil Disobedience,” New York Review of Books, 6 June 1968, 2, 7, 9.

143. Ronald Dworkin, “A Special Supplement: Taking Rights Seriously,” New York Review of Books, 17 December 1970.

144. Dworkin, “On Not Prosecuting Civil Disobedience,” 13.

145. Marshall Cohen, “Civil Disobedience in a Constitutional Democracy,” Massachusetts Review 10, no. 2 (1969): 211–26; Marshall Cohen, “Liberalism and Disobedience,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 1, no. 3 (1972): 286, 298.

146. John Rawls, “Justification of Civil Disobedience,” in Rawls, Collected Papers, 176–77.

147. Ibid., 182.

148. Ibid., 186.

149. John Rawls, “Duty and Obligation (1967),” Box 7, Folder 7, JRP.

150. Rawls, “Justification of Civil Disobedience,” 189.

151. John Rawls, “CD [Civil Disobedience] + the Complications of Our Federal System,” p. 1, Box 7, Folder 6, JRP.

152. Cf. Cohen, “Civil Disobedience in a Constitutional Democracy,” 217.

153. Rawls, “CD + the Complications of Our Federal System,” p. 2, Box 7, Folder 6, JRP.

154. For the romantic view and Rawls’s reliance on it, see Terry, “Which Way to Memphis?,” chap. 8; cf. Stears, Demanding Democracy, 155.

155. Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (Harper & Brothers, 1944), chap. 1. On nonviolence, see Lance Hill, Deacons for Defense: Armed Resistance and the Civil Rights Movement (University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 259–73.

156. For different views, see Michael J. Klarman, “How Brown Changed Race Relations: The Backlash Thesis,” Journal of American History 81, no. 1 (1994): 81–118; Richard J. Kluger, Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America’s Struggle for Equality (Alfred A. Knopf, 1976). On Brown as a “new constitution” rather than confirmation, see Danielle S. Allen, Talking to Strangers: Anxieties of Citizenship since Brown v. Board of Education (University of Chicago Press, 2004), 6.

157. Clive Webb, ed., Massive Resistance: Southern Opposition to the Second Reconstruction (Oxford University Press, 2005).

158. For these aspects of the civil rights movement, see Charles Payne, “Debating the Civil Rights Movement: The View from the Trenches,” in Debating the Civil Rights Movement, 1945—1968, ed. Steven F. Lawson and Charles M. Payne (Rowman & Littlefield, 1998), 108–11; Nikhil Pal Singh, Black Is a Country: Race and the Unfinished Struggle for Democracy (Harvard University Press, 2004), chap. 1; Thomas J. Sugrue, “Northern Lights: The Black Freedom Struggle Outside the South,” Organization of American Historians Magazine of History 26, no. 1 (2012): 9–15; Mary L. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton University Press, 2000); Nico Slate, Colored Cosmopolitanism: The Shared Struggle for Freedom in the United States (Harvard University Press, 2012). For the uses of civil rights historiography in political theory, see Terry, “Which Way to Memphis?,” chaps. 5–7.

159. Boxill, Blacks and Social Justice, 217–25.

160. On King and Black Power, see Brandon Terry, “Requiem for a Dream: The Problem-Space of Black Power,” in Terry and Shelby, To Shape a New World; Richard King, Civil Rights and the Idea of Freedom (Oxford University Press, 1992).

161. Rawls, “Justification of Civil Disobedience,” 186.

162. Risa L. Goluboff, The Lost Promise of Civil Rights (Harvard University Press, 2007).

163. William E. Forbath, Law and the Shaping of the American Labor Movement (Harvard University Press, 1991).

164. Weinrib, The Taming of Free Speech, 311–30.

165. Julian E. Zelizer, The Fierce Urgency of Now: Lyndon Johnson, Congress, and the Battle for the Great Society (Penguin Books, 2015).

166. Terry, “Which Way to Memphis?,” 490–95.

167. John Rawls, “Constitutional Liberty and the Concept of Justice” (1963), in Rawls, Collected Papers, 94.

168. Rawls, “Justification of Civil Disobedience,” 187.

169. For skepticism about the connection between Rawls’s account of civil disobedience and his ideal theory, see Joel Feinberg, “Duty and Obligation in the Non-Ideal World,” Journal of Philosophy 70, no. 9 (1973): 263–75.

170. Peter Singer, Democracy and Disobedience (Oxford University Press, 1973), 90.

171. For the New Left reconfiguration of community, see Howard Brick, Age of Contradiction: American Thought and Culture in the 1960s (Cornell University Press, 1997), chap. 5. For various conceptions of, and efforts to build, community in these distinct movements, see Michael C. Dawson, Black Visions: The Roots of Contemporary African-American Political Ideologies (Chicago University Press, 2001), chap. 3; Joshua Bloom and Waldo E. Martin Jr., Blacks against Empire: The History and Politics of the Black Panther Party (University of California Press, 2013), part 3; Alice Echols, Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America 1967–1975 (University of Minnesota Press, 1989); Kimberly Springer, Living for the Revolution: Black Feminist Organizations 1968–1980 (Duke University Press, 2005).

172. John Rawls, “Justice as Fairness as an Approach to the Study of Politics, or to Political Theory, Seminar, UCLA, 1968 Spring,” pp. 5–7b, Box 8, Folder 15, JRP.

173. Ibid., pp. 7–7b.

174. John Rawls, Political Liberalism, lecture IV.

175. Ibid., p. 7b.

176. John Rawls, Political Liberalism (Columbia University Press, 2005), xix, n. 5.

177. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 352.

Chapter 3. War and Responsibility

1. John Duffett, ed., Against the Crime of Silence: Proceedings of the Russell International War Crimes Tribunal (Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation, 1968).

2. Jean-Paul Sartre, On Genocide: And a Summary of the Evidence and the Judgments of the International War Crimes Tribunal (Beacon Press, 1968).

3. Daniel Ellsberg, Papers on the War (Simon & Schuster, 1972), 9.

4. Samuel Moyn, “From Antiwar Politics to Antitorture Politics,” in Law and War, ed. Austin Sarat, Lawrence Douglas, and Martha Merrill Umphrey (Stanford University Press, 2014), 166–67.

5. Stuart Hampshire, “Russell, Radicalism, and Reason,” New York Review of Books, 8 October 1970, 2.

6. Thomas Nagel, “Ruthlessness in Public Life,” in Public and Private Morality, ed. Stuart Hampshire (Cambridge University Press, 1978), 75; Walzer, Political Action, 121.

7. Barbara J. Keys, Reclaiming American Virtue: The Human Rights Revolution of the 1970s (Harvard University Press, 2014), 4.

8. Editorial statement, Philosophy and Public Affairs 1, no. 1 (1971): 2.

9. Richard Wasserstrom, ed., War and Morality (Wadsworth, 1970); Marshall Cohen, Thomas Scanlon, and Richard B. Brandt, eds., War and Moral Responsibility (Princeton University Press, 1974); Paul T. Menzel, ed., Moral Argument and the War in Vietnam: A Collection of Essays (Aurora, 1971); see also Virginia Held, Sidney Morgenbesser, and Thomas Nagel, eds., Philosophy, Morality, and International Affairs (Oxford University Press, 1974).

10. Bruce Kuklick, Blind Oracles: Intellectuals and War from Kennan to Kissinger (Princeton University Press, 2006).

11. Albert R. Jonsen, A Short History of Medical Ethics (Oxford University Press, 2000); Robert Baker, Before Bioethics: A History of American Medical Ethics from the Colonial Period to the Bioethics Revolution (Oxford University Press, 2013), chaps. 8–10.

12. For new writings on justice, see, for example, Nicholas Rescher, Distributive Justice (Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1966); A. M. Honoré, “Social Justice,” in Essays in Legal Philosophy, ed. Robert S. Summers (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1968).

13. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 245–46. For this distinction in Rawls, see A. John Simmons, “Ideal and Nonideal Theory,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 38, no. 1 (2010): 5–36.

14. Charles Mills, “‘Ideal Theory’ as Ideology,” Hypatia 20, no. 3 (2005): 165–84.

15. Most influentially in the essays collected in Hampshire, Public and Private Morality.

16. Beth Bailey, America’s Army: Making the All-Volunteer Force (Harvard University Press, 2009).

17. Mark Lewis, The Birth of the New Justice: The Internationalization of Crime and Punishment, 1919–1950 (Oxford University Press, 2014), 274–82.

18. Richard H. King, Arendt in America (University of Chicago Press, 2015), 189–218.

19. Judith Shklar, Legalism: Law, Morals, and Political Trials (Harvard University Press, 1964), 147; cf. Samuel Moyn, “Judith Shklar versus the International Criminal Court,” Humanity 4, no. 3 (2013): 473–500.

20. Shklar, Legalism, 173.

21. For recent arguments of this kind, see Chase Madar, “Short Cuts,” London Review of Books, 2 July 2015; Tanisha Fazal, Wars of Law: Unintended Consequences in the Regulation of Armed Conflict (Cornell University Press, 2018).

22. See, for example, John Courtney Murray, SJ, “War and Conscience,” in A Conflict of Loyalties: The Case for Selective Conscientious Objection, ed. James Finn (Pegasus, 1968).

23. United States of America v. David Henry Mitchell, III, 246 F. Supp. 874 (D. Conn, 1965).

24. Richard A. Falk, Gabriel Kolko, Robert Jay Lifton, et al., Crimes of War: A Legal, Political-Documentary, and Psychological Inquiry into the Responsibility of Leaders, Citizens, and Soldiers for Criminal Acts in Wars (Random House, 1971), 206.

25. “A Call to Resist Illegitimate Authority,” New York Review of Books, 12 October 1967, and “Individuals against the Crime of Silence,” reprinted in Virginia Schomp, American Voices from the Vietnam Era (Benchmark Books, 2005), 30; David L. Schalk, War and the Ivory Tower: Algeria and Vietnam (University of Nebraska Press, 1991), 120–24.

26. Paul S. Boyer, “God, the Bomb, and the Cold War: The Religious and Ethical Debate over Nuclear Weapons, 1945–1960,” in Uncertain Empire: American History and the Idea of the Cold War, ed. Joel Isaac and Duncan Bell (Oxford University Press, 2012), 165–94.

27. Nicholas Rengger, “On the Just War Tradition in the Twenty-First Century,” International Affairs 78, no. 2 (2002): 353–63.

28. William V. O’Brien, “The Nuremberg Principles,” in Finn, Conflict of Loyalties, 140.

29. Michael Harrington, “Politics, Morality, and Selective Dissent,” in Finn, Conflict of Loyalties, 227–28, 237.

30. Murray, “War and Conscience,” 28; cf. Alan Gewirth, “Reasons and Conscience: The Claims of the Selective Conscientious Objector,” in Held et al., Philosophy, Morality, and International Affairs.

31. Paul Ramsey, War and the Christian Conscience: How Shall Modern War Be Conducted Justly? (Duke University Press, 1961), 128–33; John Rawls, typescript of review of Basic Christian Ethics by Paul Ramsey, Perspective 3, no. 7 (May 1951): 3, in “Rational Theology (1951–1955),” Box 7, Folder 17, JRP.

32. Paul Ramsey, The Just War: Force and Political Responsibility (Rowman & Littlefield, 1991), 440–48, 499. 502–9, 428, xvi. This view was shared by many who associated just war theory with wars of “imperial aggression” like that of the US in Vietnam. See Jessica Whyte, “The ‘Dangerous Concept of the Just War’: Decolonization, Wars of National Liberation, and the Additional Protocols to the Geneva Convention,” Humanity 9, no. 3 (2018), 313–41.

33. Paul Ramsey, “Selective Conscientious Objection: Warrants and Reservations,” in Finn, Conflict of Loyalties, 74.

34. On encasing the state, see Slobodian, Globalists, 2–25. For the postwar trajectory of international law, see Martti Koskenniemi, The Gentle Civilizer of Nations: The Rise and Fall of International Law 1870–1960 (Cambridge University Press, 2001), 471–508; cf. Samuel Moyn, “The International Law That Is America: Reflections on the Last Chapter of The Gentle Civilizer of Nations,” Temple International and Comparative Law Journal 29, no. 2 (2013): 399–415.

35. Richard A. Falk, “The Circle of Responsibility,” in Falk et al., Crimes of War, 230.

36. Richard Wasserstrom, “On the Morality of War: A Preliminary Inquiry,” in Wasserstrom, ed., War and Morality.

37. John Rawls, “Just War and Conscientious Refusal, Talks to Students of Draft and Resistance (1968),” p. 5, Box 34, Folder 7, JRP.

38. For discussion, see David Armitage, Civil War: A History in Ideas (Penguin, 2018) 211–16.

39. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 378–79, 384.

40. For Rawls’s account of war, see particularly John Rawls, “Moral Problems, Nations and War, Topic I (1968),” and “Moral Basis, Law of Nations, Problems of War, Topic II (1968),” Box 34, Folders 8–9, JRP.

41. Michael Walzer, “Moral Judgment in Time of War,” in Wasserstrom, War and Morality, 54.

42. Michael Walzer, “World War II: Why Was This War Different?,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 1, no. 1 (1971): 3–21.

43. Michael Walzer, The Revolution of the Saints: A Study in the Origins of Radical Politics (Harvard University Press, 1965), 307–8.

44. Richard Tuck, “Democracy and Terrorism,” in Political Judgment: Essays for John Dunn, ed. Richard Bourke and Raymond Geuss (Cambridge University Press, 2009), 313–32.

45. Walzer, Political Action, 30–35.

46. Moyn, “From Antiwar Politics to Antitorture Politics,” 154–97.

47. Eric Norden, “American Atrocities in Vietnam,” Liberation 10, no. 11 (1966), 14–27, reprinted as Clergy and Laymen Concerned about Vietnam, In the Name of America (self-published, 1968).

48. Neil Sheehan, “Should We Have War Crimes Trials?,” New York Times, 28 March 1971.

49. For a survey of these arguments, see Telford Taylor, Nuremberg and Vietnam: An American Tragedy (Quadrangle Books, 1970), 96.

50. Simon Hall, Peace and Freedom: The Civil Rights and Anti-War Movements in the 1960s (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006); Bloom and Martin, Blacks against Empire, 48–49, 103–30.

51. Sidney Morgenbesser, “Imperialism: Some Preliminary Distinctions,” in Held et al., Philosophy, Morality, and International Affairs.

52. Noam Chomsky, “Review: Just and Unjust Wars,” Australian Outlook 32, no. 3 (1978): 357–63.

53. Taylor, Nuremberg and Vietnam.

54. Richard Wasserstrom, “The Responsibility of the Individual for War Crimes,” in Held et al., Philosophy, Morality, and International Affairs, 60–62.

55. Wasserstrom, “On the Morality of War: A Preliminary Inquiry,” in Wasserstrom, War and Morality, 80–85.

56. Richard Wasserstrom, “The Laws of War,” Monist 56, no. 1 (1972): 1–19; Richard Wasserstrom, “Introduction,” in Wasserstrom, War and Morality, 3.

57. Marshall Cohen, “Morality and the Laws of War,” in Held et al., Philosophy, Morality, and International Affairs, 88.

58. Bernard Williams, “A Critique of Utilitarianism,” in J.J.C. Smart and Bernard Williams, Utilitarianism: For and Against (Cambridge University Press, 1973), 96, 112–13.

59. Bernard Williams, Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy (Harvard University Press, 1985), 108–10.

60. Stuart Hampshire, “Morality and Pessimism,” in Hampshire, Public and Private Morality, 1, 4; cf. Isaiah Berlin, Fathers and Children (Clarendon Press, 1972), 55.

61. Alasdair MacIntyre, “Utilitarianism and Cost-Benefit Analysis: An Essay on the Relevance of Moral Philosophy to Bureaucratic Theory,” in Values in the Electric Power Industry, ed. Kenneth Sayre (University of Notre Dame Press, 1977), 224.

62. Hampshire, “Morality and Pessimism,” 18.

63. See, for example, Hugh LaFolette, ed., The Oxford Handbook of Practical Ethics (Oxford University Press, 2003); Bonnie Steinbock, ed., The Oxford Handbook of Bioethics (Oxford University Press, 2009); Jeff McMahan, Killing in War (Oxford University Press, 2009).

64. G.E.M. Anscombe, “Modern Moral Philosophy,” Philosophy 33, no. 124 (1958): 1–19; cf. James Doyle, No Morality, No Self: Anscombe’s Radical Skepticism (Harvard University Press, 2018), part 1.

65. G.E.M. Anscombe, The Collected Philosophical Papers of G.E.M. Anscombe, vol. 3 (University of Minnesota Press, 1981), 62–71; G.E.M. Anscombe, “War and Murder,” in Nuclear Weapons: A Catholic Response, ed. Walter Stein (Sheed & Ward, 1961).

66. G.E.M. Anscombe, Intention (Basil Blackwell, 1957).

67. Joel Isaac, “Donald Davidson and the Analytic Revolution in American Philosophy, 1940–1970,” Historical Journal 56, no. 3 (2013): 757–79, esp. at 760–63.

68. Philippa Foot, “The Problem of Abortion and the Doctrine of Double Effect,” Oxford Review 5 (1967): 5–15.

69. Judith Jarvis Thomson, “Killing, Letting Die, and the Trolley Problem,” Monist 59, no. 2 (1976): 204–17.

70. Cf. Daniel Callahan, “Profile: Institute of Society, Ethics, and the Life Sciences,” BioScience 21, no. 13 (1971): 735–37.

71. George I. Mavrodes, “Conventions and the Morality of War,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 4, no. 2 (1975): 117–31; Robert K. Fullinwider, “War and Innocence,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 5, no. 1 (1975): 90–97; Lawrence Alexander, “Self-Defense and the Killing of Noncombatants: A Reply to Fullinwider,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 5, no. 4 (1976): 408–15.

72. John Rawls, “Lecture XV on Jus in Bello: Absolutism and Double Effect (I),” p. 3, Box 34, Folder 11, JRP; Anscombe, Intention.

73. John Rawls, “Jus in Bello,” and “Notes on the Doctrine of Double Effect,” pp. 2, 5, Box 34, Folder 11, JRP.

74. Peter Winch, Bernard Williams, Michael Tanner, and G.E.M. Anscombe, “Discussion of ‘Contraception and Chastity,’” in Michael D. Bayles, Ethics and Population (Schenkman Publishing Co., 1976), 159.

75. John Rawls, “Lecture IX: Just Conduct of War,” pp. 6a–7, Box 34, Folder 10, JRP; cf. “Jus in Bello” and “Notes on the Doctrine of Double Effect,” Box 34, Folder 11, JRP.

76. John Rawls, “Lecture XVII: Natural Duties and Civilian Immunity,” p. 3, Box 34, Folder 11, JRP.

77. Rawls, “Lecture XV: Jus in Bello II: Absolutism and Double Effect (I),” p. 7, Box 34, Folder 11, JRP.

78. Ibid., p. 6.

79. Rawls, “Lecture XVII: Natural Duties and Civilian Immunity,” p. 6a (emphasis in original), Box 34, Folder 11, JRP.

80. Ibid., pp. 2–8 (emphasis in original); cf. Rawls, “Lecture XVI: Jus in Bello II: Absolutism and Double Effect (II),” p. 5, Box 34, Folder 11, JRP.

81. Paul Ramsey, “How Shall Counter-Insurgency War Be Conducted Justly,” in Menzel, Moral Argument and the War in Vietnam, 93–113 (reproduced from Ramsey, The Just War); cf. Hugo Adam Bedau, “Genocide in Vietnam?,” in Held et al., Philosophy, Morality, and International Affairs.

82. Rawls, “Lecture XVII: Natural Duties and Civilian Immunity,” p. 5, Box 34, Folder 11, JRP.

83. J. L. Austin, “A Plea for Excuses: The Presidential Address,” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 57, no. 1 (1957): 30. 

84. Peter F. Strawson, Freedom and Resentment and Other Essays (Routledge, 1974), 1–28; cf. Stuart Hampshire and H.L.A. Hart, “Decision, Intention, and Certainty,” reprinted in Freedom and Responsibility: Readings in Philosophy and Law, ed. Herbert Morris (Stanford University Press, 1961). See also the contributions to the Wittgensteinian Studies in Philosophical Psychology, which included Anthony Kenny, Action, Emotion, and Will (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1963); A. I. Melden, Free Action (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1961); R. S. Peters, The Concept of Motivation (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1958).

85. Barry, Political Argument, 113.

86. For discussion, see Samuel Scheffler, “Responsibility, Reactive Attitudes, and Liberalism in Philosophy and Politics,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 21, no. 4 (1992): 299–323; Michael Rosen, “Liberalism, Desert, and Responsibility: A Response to Samuel Scheffler,” Philosophy Books 44, no. 2 (2003): 118–24; Eric Nelson, The Theology of Liberalism, chap. 3.

87. Strawson, Freedom and Resentment and Other Essays, 1–28.

88. Thomas Nagel, “War and Massacre,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 1, no. 2 (1972): 128.

89. Ibid., 142.

90. Ibid., 133.

91. Ibid., 137–38.

92. Ibid., 139.

93. Ibid., 144.

94. For the Oxford, as opposed to Harvard, approach, see G. A. Cohen, Rescuing Justice and Equality (Harvard University Press, 2008), 4–5.

95. Brian Barry, “And Who Is My Neighbor?,” Yale Law Review 88, no. 3 (1979): 635.

96. Erwin Knoll and Judith Nies McFadden, eds., War Crimes and the American Conscience (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970).

97. “Transcript: Law, Morality, and War: The Ideals of Nuremberg,” in Knoll and McFadden, War Crimes and the American Conscience, 25.

98. Knoll and McFadden, War Crimes and the American Conscience, 41.

99. Ibid., 32.

100. Ibid., 34.

101. Karl Jaspers, The Question of German Guilt (Fordham University Press, 2000).

102. Dwight Macdonald, The Responsibility of Peoples and Other Essays in Political Criticism (Victor Gollancz Ltd., 1957), 21, 33; Hannah Arendt, “Organized Guilt and Universal Responsibility,” Jewish Frontier (January 1945).

103. Hannah Arendt, “Collective Responsibility,” in Amor Mundi: Explorations in the Faith and Thought of Hannah Arendt, ed. James W. Bernauer (Martinus Nijoff Publishers, 1987), 47.

104. Mills, The Power Elite, 6, 26–27.

105. H.L.A. Hart and Tony Honoré, Causation in the Law (Oxford University Press, 1959).

106. For debate about retributivism, see Herbert Morris, “Persons and Punishment,” Monist 51, no. 4 (1968): 475–501; Jeffrie Murphy, “Three Mistakes about Retributivism,” Analysis 31, no. 5 (1971): 166–69; John Finnis, “The Restoration of Retribution,” Analysis 32, no. 4 (1972): 131–35; see also on the illegitimacy of punishment Jeffrie G. Murphy, “Marxism and Retribution,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 2, no. 3 (1973): 217–43.

107. H.L.A. Hart, Punishment and Responsibility (Oxford University Press, 1968), 181–82.

108. Ibid., 226. For a longer history of these ideas that begins from Hart, see Thomas L. Haskell, “Persons as Uncaused Causes: John Stuart Mill, the Spirit of Capitalism, and the ‘Invention’ of Formalism,” in The Culture of the Market: Historical Essays, ed. Thomas L. Haskell and Richard F. Teichgraeber III (Cambridge University Press, 1994), 441–502.

109. Joel Feinberg, “Collective Responsibility,” Journal of Philosophy 65, no. 21 (1968): 674–88.

110. For the implications of these debates, see Maeve McKeown, “Responsibility without Guilt: A Youngian Approach to Responsibility for Global Injustice,” PhD diss., University College London (2014), chap. 2.

111. Bernard Williams, “Moral Luck,” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society (1976): 115–35; Thomas Nagel, Mortal Questions (Cambridge University Press, 1979); T. M. Scanlon, “The Significance of Choice,” in The Tanner Lectures on Human Values, vol. 8, ed. Sterling M. McMurrin (Cambridge University Press, 1988), 149–216.

112. Kurt Baier, “Guilt and Responsibility,” in Individual and Collective Responsibility: Massacre at My Lai, ed. Peter A. French (Schenkman Publishing Co., 1972), 104.

113. D. E. Cooper, “Collective Responsibility,” Philosophy 43, no. 165 (1968): 258–68; Virginia Held, “Can a Random Collection of Individuals Be Morally Responsible?,” Journal of Philosophy 67, no. 14 (1970): 471–81; Stanley Bates, “The Responsibility of ‘Random Collections,’” Ethics 81, no. 4 (1971): 343–49.

114. United Nations, Charter of the International Military Tribunal—Annex to the Agreement for the Prosecution and Punishment of the Major War Criminals of the European Axis (United Nations, 8 August 1945).

115. Richard Wasserstrom, “The Relevance of Nuremberg,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 1, no. 1 (1971): 22–46, 41.

116. Ibid., 41.

117. Wasserstrom, “The Responsibility of the Individual for War Crimes,” 53.

118. O’Brien, “The Nuremberg Principles,” 156.

119. Wasserstrom, “The Responsibility of the Individual for War Crimes,” 61.

120. Wasserstrom, “The Relevance of Nuremberg,” 27.

121. Shklar, Legalism, 179.

122. Wasserstrom, “The Responsibility of the Individual for War Crimes,” 70.

123. Hart, Punishment and Responsibility, chap. 5.

124. Noam Chomsky, “The Rule of Force in International Affairs,” Yale Law Journal 80, no. 7 (1971): 1456–91.

125. Moyn, “Antiwar Politics to Antitorture Politics,” 171–76.

126. “Transcript: Law, Morality, and War: The Ideals of Nuremberg,” in Knoll and McFadden, War Crimes and the American Conscience, 8.

127. Knoll and McFadden, War Crimes and the American Conscience, 36–41. On ecocide, see Robert Gottlieb, Forcing the Spring: The Transformation of the American Environmental Movement (Island Press, 2005), 138.

128. Wasserstrom, “The Relevance of Nuremberg,” 45.

129. Falk, “The Circle of Responsibility,” in Falk et al., Crimes of War.

130. Richard Falk, “The Circle of Responsibility,” Nation, 26 January 1970; Moyn, “Antiwar Politics to Antitorture Politics,” 176.

131. Richard Falk, “Ecocide, Genocide, and the Nuremberg Tradition of Individual Responsibility,” in Held et al., Philosophy, Morality, and International Affairs, 126–27, 132, 136.

132. “Transcript: Law, Morality, and War: The Ideals of Nuremberg,” in Knoll and McFadden, War Crimes and the American Conscience, 8.

133. Bailey, America’s Army, 2–33; cf. Thomas E. Ricks, Making the Corps (Scribner, 1997).

134. Brick, Age of Contradiction, 124–65.

135. Charles C. Moskos Jr., “Military Made the Scapegoat for Vietnam,” in Knoll and McFadden, War Crimes and the American Conscience, 180–81; cf. Friedberg, In the Shadow of the Garrison State, chap. 7.

136. On the privatization of the military and its effects, see Martha Minnow, “Outsourcing Power: How Privatizing Military Efforts Challenges Accountability, Professionalism, and Democracy,” Boston College Law Review 46, no. 5 (2005): 989–1026; Paul R. Verkuil, Outsourcing Sovereignty: Why Privatization of Government Functions Threatens Democracy and What We Can Do about It (Cambridge University Press, 2007). For the consequences of the all-volunteer force for welfare, see Jennifer Mittelstadt, The Rise of the Military Welfare State (Harvard University Press, 2015).

137. Rawls, “Conscription (1969),” p. 11, Box 34, Folder 13, JRP.

138. John Rawls, “Lecture XX,” Box 34, Folder 14, JRP; cf. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 380. For this argument see, also Immanuel Kant, Political Writings, ed. Hans Reiss (Cambridge University Press, 1991), 100.

139. On the funding of the Vietnam War and the Great Society, see Jeffrey W. Helsing, Johnson’s War/Johnson’s Great Society: The Guns and Butter Trap (Praeger, 2000); Julian Zelizer, Taxing America: Wilbur D. Mills, Congress, and the State, 1945–1975 (Cambridge University Press, 1998), 257–70. On the relation of the Great Society legislation to the increasing power of the carceral state, see Elizabeth Hinton, “‘A War within Our Own Boundaries’: Lyndon Johnson’s Great Society and the Rise of the Carceral State,” Journal of American History 102, no. 1 (2015): 100–112; Julilly Kohler-Hausmann, “Guns and Butter: The Welfare State, the Carceral State, and the Politics of Exclusion in the Postwar United States,” Journal of American History 102, no. 1 (2015): 87–99. Jordan T. Camp, Incarcerating the Crisis: Freedom Struggles and the Rise of the Neoliberal State (University of California Press, 2016).

140. Sanford Levinson, “Responsibility for Crimes of War,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 2, no. 3 (1973): 251–59.

141. Ibid., 271–72.

142. Ibid., 270. Nagel, “Ruthlessness in Public Life,” 75–76; Ronald Dworkin, “Liberalism,” in Hampshire, Public and Private Morality, 113.

143. Wasserstrom, “The Laws of War.”

144. Richard B. Brandt, “Utilitarianism and the Rules of War,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 1, no. 2 (1972): 163–64; Richard M. Hare, “Rules of War and Moral Reasoning,” Philosophy and Public Affairs, 1, no. 2 (1972): 166–81.

145. Nagel, “War and Massacre,” 143–44.

146. Bernard Williams and W. F. Atkinson, “Ethical Consistency,” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society (suppl.) 39, no. 1 (1965): 103–38.

147. Robert Nozick, “Moral Complications and Moral Structures,” Natural Law Forum 137 (1968): 34.

148. Bernard Williams, “A Passion for the Beyond,” London Review of Books 8, no. 14 (1986): 5–6.

149. Michael Walzer, “Political Action: The Problem of Dirty Hands,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 2, no. 2 (1973): 170–72.

150. Michael Walzer, Just and Unjust Wars: A Moral Argument with Historical Illustrations (Basic Books, 1977), chap. 16.

151. Walzer, “Political Action,” 143–44.

152. Ibid., 178–79. Walzer, “The New Left and the Old.”

153. Walzer, “Political Action,” 179, 180.

154. Michael Walzer, “War Crimes: Defining the Moral Culpability of Leaders and Citizens,” New Republic, 5 November 1977, 23.

155. Ibid., 18–21.

156. For the “new absolutists,” see Brian Barry, “Morality and Geography,” paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Society for Political and Legal Philosophy (3–4 January 1980) Brian Barry Literary Archive (hereafter BBLA) https://sites.google.com/a/york.ac.uk/brianbarryarchive/home (accessed May 10 2019). For the “casuistry” label, see Sanford Levinson, “A Symposium Review: Thoughts on a Meditation,” Nation 227, no. 6 (2 September 1978): 181–82.

157. The title was chosen by his editor.

158. Walzer, Just and Unjust Wars, 3.

159. See, for example, James Griffin, “Are There Incommensurable Values?,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 7, no. 1 (1977): 39–59; Kenneth W. Howard, “Must Public Hands Be Dirty?,” Journal of Value Inquiry 11 (1977): 29–40.

160. See, for example, Henry Shue, “Torture,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 7, no. 2 (1977/1978): 124–43; Gregory S. Kavka, Moral Paradoxes of Nuclear Deterrence (Cambridge University Press, 1987).

161. For recent attempts to correct this, see Corey Brettschneider, When the State Speaks, What Should It Say? (Princeton University Press, 2012); Eric Beerbohm, In Our Name: The Ethics of Democracy (Princeton University Press, 2012); Lea Ypi, Global Justice and Avant-Garde Political Agency (Oxford University Press, 2011); Bernardo Zacka, Where the State Meets the Street: Public Service and Moral Agency (Harvard University Press, 2017); Chiara Cordelli, The Privatized State (forthcoming).

162. Nagel, “Ruthlessness in Public Life,” 86.

163. Dworkin, “Liberalism,” 116–18.

164. Nagel, “Ruthlessness in Public Life,” 83.

165. Ibid., 91.

166. Rawls, “Two Concepts of Rules.”

167. See, for example, Charles Fried, “Privacy,” Yale Law Journal 77, no. 3 (1968): 475–93. For Rawls’s turn to publicity, see Rawls, “Constitutional Liberty and the Concept of Justice” (1963), in Rawls, Collected Papers, 73; Rawls, “Distributive Justice” (1967), in Rawls, Collected Papers, 149. For debates about privacy, see Igo, The Known Citizen, chap. 4.

168. Cf. S. I. Benn and G. F. Gaus, eds., Public and Private in Social Life (St. Martin’s Press, 1983).

169. For both of these arguments, see Carole Pateman, “Feminist Critiques of the Public/Private Dichotomy,” in Benn and Gauss, Public and Private in Social Life, 281–306.

Chapter 4: The New Egalitarians

1. Stuart Hampshire, “A Special Supplement: A New Philosophy of the Just Society,” New York Review of Books, 24 February 1972.

2. John H. Schaar, “Reflections on Rawls’ A Theory of Justice,” Social Theory and Practice 3, no. 1 (1975): 75.

3. For bibliographical detail, see Wellbank, Snook, and Mason, John Rawls and His Critics.

4. See, for example, Frankena, Ethics, 6; Brandt, Social Justice; Carl J. Friedrich and John W. Chapman, eds., Nomos VI: Justice (Atherton Press, 1963); Chaim Perelman, The Idea of Justice and the Problem of Argument (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1963); Rescher, Distributive Justice; A. M. Honoré, “Social Justice,” in Summers, Essays in Legal Philosophy.

5. Rawls, “Nature of Political and Social Philosophy (1960–1964),” pp. 6–7, Box 35, Folder 10, JRP.

6. Alasdair MacIntyre, “The End of Ideology and the End of the End of Ideology,” in MacIntyre, Against the Self-Images of the Age: Essays on Ideology and Philosophy (Duckworth, 1971).

7. Michael J. Crozier, Samuel P. Huntington, and Jōji Watanuki, The Crisis of Democracy: Report on the Governability of Democracies to the Trilateral Commission (New York University Press, 1975); Jürgen Habermas, Legitimation Crisis, trans. Thomas McCarthy (Heinemann, 1976); see also “Introduction: Crisis, What Crisis?,” in Ferguson et al., The Shock of the Global.

8. Michael Harrington, The Other America: Poverty in the United States (Macmillan, 1962), 156.

9. Aaron Wildavsky, “Government and the People,” Commentary (August 1973): 32; Schaar, “Reflections on Rawls’ A Theory of Justice,” 95.

10. Samuel Freeman, “Capitalism in the Classical and High Liberal Traditions,” Social Philosophy and Policy 28 (2001): 19–55.

11. Dworkin, “Liberalism,” 115.

12. Fred Block, Capitalism: The Future of an Illusion (University of California Press, 2018), 15–24.

13. Brick and Phelps, Radicals in America, chap. 5.

14. John Rawls, “Liberalism and the New Left,” p. 1, Box 24, Folder 8, JRP.

15. Brian Barry, “Just Men and Just Laws: Rawls on the Just Constitution,” APSA roundtable, in “APSA roundtable on TJ (September 1973, New Orleans),” Box 24, Folder 10, JRP.

16. Brian Barry, review of Robert Paul Wolff, Understanding Rawls: A Reconstruction and Critique of A Theory of Justice, Canadian Journal of Philosophy 8, no. 4 (1978): 753–83; James S. Fishkin and Peter Laslett, Philosophy, Politics, and Society: A Collection, 5^th ed. (Yale University Press, 1979), 1.

17. Peter Boettke, “James M. Buchanan and the Rebirth of Political Economy,” in Economics and Its Discontents: Twentieth-Century Dissenting Economists, ed. Richard P. F. Holt and Steven Pressman (Edward Elgar, 1998), 21–39.

18. Gordon Tullock, The Politics of Bureaucracy (Public Affairs Press, 1965); William A. Niskanen, Bureaucracy and Representative Government (Transaction Publishers, 1971); James M. Buchanan and Richard A. Musgrave, Public Finance and Public Choice: Two Contrasting Visions of the State (MIT Press, 1999); Anthony Downs, Inside Bureaucracy (Rand Corporation, 1964).

19. James M. Buchanan, “Politics without Romance: A Sketch of Positive Public Choice Theory and Its Normative Implications” (1979), reprinted in The Collected Works of James Buchanan: The Logical Foundations of Constitutional Liberty, vol. 1 (Liberty Fund, 1999); Amadae, Rationalizing Capitalist Democracy, chap. 3.

20. On Buchanan and Rawls, see S. M. Amadae, Prisoners of Reason: Game Theory and Neoliberal Political Economy (Cambridge University Press, 2015), 175–93; Ben Jackson and Zofia Stemplowska, “James Buchanan and John Rawls on the Social Contract,” unpublished paper (2017).

21. James M. Buchanan, “Rawls on Justice as Fairness,” review of John Rawls, A Theory of Justice, Public Choice 13, no. 1 (1972): 123–28, 123; cf. James Buchanan, “Obituary: Justice among Natural Equals: Memorial Marker for John Rawls,” Public Choice 114, nos. 3/4 (2003). On Knight, Stigler, et al., see Burgin, The Great Persuasion.

22. Avner Offner and Gabriel Söderberg, The Nobel Factor: The Prize in Economics, Social Democracy, and the Market Turn (Princeton University Press, 2016), 272.

23. Ariela Gross, “A Grassroots History of Colorblind Conservative Constitutionalism,” Law and Social Inquiry 44, no. 1(2019): 1–20.

24. G. Warren Nutter and James M. Buchanan, “Different School Systems Are Reviewed,” Richmond-Times Dispatch, 12 April 1959.

25. Nancy MacLean, Democracy in Chains: The Deep History of the Radical Right’s Stealth Plan for America (Viking, 2017).

26. James M. Buchanan and Nicos E. Devletoglou, Academia in Anarchy: An Economic Diagnosis (Basic Books, 1970); James M. Buchanan, “The ‘Social’ Efficiency of Education,” Il Politico 35, no. 4 (1970): 653–62; cf. Frank I. Michelman, “In Pursuit of Constitutional Welfare Rights: One View of Rawls’ Theory of Justice,” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 121 (1973): 962–1019.

27. See Rawls, “Distributive Justice (1959),” pp. 14–15, Box 36, Folder 4, JRP; A. B. Atkinson, “The Collected Papers of Richard A. Musgrave: A Review Article,” Journal of Public Economics 33, no. 3 (1987): 389–98.

28. See, for example, Paul Samuelson, “The Pure Theory of Public Expenditure,” Review of Economics and Statistics 36, no. 4 (1954): 387–89.

29. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 244–45; cf. Martin O’Neill and Thad Williamson, “Branches of Government,” in The Cambridge Rawls Lexicon, ed. Jon Mandle and David A. Reidy (Cambridge University Press, 2013).

30. Rawls, “Distributive Justice” (1967), in Rawls, Collected Papers, 143.

31. “Pres. Leadership” (undated document), Box 19, Folder 4, Mont Pèlerin Society Papers, Hoover Institution Archives.

32. Brian Abel-Smith and Peter Townsend, The Poor and the Poorest: A New Analysis of the Ministry of Labour’s Family Expenditure Surveys of 1953–54 and 1960 (G. Bell & Sons, 1965); W. G. Runciman, Relative Deprivation and Social Justice: A Study of Attitudes to Social Inequality in Twentieth-Century England (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1966).

33. Averbeck, “‘Want in the Midst of Plenty,’” chaps. 1–4.

34. Titmuss, “The Role of Redistribution in Social Policy”; Black and Pemberton, An Affluent Society?

35. Jackson, Equality and the British Left, 206–8.

36. Barry, Political Argument, 104.

37. Harris, “Political Thought and the Welfare State 1870–1940,” 137.

38. Arthur Cecil Pigou, Wealth and Welfare (Macmillan, 1912); John A. Hobson, “Economic Art and Human Welfare,” Philosophy 1, no. 4 (1926): 467–80; cf. Roger E. Backhouse and Tamotsu Nishizawa, “Welfare Economics, Old and New,” in No Wealth but Life: Welfare Economics and the Welfare State in Britain, 1880–1945, ed. Roger E. Backhouse and Tamotsu Nishizawa (Cambridge University Press, 2010), 223–36.

39. Brian Barry, The Liberal Theory of Justice: A Critical Examination of the Principal Doctrines in “A Theory of Justice” by John Rawls (Clarendon Press, 1973), 7.

40. Richard Tuck, “History,” in A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy, vol. 1, ed. Robert E. Goodin, Philip Pettit, and Thomas Pogge (Blackwell, 1993), 79–80.

41. See, for example, Amartya Sen, “Neo-Classical and Neo-Keynesian Theories of Distribution,” Economic Record 39 (1963): 53–64; Amartya Sen and W. G. Runciman, “Games, Justice, and the General Will,” Mind 74, no. 296 (1965): 554–62; Amartya Sen, Collective Choice and Social Welfare (Holden-Day, 1970).

42. For the multiple trajectories of altruism, see Thomas Dixon, The Invention of Altruism: Making Moral Meanings in Victorian Britain (Oxford University Press, 2008); Stefan Collini, “The Culture of Altruism: Selfishness and the Decay of Motive,” in Collini, Public Moralists: Public Thought and Intellectual Life in Britain, 1850–1930 (Clarendon Press, 1991), 60–90; Jonathan Levy, “Altruism and the Origins of Nonprofit Philanthropy,” in Philanthropy in Democratic Societies: History, Institutions, Values, ed. Rob Reich, Chiara Cordelli, and Lucy Bernholz (University of Chicago Press, 2017); Elisabeth Clemens, “Good Citizens of a World Power: Postwar Reconfigurations of the Obligation to Give,” in Sparrow et al., Boundaries of the State in US History, 216.

43. Titmuss, Essays on The Welfare State, 39; Titmuss quoted in Michael Freeden, “The Coming of the Welfare State,” in The Cambridge History of Twentieth-Century Political Thought, ed. Terence Ball and Richard Bellamy (Cambridge University Press, 2003), 19; Marshall, Citizenship and Social Class, 266.

44. On Polanyi in Britain, see Tim Rogan, The Moral Economists: R. H. Tawney, Karl Polanyi, E. P. Thompson, and the Critique of Capitalism (Princeton University Press, 2017), chap. 2.

45. Richard M. Titmuss, The Gift Relationship: From Human Blood to Social Policy (Allen and Unwin, 1970), 245.

46. Cf. István Hont, Jealousy of Trade: International Competition and the Nation-State in Historical Perspective (Harvard University Press, 2005).

47. On this Humean tradition, see Brian Barry, “Circumstances of Justice and Future Generations,” in Obligations to Future Generations, ed. Richard I. Sikora and Brian M. Barry (Temple University Press, 1978).

48. Kenneth J. Arrow, “Gifts and Exchanges,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 1, no. 4 (1972): 354, 360.

49. Peter Singer, “Altruism and Commerce: A Defense of Titmuss against Arrow,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 2, no. 3 (1973): 312–20, 313.

50. Arrow, “A Cautious Case for Socialism.”

51. Isaac, “Pain, Analytical Philosophy, and American Intellectual History,” 215.

52. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 502.

53. Thomas Nagel, The Possibility of Altruism (Clarendon Press, 1970), 3, 19.

54. J. R. Lucas, “Justice,” Philosophy 47 (1972): 230, 242, 247.

55. Brian Barry, “Social Justice,” Oxford Review 5 (1967): 49.

56. David Miller, Social Justice (Clarendon Press, 1976), 146; cf. N.M.L. Nathan, The Concept of Justice (Macmillan, 1971).

57. Bernard Williams, “The Idea of Equality” (1962), in Runciman and Laslett, Philosophy, Politics, and Society, 3^rd ed. For more recent accounts of basic equality see Jeremy Waldron, One Another’s Equals: The Basis of Human Equality (Harvard University Press, 2017).

58. W. K. Frankena, “The Concept of Social Justice,” section VII, and Gregory Vlastos, “Justice and Equality,” section II, in Brandt, Social Justice; W. von Leyden, “On Justifying Inequality,” Political Studies 11, no. 1 (1963): 56–70.

59. Barry, Political Argument, 106.

60. Nathan, The Concept of Justice, 37; Hart, Punishment and Responsibility, 233–37.

61. P. J. Fitzgerald, “Voluntary and Involuntary Acts,” and H.L.A. Hart, “Negligence, Mens Rea, and Criminal Responsibility,” in Oxford Essays in Jurisprudence: A Collaborative Work, ed. Anthony Gordon Guest (Oxford University Press, 1961).

62. Joel Feinberg, Doing and Deserving: Essays in the Theory of Responsibility (Princeton University Press, 1970), 81; John Kleinig, “The Concept of Desert,” American Philosophical Quarterly 8, no. 1 (1971): 71–78.

63. D. D. Raphael, “Conservative and Prosthetic Justice,” Political Studies 12, no. 2 (1964): 149–62.

64. Nathan, The Concept of Justice, chap. 4.

65. Barry, Political Argument, 111.

66. On the persistence of this discourse in America, see Michael B. Katz, The Undeserving Poor: America’s Enduring Confrontation with Poverty (Oxford University Press, 2013).

67. Barry, Political Argument, 113.

68. Nathan, The Concept of Justice, 66–67.

69. Barry, Political Argument, 115.

70. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 15.

71. Ibid., §2.

72. Ibid., 103–4, §48.

73. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, §87 at 587.

74. For the persistence of rational choice interpretations of the original position, see Gerald Gaus and John Thrasher, “Rational Choice and the Original Position: The (Many) Models of Rawls and Harsanyi,” in The Original Position, ed. Timothy Hinton (Cambridge University Press, 2015), 39–58.

75. John Rawls, “Talk at the American Economics Association in December 1973,” pp. 9–10, 12, Box 24, Folder 12, JRP.

76. On the “incorporation of radical dissent” in the Cold War university, see David Engerman, “Rethinking Cold War Universities: Some Recent Histories,” Journal of Cold War Studies 5, no. 3 (2003): 95. See also the idea of “counter–Cold War social science” elucidated by Nils Gilman in “The Cold War as Intellectual Force Field,” 15, and the essays in Isaac and Bell, Uncertain Empire.

77. John Rawls, “Comments at APSA panel (1973),” p. 4, Box 24, Folder 11, JRP.

78. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 274, n. 14; 42, n. 23. Rawls would often make multiple attributions for various ideas. For instance, in correspondence he attributed the idea of lexical ordering to the economic historian Peter Temin in 1962. John Rawls to Partha Dasgupta, 26 June 1972, Box 19, JRP.

79. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 273–74.

80. Although cf. Ron, “Visions of Democracy in ‘Property-Owning Democracy’.”

81. Rawls, “Comments at APSA panel (1973),” p. 4.

82. David L. Schaefer, “Ideology in Philosophy’s Clothing: John Rawls’s A Theory of Justice,” paper presented at the annual APSA meeting (1973), Box 24, Folder 10, JRP; cf. David Lewis Schaefer, Justice or Tyranny? A Critique of John Rawls’s A Theory of Justice (Kennikat Press, 1979).

83. Allan Bloom, “Justice: John Rawls vs. the Tradition of Political Philosophy,” review of John Rawls, A Theory of Justice, American Political Science Review 69, no. 2 (1975): 649.

84. Schaar, “Reflections on Rawls’ A Theory of Justice,” 59.

85. Ronald Moore, “Rawls on Constitution-Making,” Nomos 20: Constitutionalism (1979): 238–68; Richard B. Parker, “The Jurisprudential Uses of John Rawls,” Nomos 20: Constitutionalism (1979): 269–95.

86. Marshall Cohen, “The Social Contract Explained and Defended,” New York Times Book Review, 16 July 1972, 1.

87. Hal R. Varian, “Distributive Justice, Welfare Economics, and the Theory of Fairness,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 4, no. 3 (1975): 223–47; Backhouse and Nishizawa, No Wealth but Life, 13.

88. Lyons, “Moral Judgment, Historical Reality, and Civil Disobedience.”

89. Schaefer, “Ideology in Philosophy’s Clothing”; Barry, The Liberal Theory of Justice, 166–68.

90. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, §26.

91. Kenneth Arrow, Essays in the Theory of Risk-Bearing (North-Holland Publishing Co., 1970).

92. John Harsanyi, “Can the Maximin Principle Serve as a Basis for Morality? A Critique of John Rawls’s Theory,” American Political Science Review 69, no. 2 (1975): 594–606.

93. Gordon Schochet, “The Politics (and Sociology) of Justice: Rawls and His Critics,” Box 24, Folder 10, JRP.

94. See, for example, the essays by Thomas Nagel, Ronald Dworkin, Milton Fisk, and David Lyons in Daniels, Reading Rawls.

95. Barry, The Liberal Theory of Justice; and, most influentially, G. A. Cohen, “Where the Action Is.”

96. Michael Walzer, “Philosophy and Democracy,” Political Theory 9, no. 3 (1981): 389.

97. Robert Paul Wolff, Understanding Rawls: A Reconstruction and Critique of A Theory of Justice (Society for Philosophy and Culture, 2013).

98. C. B. Macpherson, “Rawls’s Model of Man and Society,” Philosophy of the Social Sciences 3, no. 4 (1973): 343; John Schaar, Legitimacy in the Modern State (Transaction Books, 1981), 145–66, 211–30.

99. For Rawls’s Kantianism, see Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 251; John Rawls, “A Kantian Conception of Equality,” in Rawls, Collected Papers, 254–66. For an early critique, see Andrew Levine, “Rawls’ Kantianism,” Social Theory and Practice 3, no. 1 (1974): 47–63; cf. Stanley Bates, “The Motivation to Be Just,” Ethics 85, no. 1 (1974): 1–17.

100. Peter French, Collective and Corporate Responsibility (Columbia University Press, 1984).

101. Jane English, “Justice between Generations,” Philosophical Studies 31, no. 2 (1977): 91–104; Okin, Justice, Gender, and the Family.

102. Barry, The Liberal Theory of Justice, 44.

103. For the most important early argument questioning the centrality of the original position, see Thomas M. Scanlon, “Rawls’ Theory of Justice,” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 121, no. 5 (1973): 1020–69.

104. Michael Sandel, Liberalism and the Limits of Justice (Cambridge University Press, 1982).

105. H.L.A. Hart, “Rawls on Liberty and Its Priority,” University of Chicago Law Review 40, no. 3 (1973): 534–55; Brian Barry, “Rawls and the Priority of Liberty,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 2, no. 3 (1973): 274–90.

106. Perry Anderson, “A Culture in Contraflow—II,” New Left Review 182 (July/August 1990): 106.

107. Daniel Bell, The Coming of Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting (Basic Books, 1973), 441–44.

108. Hampshire, “A Special Supplement: A New Philosophy of the Just Society,” 9; Barry, The Liberal Theory of Justice, 166–68.

109. David Miller, Social Justice, 42–50.

110. Runciman, Relative Deprivation and Social Justice, part 4.

111. W. G. Runciman to John Rawls, 14 May 1966, Box 19, Folder 2, JRP.

112. Barry, The Liberal Theory of Justice, 50.

113. See, for example, Kai Nielsen, “Rawls and Classist Amoralism,” Mind 86, no. 341 (1977): 19.

114. Varian, “Distributive Justice, Welfare Economics, and the Theory of Fairness”; Brian Barry, “Critical Notice of Robert Paul Wolff, Understanding Rawls: A Reconstruction and a Critique,” Canadian Journal of Philosophy 8, no. 4 (1978): 753–83; Arthur DiQuattro, “Rawls and Left Criticism,” Political Theory 11, no. 1 (1983): 53–78. The idea of a people’s capitalism was popularized by A. A. Berle Jr., The 20th Century Capitalist Revolution (Harcourt, Brace & Company, 1954), 24.

115. Barry Clark and Herbert Gintis, “Rawlsian Justice and Economic Systems,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 7, no. 4 (1978): 302–25; Benjamin R. Barber, “Justifying Justice: Problems of Psychology, Measurement, and Politics in Rawls,” American Political Science Review 69, no. 2 (June 1975): 672; Robert Amdur, “Rawls and His Radical Critics: The Problem of Equality,” Dissent (Summer 1980). See also the essays by Milton Fisk, Norman Daniels, and Richard Miller in Daniels, Reading Rawls.

116. David E. Schweickart, “Should Rawls Be a Socialist? A Comparison of His Ideal Capitalism with Worker-Controlled Socialism,” Social Theory and Practice 5, no. 1 (Fall 1978): 1–27; cf. Norman Daniels, “Equal Liberty and the Unequal Worth of Liberty,” in Daniels, Reading Rawls; Amy Gutmann, Liberal Equality (Cambridge University Press, 1980).

117. On the varieties of critical legal studies, see Mark Tushnet, “Critical Legal Studies: A Political History,” Yale Law Journal 100, no. 5 (1991): 1515–44.

118. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 280. See Macpherson, “Rawls’s Model of Man and Society,” 341–47; Wolff, Understanding Rawls; Kai Nielsen, “On the Very Possibility of a Classless Society: Rawls, Macpherson, and Revisionist Liberalism,” Political Theory 6, no. 2 (1978): 191–208; Nielsen, “Rawls and Classist Amoralism.”

119. Barry, The Liberal Theory of Justice, 164.

120. Moyn, Not Enough, 40, 168–69. For sufficiency claims, see Harry Frankfurt, “Equality as a Moral Ideal,” Ethics 98, no. 1 (1987): 21–43; David Wiggins, “Claims of Need,” in Wiggins, Needs, Values, Truth: Essays in the Philosophy of Value (Clarendon Press, 1998).

121. Goodwin Liu, “Rethinking Constitutional Welfare Rights,” Stanford Law Review 61, no. 2 (2008): 204–33; William E. Forbath, “Constitutional Welfare Rights: A History, Critique, and Reconstruction,” Fordham Law Review 69, no. 5 (2001): 1821–91.

122. Michelman, “The Supreme Court, 1968 Term: Foreword.”

123. Brooke, “Rawls and Rousseau on the General Will.”

124. Wolff, Understanding Rawls, 205–10.

125. Rawls, “Talk at the American Economics Association in December 1973,” pp. 12–13, Box 24, Folder 12, JRP.

126. Ibid., 9.

127. Barry, “Just Men and Just Laws,” p. 5; John Rawls, response at APSA roundtable, September 1973, pp. 6–7, Box 24, Folder 10, JRP.

128. Rawls, “Liberalism and the New Left,” 1.

129. Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia, ix.

130. Thomas Nagel, “Nozick: Libertarianism without Foundations,” in Nagel, Other Minds: Critical Essays 1969–1994 (Oxford University Press, 1995), 137–49; cf. Peter Singer, “The Right to Be Rich or Poor,” New York Review of Books, 6 March 1975; John Dunn, “Rights,” London Review of Books 2, no. 19 (2 October 1980).

131. Michael Walzer, Spheres of Justice: A Defense of Pluralism and Equality (Basic Books, 1983), xvii.

132. Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia, 30–34.

133. Ibid., 198.

134. Ibid., 150–82.

135. Ibid., 228–31.

136. Karen Johnson, “Government by Insurance Company: The Antipolitical Philosophy of Robert Nozick,” Western Political Quarterly 29, no. 2 (1976): 177–88; Benjamin R. Barber, “Deconstituting Politics: Robert Nozick and Philosophical Reductionism,” Journal of Politics 39, no. 1 (1977): 2–23.

137. For the rise of private property rights theories, see Joel Isaac, “Property, Efficiency, and the State: The Neoliberal Critique of Bureaucracy 1945–1970,” unpublished paper (2016).

138. Mark Blyth, Great Transformations: Economic Ideas and Institutional Change in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge University Press, 2002); Laura Kalman, Right Star Rising: A New Politics, 1974–1980 (W. W. Norton, 2010); Jennifer Burns, Goddess of the Market: Ayn Rand and the American Right (Oxford University Press, 2009).

139. Bernard Barber, “Absolutization of the Market: Some Notes on How We Got from Here to There,” in Markets and Morals, ed. Gerald Dworkin, Gordon Bermant, and Peter G. Brown (Halsted Press, 1977).

140. G. A. Cohen, “Robert Nozick and Wilt Chamberlain: How Patterns Preserve Liberty,” Erkenntnis 11, no. 1 (1977): 5–23; Peter Singer, “Freedom and Utilities in the Distribution of Health Care,” and Charles Fried, “Difficulties in the Economic Analysis of Rights,” in Dworkin, Bermant, and Brown, Markets and Morals.

141. Cf. Thomas Scanlon, “Nozick on Rights, Liberty, and Property,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 6, no. 1 (1976): 3–25; Christopher Ake, “Justice as Equality,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 5, no. 1 (1975): 69–89.

142. Allen Buchanan, “Distributive Justice and Legitimate Expectations,” Philosophical Studies 28, no. 6 (1975): 419–25.

143. Lawrence C. Becker, “Economic Justice: Three Problems,” Ethics 89, no. 4 (1979): 385–93; cf. Lawrence H. White, “Redistribution versus Social Stability in Rawls,” Occasional Review 8/9 (1978): 85–94; David Lewis Schaefer, ed., The New Egalitarianism: Questions and Challenges (Kennikat Press, 1979).

144. Dworkin, “Liberalism,” 115.

145. Karl, The Uneasy State, 229. For “critical liberals,” see Kornhauser, Debating the American State.

146. Dworkin, “Liberalism,” 116–18.

147. The communitarian and liberal versions of these arguments are discussed in detail in chapter 8, but see also Raymond Geuss, “Neither History nor Praxis,” in Outside Ethics (Princeton University Press, 2009).

148. Lucas, “Justice,” 233.

149. See, for example, T. M. Scanlon, “Contractualism and Utilitarianism,” in Utilitarianism and Beyond, ed. Amartya Sen and Bernard Williams (Cambridge University Press, 2010); David Gauthier, Morals by Agreement (Oxford University Press, 1986).

150. John R. Danley, “An Examination of the Fundamental Assumptions of Hypothetical Process Arguments,” Philosophical Studies 34, no. 2 (1978): 187–95.

151. See, for example, Robert E. Goodin, The Politics of Rational Man (John Wiley & Sons, 1976), chaps. 6 and 12; Norman Daniels, “Merit and Meritocracy,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 7, no. 3 (1978): 206–23. See also David Schweickart, “Capitalism, Contribution, and Sacrifice,” James Rachels, “What People Deserve,” and Joel Feinberg, “Economic Income as Deserved,” in Justice and Economic Distribution, ed. John Arthur and William H. Shaw (Prentice-Hall, 1978).

152. DiQuattro, “Rawls and Left Criticism”; Norman Geras, “The Controversy about Marx and Justice,” Philosophica 33, no. 1 (1984): 33–86; Kai Nielsen, Equality and Liberty: A Defense of Radical Egalitarianism (Rowman & Allanheld, 1985). For the later left engagement with Nozick see Robert J. van der Veen and Philippe Van Parijs, “Entitlement Theories of Justice: From Nozick to Roemer and Beyond,” Economics and Philosophy 1, no. 1 (1985): 69–81.

153. For egalitarian (and contractarian) responses to Nozick, see Samuel Scheffler, “Natural Rights, Equality, and the Minimal State,” Canadian Journal of Philosophy 6, no. 1 (1976): 59–76; David B. Lyons, “Rights against Humanity,” Philosophical Review 85, no. 2 (1976): 208–15; Robert F. Ladenson, “Nozick on Law and the State: A Critique,” Philosophical Studies 34, no. 4 (1978): 437–44. For the institutional nature of the new egalitarianism, see Hugo Bedau, “Social Justice and Social Institutions,” Midwest Studies in Philosophy 3, no. 1 (1978): 159–175; cf. Brian Barry, Justice as Impartiality: A Treatise on Social Justice (Clarendon Press, 1995), 214.

154. For the change in arguments about the constraints of non-ideal theory, cf. Feinberg, “Duty and Obligation in the Non-Ideal World,” and Michael Phillips, “Reflections on the Transition from Ideal to Non-Ideal Theory,” Noûs 19, no. 4 (1985): 551–80, to later George Sher, Approximate Justice: Studies in Non-Ideal Theory (Rowman & Littlefield, 1997); G. A. Cohen, If You’re an Egalitarian, How Come You’re So Rich? (Harvard University Press, 2000); Liam Murphy, Moral Demands in Nonideal Theory (Oxford University Press, 2000).

155. Dworkin, “Liberalism,” 122.

156. See, most influentially, James Forman, “The Black Manifesto,” reprinted in Boris I. Bittker, The Case for Black Reparations (Beacon Press, 2003), 161–75; cf. Robert S. Lecky and H. Elliott Wright, eds., Black Manifesto: Religion, Racism, and Reparations (New York, 1969). For the centrality of class analysis as much as slavery to Forman’s account, see Cedric Johnson, Revolutionaries to Race Leaders: Black Power and the Making of African American Politics (University of Minnesota Press, 2007), 155.

157. Michael Harrington and Arnold S. Kaufman, “Black Reparations—Two Views,” Dissent (July/August 1969): 318–89; Hugo Adam Bedau, “Compensatory Justice and the Black Manifesto,” Monist 56, no. 1 (1972): 22; Bittker, The Case for Black Reparations, 34, 68; Bernard R. Boxill, “The Morality of Reparation,” Social Theory and Practice 2, no. 1 (1972).

158. Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia, 153. See Katrina Forrester, “Reparations, History, and the Origins of Global Justice,” in Empire, Race, and Global Justice, ed. Duncan Bell (Cambridge University Press, 2019), 22–51.

159. Boxill, “The Morality of Reparation,” 117.

160. Ibid., 116.

161. Ibid., 117, 120–21.

162. Bedau, “Compensatory Justice”; cf. Evan Simpson, “Socialist Justice,” Ethics 87, no. 1 (1976): 1–17.

163. David Lyons, “The New Indian Claims and Original Rights to Land,” Social Theory and Practice 4, no. 3 (1977): 268 (emphasis in original).

164. See also Marshall Cohen, Thomas Nagel, and Thomas Scanlon, eds., Equality and Preferential Treatment (Princeton University Press, 1977), xii.

165. Ruddick, “Philosophy and Public Affairs,” 744.

166. Ira Katznelson, When Affirmative Action Was White: An Untold History of Racial Inequality in Twentieth-Century America (W. W. Norton, 2005).

167. Schiller, Forging Rivals, 7–9.

168. Judith Jarvis Thompson, “Preferential Hiring,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 2, no. 4 (1973): 364–84.

169. Robert Simon, “Preferential Hiring: A Reply to Judith Jarvis Thomson,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 3, no. 3 (1974): 312–20; George Sher, “Justifying Reverse Discrimination in Employment,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 4, no. 2 (1975): 159–70; George Sher, “Reverse Discrimination, the Future, and the Past,” Ethics 90, no. 1 (1979): 81–87; Robert K. Fullinwider, “Preferential Hiring and Compensation,” Social Theory and Practice 3, no. 3 (1975): 307–20.

170. Edwin L. Goff, “Affirmative Action, John Rawls, and a Partial Compliance Theory of Justice,” Cultural Hermeneutics 4, no. 1 (1976): 43–59. For “insufficiently Rawlsian,” see Robert S. Taylor, “Rawlsian Affirmative Action,” Ethics 119, no. 3 (2009): 477. For an overview of non-ideal theory, see Laura Valentini, “Ideal vs. Non-Ideal Theory: A Conceptual Map,” Philosophy Compass 7, no. 9 (2012): 654–64.

171. Robert L. Simon, “Individual Rights and ‘Benign’ Discrimination,” Ethics 90, no. 1 (1979): 88–97; Terry Eastland and William J. Bennett, Counting by Race: Equality from the Founding Fathers to Bakke and Weber (Basic Books, 1979); Barry Gross, Discrimination in Reverse: Is Turnabout Fair Play? (New York University Press, 1978).

172. Norman Daniels, “Meritocracy,” in Arthur and Shaw, Justice and Economic Distribution, 137.

173. John Rawls, “Distributive Justice: Some Addenda,” in Rawls, Collected Papers, 165; Rawls, A Theory of Justice, §17.

174. Rachels, “What People Deserve,” 144, 147.

175. Later egalitarians defended affirmative action on grounds not of diversity but integration; see, for example, Elizabeth S. Anderson, “Integration, Affirmative Action, and Strict Scrutiny,” New York University Law Review 77, no. 5 (2002): 1195–271.

176. See Owen M. Fiss, “A Theory of Fair Employment Laws,” University of Chicago Law Review 38 (1971): 235–314; Owen M. Fiss, “School Desegregation: The Uncertain Path of the Law,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 4, no. 1 (1974): 3–39; Owen M. Fiss, “The Fate of an Idea Whose Time Has Come: Antidiscrimination Law in the Second Decade after Brown v. Board of Education,” University of Chicago Law Review 41, no. 4 (1973/1974): 742–73; Owen Fiss, “The Jurisprudence of Busing,” Law and Contemporary Problems 39, no. 1 (1975): 194–216. On busing in Boston, where many of these philosophers lived, see Ronald P. Formisano, Boston against Busing: Race, Class, and Ethnicity in the 1960s and 1970s (University of North Carolina Press, 1991).

177. Owen M. Fiss, “Groups and the Equal Protection Clause,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 5, no. 2 (1976): 107; Jack M. Balkin and Reva B. Siegel, “The American Civil Rights Tradition: Anticlassification or Antisubordination?” Yale Law School Faculty Scholarship Series, paper 246 (2004).

178. Kathryn R. Abrams, “‘Groups’ and the Advent of Critical Race Scholarship,” Issues in Legal Scholarship 2, no. 1 (2003): 23.

179. Fiss, “Groups and the Equal Protection Clause,” 151.

180. Thomas Nagel, “Introduction,” in Cohen et al., Equality and Preferential Treatment, xii.

181. Ibid., ix.

182. For this critique, see for example, Anita L. Allen, “Race, Face, and Rawls,” Fordham Law Review 72 (2004): 1677–96; and the work of Charles Mills, particularly Charles Mills, “White Supremacy and Racial Justice,” in Mills, From Class to Race: Essays in White Marxism and Black Radicalism (Rowman & Littlefield, 2003), 195–218; Charles W. Mills, The Racial Contract (Cornell University Press, 1997); Charles W. Mills, Black Rights/White Wrongs: The Critique of Racial Liberalism (Oxford University Press, 2017).

183. Thomas Nagel, “John Rawls and Affirmative Action,” Journal of Blacks in Higher Education 39 (2003): 82–84; Samuel Freeman, Rawls (Routledge, 2007), 90–91. See John Rawls, Justice as Fairness: A Restatement (Harvard University Press, 2001), 66.

184. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, §25, 149.

185. Boxill, Blacks and Social Justice; Laurence Thomas, “Self-Respect: Theory and Practice,” in Philosophy Born of Struggle: Anthology of Afro-American Philosophy from 1917, ed. Leonard Harris (Kendall/Hunt, 1983), 174–89; Michele M. Moody-Adams, “Race, Class, and the Social Construction of Self-Respect,” Philosophical Forum 24, nos. 1–3 (1992/1993): 251–66; more recently, see Christopher J. Lebron, The Color of Our Shame: Race and Justice in Our Time (Oxford University Press, 2013). Tommie Shelby, Dark Ghettos: Injustice, Dissent, and Reform (Harvard University Press, 2016); Shatema Threadcraft, Intimate Justice: The Black Female Body and the Body Politic (Oxford University Press, 2016).

186. For a defense of Rawls in these terms, see Tommie Shelby, “Race and Social Justice: Rawlsian Considerations,” Fordham Law Review 72, no. 5 (2004): 1697–1714.

Chapter 5: Going Global

1. Brian Barry, “The Elements of Political Theory,” unpublished manuscript (1973), BBLA, 22.

2. Ferguson et al., The Shock of the Global; Harold James, International Monetary Cooperation since Bretton Woods (Oxford University Press, 1996).

3. Meg Jacobs, Panic at the Pump: The Energy Crisis and the Transformation of American Politics in the 1970s (Hill and Wang, 2016).

4. Richard N. Cooper, The Economics of Interdependence: Economic Policy in the Atlantic Community (McGraw-Hill, for the Council on Foreign Relations, 1968); Herbert L. Marx Jr., ed., The World Food Crisis (H. W. Wilson, 1975); Sayed Ahmed Marei, ed., The World Food Crisis (Longman, 1976); Geoffrey Barraclough, “The Great World Crisis I,” New York Review of Books, 23 January 1975; Emma Rothschild, “What Is the ‘Energy Crisis?’,” New York Review of Books, 19 July 1973.

5. Lasse Heerten, “The Dystopia of Postcolonial Catastrophe: Self-Determination, the Biafran War of Secession, and the 1970s Human Rights Moment,” in The Breakthrough: Human Rights in the 1970s, ed. Jan Eckel and Samuel Moyn (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014), 15–33. On hunger as a problem for the state, see James Vernon, Hunger: A Modern History (Harvard University Press, 2007).

6. Matthew Hilton, “International Aid and Development NGOs in Britain and Human Rights since 1945,” Humanity 5, no. 3 (Winter 2012): 449–72; Stephen Macekura, Of Limits and Growth: The Rise of Global Sustainable Development in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge University Press, 2015).

7. Adom Getachew, Worldmaking after Empire: The Rise and Fall of Self-Determination (Princeton University Press, 2019), chap. 5.

8. “Notes and News,” Journal of Philosophy 73, no. 19 (November 1976): 768; Henry Shue, Fighting Hurt: Rule and Exception in Torture and War (Oxford University Press, 2016), vi; cf. Tom L. Beauchamp, “On Eliminating the Distinction between Applied Ethics and Ethical Theory,” Monist 67, no. 4 (1984): 514–31.

9. Thomas Pogge was accused in a 2015 federal civil rights complaint of sexually harassing students at both Yale and Columbia. He has denied the claims. See Katie J. M. Baker, “The Famous Ethics Professor and the Women Who Accused Him,” Buzzfeed News, 20 May 2016, https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/katiejmbaker/yale-ethics-professor (accessed 24 August 2018).

10. Peter Singer, “Famine, Affluence, and Morality,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 1, no. 3 (1972): 229–43, 231.

11. Ibid., 235, 240.

12. T. M. Scanlon, “Rawls’s Theory of Justice,” in Daniels, Reading Rawls, 202.

13. Peter Singer, “Moral Experts,” Analysis 32, no. 4 (1972): 115–17.

14. On consumer activism in the United States and internationally, see Lawrence B. Glickman, Buying Power: A History of Consumer Activism in America (University of Chicago Press, 2009); Tehila Sasson, “Milking the Third World? Humanitarianism, Capitalism, and the Moral Economy of the Nestlé Boycott,” American Historical Review 121, no. 4 (2016): 1196–224.

15. On effective altruism, see Amia Srinivasan, “Stop the Robot Apocalypse: The New Utilitarians,” London Review of Books 37, no. 18 (24 September 2015): 3–6. On the ethics of philanthropy, see Rob Reich, Just Giving: Why Philanthropy Is Failing Democracy and How It Can Do Better (Princeton University Press, 2018). For a historical survey of corporate social responsibility, see Renginee Pillay, The Changing Nature of Corporate Social Responsibility: CSR and Development in Context—The Case of Mauritius (Routledge, 2015), chap. 1.

16. Peter Singer, Marx (Oxford University Press, 1980).

17. Singer, “Altruism and Commerce,” 318.

18. James P. Grant, “Development: The End of Trickle Down?,” Foreign Policy 12 (1973): 43–65.

19. Gilman, Mandarins of the Future; H. W. Arndt, Economic Development: The History of an Idea (University of Chicago Press, 1987), chap. 3.

20. Howard Brick, “Neo-Evolutionist Anthropology, the Cold War, and the Beginnings of the World Turn in US Scholarship,” in Cold War Social Science: Knowledge Production, Liberal Democracy, and Human Nature, ed. Mark Solovey and Hamilton Cravens (Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 155–74.

21. Fredrick Cooper and Randall M. Packard, International Development and the Social Sciences: Essays on the History and Politics of Knowledge (University of California Press, 1997). For the classic treatment of the contradictions of anticolonial nationalism, see Partha Chatterjee, Nationalist Thought in the Colonial World: A Derivative Discourse (University of Chicago Press, 1986). On “methodological nationalism” more broadly, see Manu Goswami, Producing India: From Colonial Economy to National Space (University of Chicago Press, 2004), 1–30.

22. Guiliano Garavini, After Empires: European Integration, Decolonization, and the Challenge from the Global South 1957–1986 (Oxford University Press, 2012), 241–61; Gilbert Rist, The History of Development: From Western Origins to Global Faith (Zed Books, 2014), chap. 10. On US conceptions of “Trade Not Aid,” see David Ekbladh, The Great American Mission: Modernization and the Construction of an American World Order (Princeton University Press, 2009), chap. 5. On “Basic Needs,” see Moyn, Not Enough, chap. 5.

23. Raúl Prebisch, “The Economic Development of Latin America and Its Principal Problems,” United Nations (1950); Hans Singer, “The Distribution of Gains between Investing and Borrowing Countries,” American Economic Review 40, no. 2 (1950): 473–85; cf. John Toye and Richard Toye, “The Origins and Interpretation of the Prebisch-Singer Thesis,” History of Political Economy 35, no. 3 (2003): 437–67.

24. Andre Gunder Frank, Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America: Historical Studies of Chile and Brazil (Monthly Review Press, 1967); cf. Cody Stephens, “The Accidental Marxist: Andrew Gunder Frank and the ‘Neo-Marxist’ Theory of Underdevelopment, 1958–1967,” Modern Intellectual History 15, no. 2 (2018): 411–42.

25. Getachew, Worldmaking after Empire, chaps. 1, 3, and 5.

26. On CEPAL, see Garavini, After Empires, 25. For the varieties of dependency and neo-Marxist theory, see, for example, Arghiri Emmanuel, Unequal Exchange: A Study of the Imperialism of Trade (Monthly Review Press, 1972); Tamás Szentes, The Political Economy of Underdevelopment (Akadémiai Kiadó, 1976); Samir Amin, “Self-Reliance and the New International Economic Order,” Monthly Review 29, no. 3 (July/August 1977): 1–21; cf. Aidan Foster-Carter, “The Modes of Production Controversy,” New Left Review 107 (January/February 1978).

27. Nils Gilman, “The New International Order: A Reintroduction,” Humanity 6, no. 1 (2015): 3; Jagdish N. Bhagwati, ed., The New International Economic Order: The North-South Debate (MIT Press, 1977); Albert Fishlow et al., Rich and Poor Nations in the World Economy (McGraw-Hill, 1978); Mahbub ul Haq, The Poverty Curtain: Choices for the Third World (Columbia University Press, 1976).

28. Getachew, Worldmaking after Empire, 161.

29. Antony Anghie, “Legal Aspects of the New International Economic Order,” Humanity 6, no. 1 (2015): 145–58, 147.

30. UN General Assembly, “Declaration on the Establishment of a New International Economic Order,” Resolution 3201 (S-VI), A/RES/S-6/3201 (1 May 1974).

31. Daniel J. Sargent, “North/South: The United States Responds to the New International Economic Order,” Humanity 6, no. 1 (2015): 203–4.

32. Daniel J. Sargent, A Superpower Transformed: The Remaking of American Foreign Relations in the 1970s (Oxford University Press, 2015), 170.

33. Antony Anghie, Imperialism, Sovereignty, and the Making of International Law (Cambridge University Press, 2004), 211–20. On realism, see Nicholas Guilhot, ed., The Invention of International Relations Theory: Realism, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the 1954 Conference on Theory (Columbia University Press, 2011).

34. For a contemporary survey, see Robert W. Cox, “Ideologies and the New International Economic Order: Reflections on Some Recent Literature,” International Organization 33, no. 2 (Spring 1979): 257–302.

35. On Myrdal’s debts to an earlier set of debates, see Jamie Martin, “Gunnar Myrdal and the Failed Promises of the Postwar International Economic Settlement,” Humanity 8, no. 1 (2017): 167–73.

36. Vanessa Ogle, “State Rights against Private Capital: The ‘New International Economic Order’ and the Struggle over Aid, Trade, and Foreign Investment, 1962–1981,” Humanity 5, no. 2 (2014): 211–34.

37. Independent Commission on International Development Issues, North-South: A Programme for Survival (Macmillan/Pan Books, 1980).

38. Gilman, “The New International Order,” 4; Stephen D. Krasner, Structural Conflict: The Third World against Global Liberalism (University of California Press, 1985).

39. Chris Brown, “The House That Chuck Built: Twenty-Five Years of Reading Charles Beitz,” Review of International Studies 31, no. 2 (2005): 371–79.

40. Charles R. Beitz, “Justice and International Relations,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 4, no. 4 (1975): 360–89, 361–62.

41. On Beitz’s intellectual development and relationship to the NIEO, see Moyn, “The Political Origins of Global Justice”; Moyn, Not Enough, 152–62.

42. Scanlon, “Rawls’s Theory of Justice,” 202.

43. Barry, The Liberal Theory of Justice, 129.

44. Rawls, “Notes on ‘Justice as Fairness 2’ chapters V–VI (ca. 1965–67),” Box 10, Folder 1, JRP.

45. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 284.

46. Beitz, “Justice and International Relations,” 370.

47. On Rawls’s naturalism, see Bok, “The Early Rawls,” chap. 5.

48. Beitz, “Justice and International Relations,” 371.

49. Ibid., 371.

50. Ibid., 382–83.

51. Ibid., 381.

52. Ibid., 382.

53. Singer, “Famine, Affluence, and Morality,” 232.

54. Charles R. Beitz, Political Theory and International Relations (Princeton University Press, 1979), 4; cf. Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World System: Capitalist Agriculture and the Rise of the World Economy in the Sixteenth Century (Academic Press, 1974).

55. Beitz, “Justice and International Relations,” 375.

56. Ibid., 376.

57. Ibid., 375, n. 18.

58. Keith Griffin, International Inequality and National Poverty (Palgrave Macmillan, 1978), 3.

59. Charles Beitz, “Global Egalitarianism: Can We Make Out a Case?,” Dissent 26, no. 1 (1979): 61.

60. Ibid., 62.

61. Ibid., 60–62.

62. Beitz, Political Theory and International Relations, 130–32.

63. Rodgers, Age of Fracture, 41–76.

64. Beitz, “Justice and International Relations,” 377.

65. Charles Richard Beitz, “Political Theory and International Relations,” PhD diss., Princeton University (1978), 361–62.

66. Beitz, “Justice and International Relations,” 371, n. 9.

67. For example, Robert Tucker, The Inequality of Nations (Basic Books, 1977), 19–72.

68. Walt Whitman Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (Cambridge University Press, 1960); Samuel P. Huntington, “Political Development and Political Decay,” World Politics 17, no. 3 (April 1965): 386–430.

69. Barry, “Just Men and Just Laws,” 6; see also Barry, The Liberal Theory of Justice, chap. 7.

70. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 542–44. On the example of Yugoslavia in economic thought, see Johanna Bockman, Markets in the Name of Socialism: The Left-Wing Origins of Neoliberalism (Stanford University Press, 2011), 76–104.

71. For the priority of economic well-being over human rights, see, for example, David H. Bayley, Public Liberties in the New States (Rand McNally, 1964); Rupert Emerson, “The Fate of Human Rights in the Third World,” World Politics 27, no. 2 (1975): 201–26; Clarence Clyde Ferguson Jr. and David M. Trubek, “When Is an Omelet? What Is an Egg? Some Thought on Economic Development and Human Rights in Latin America,” American Journal of International Law 67, no. 5 (1973): 198–227.

72. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 247–48.

73. Beitz, “Political Theory and International Relations,” 196–246.

74. Robert E. Goodin, “The Development-Rights Trade Off: Some Unwarranted Economic and Political Assumptions,” Universal Human Rights 1, no. 2 (1979): 31–42, 42. On Shue’s Indonesia trip, see Samuel Moyn, “The Doctor’s Plot: The Origins of the Philosophy of Human Rights,” in Bell, Empire, Race, and Global Justice, 62.

75. Beitz, “Political Theory and International Relations,” 224–25.

76. Beitz, “Global Egalitarianism,” 64, 63.

77. Ibid., 65 (emphasis in original).

78. Ibid., 68.

79. Slobodian, Globalists, chap. 7; Jennifer Blair, “Taking Aim at the New International Economic Order,” in The Road from Mont Pèlerin: The Making of the Neoliberal Thought Collective, ed. Philip Mirowski and Dieter Plehwe (Harvard University Press, 2015); Umut Özsu, “Neoliberalism and the New International Economic Order: A History of ‘Contemporary Legal Thought,’” in Searching for Contemporary Legal Thought, ed. Christopher L. Tomlins and Justin Desautels-Stein (Cambridge University Press, 2017), 330–47.

80. Samuel Scheffler, “The Idea of Global Justice: A Progress Report,” Harvard Review of Philosophy 20 (2014): 18.

81. See especially William Aiken and Hugh LaFollette, eds., World Hunger and Moral Obligation (Prentice-Hall, 1977); Peter G. Brown and Henry Shue, eds., Food Policy: The Responsibility of the United States in the Life and Death Choices (Free Press, 1977); Peter G. Brown and Douglas MacLean, eds., Human Rights and US Foreign Policy (Lexington Books, 1979).

82. Emma Rothschild, “Food Politics,” Foreign Affairs (January 1976): 286.

83. Moyn, Not Enough, chap. 5.

84. For a contemporary survey, see Dharam Ghai, “Basic Needs and Its Critics,” Institute of Development Studies Bulletin 9, no. 4 (June 1978).

85. Amartya Sen, Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation (Clarendon Press, 1981), §2.8; Kenneth J. Arrow, “Why People Go Hungry,” New York Review of Books, 15 July 1982. On Sen, cf. Moyn, Not Enough, 136–37; Rogan, The Moral Economists, 194–97.

86. Thomas Nagel, “Poverty and Food: Why Charity Is Not Enough,” in Brown and Shue, Food Policy, 54–62.

87. Ibid., 57–59.

88. T. M. Scanlon, “Liberty, Contract, and Contribution,” in Dworkin et al., Markets and Morals.

89. Nagel, “Poverty and Food,” 57.

90. Stanley Hoffmann, Duties beyond Borders: On the Limits and Possibilities of Ethical International Politics (Syracuse University Press, 1981), 159.

91. Thomas Nagel, “The Problem of Global Justice,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 33, no. 2 (2005): 113–47.

92. Nagel, “Poverty and Food,” 56.

93. Sargent, “North/South,” 208.

94. On human rights in philosophy, see Moyn, The Last Utopia, epilogue.

95. Hugo Adam Bedau, “Human Rights and Foreign Assistance Programs,” in Brown and MacLean, Human Rights and US Foreign Policy, 29–44; cf. Charles Frankel, Human Rights and Foreign Policy (Foreign Policy Association, 1978).

96. Henry Shue, Basic Rights (Princeton University Press, 1980); but see Henry Shue, “The Current Fashions: Trickle-Downs by Arrow and Close-Knits by Rawls,” Journal of Philosophy 71, no. 11 (1974): 319–26.

97. Shue, Basic Rights, xi.

98. Peter Singer, “Rights and the Market,” in Arthur and Shaw, Justice and Economic Distribution, 207–20.

99. Moyn, Not Enough, 162–72. For more on Shue, see Moyn, “The Doctor’s Plot,” 52–73.

100. Hoffmann, Duties beyond Borders, 155.

101. Ibid., 157; Julius Stone, Approaches to the Notion of International Justice (Harry S. Truman Center for the Advancement of Peace, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 1970).

102. For a contemporary overview of shifts in ethics, including the rise of applied ethics, see Marcus G. Singer, “Recent Trends and Future Prospects in Ethics,” Metaphilosophy 12, nos. 3/4 (1981): 207–23.

103. Brian Barry, “Humanity and Justice in Global Perspective,” Nomos 24 (1982): 249.

104. Brian Barry, “Justice as Reciprocity,” in Justice, ed. Eugene Kamenka and Alice Erh-Soon Tay (Edward Arnold, 1979), 50.

105. Brian Barry, “Rich Countries and Poor Countries,” unpublished manuscript (1980), BBLA, chap. 2; Barry, “And Who Is My Neighbor?,” 632–33.

106. Brian Barry, “Do Countries Have Moral Obligations? The Case of World Poverty,” in The Tanner Lectures on Human Values, vol. 2, ed. Sterling M. McMurrin (University of Utah Press, 1981), 28.

107. Barry, “Rich Countries and Poor Countries,” chap. 4, p. 8.

108. Ibid., chap. 4, p. 6.

109. Barry, “Justice as Reciprocity,” 51.

110. Barry, “Humanity and Justice in Global Perspective,” 233.

111. Barry, “Justice as Reciprocity,” 63.

112. Barry, “Justice as Reciprocity,” 65–67.

113. Ibid., 73.

114. Brian Barry, “You Have to Be Crazy to Believe It,” Times Literary Supplement, 25 October 1996; cf. the reply by G. A. Cohen, “Self-Ownership and the Libertarian Challenge,” Times Literary Supplement, 8 November 1996.

115. Barry, “Justice as Reciprocity,” 73.

116. Sen, Poverty and Famines, 8.

117. Barry, “Humanity and Justice in Global Perspective,” 235.

118. Slobodian, Globalists, chap. 7.

119. Barry, “Rich Countries and Poor Countries,” chap. 5.

120. Barry, “Justice as Reciprocity,” 74–76.

121. Beitz, “Justice and International Relations,” 371.

122. Barry, “Rich Countries and Poor Countries,” chaps. 3 and 10.

123. Ibid., chap. 3, pp. 21–22.

124. Barry, “Humanity and Justice in Global Perspective,” 242.

125. Ibid., 248.

126. Hoffmann, Duties beyond Borders, 145.

127. Barry, “Rich Countries and Poor Countries,” chaps. 3 and 15. On the persistence of the family in economic theory, see Melinda Cooper, Family Values: Between Neoliberalism and the New Social Conservatism (MIT Press, 2017).

128. Barry, “Rich Countries and Poor Countries,” chaps. 3 and 18.

129. Barry, “Do Countries Have Moral Obligations?,” 40–41.

130. Barry, “Rich Countries and Poor Countries,” chaps. 3 and 19.

131. Hoffmann, Duties beyond Borders, 155.

132. Sargent, A Superpower Transformed, 6, 236.

133. Barry, “Humanity and Justice,” 233.

134. For the critique of the idea that the state form exhausted the anticolonial imagination, see Partha Chatterjee, Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World; Karuna Mantena, “Popular Sovereignty and Anti-Colonialism,” in Popular Sovereignty in Historical Perspective, ed. Richard Bourke and Quentin Skinner (Cambridge University Press, 2016), 297.

135. Giovanni Arrighi, “The World Economy and the Cold War, 1970–1985,” in The Cambridge History of the Cold War, vol. 3, Endings, ed. Melvyn P. Leffler and Odd Arne Westad (Cambridge University Press, 2010).

136. Julia Dehm, “Highlighting Inequalities in the Histories of Human Rights: Contestations over Justice, Needs, and Rights in the 1970s,” International Legal Theory 31 (2018): 871–95.

137. P. Uvin, “From the Right to Development to the Rights-Based Approach: How ‘Human Rights’ Entered Development,” Development in Practice 17, nos. 4/5 (2007): 597–99.

138. For the proliferation of human rights in various corners of applied and international ethics, see, for example, Alan Gewirth, “Starvation and Human Rights,” in Ethics and Problems of the Twenty-First Century, ed. Kenneth E. Goodpaster and Kenneth M. Sayre (University of Notre Dame Press, 1979); David A. J. Richards, “Commercial Sex and the Rights of the Person: A Moral Argument for the Decriminalization of Prostitution,” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 127, no. 5 (1979): 1195–287; Frankel, Human Rights and Foreign Policy; Joel Feinberg, Rights, Justice, and the Bounds of Liberty: Essays in Social Policy (Princeton University Press, 1980).

139. See the essays by Okin, Gewirth, Baier, and Narveson in Nomos 23 (“Human Rights”) (1981); see also A. I. Melden, Rights and Persons (University of California Press, 1977).

140. Cf. Gerald Dworkin, “Autonomy and Informed Consent,” Making Health Care Decisions, vol. 3 (US Government Printing Office, 1982), 63–81; Robert Young, Personal Autonomy: Beyond Negative and Positive Liberty (St. Martin’s Press, 1986); Joseph Raz, The Morality of Freedom (Clarendon Press, 1986); Marilyn Friedman, “Autonomy and the Split-Level Self,” Southern Journal of Philosophy 24, no. 1 (1986): 19–35; Joel Feinberg, “Autonomy,” in The Inner Citadel: Essays on Individual Autonomy, ed. John Philip Christman (Oxford University Press, 1989).

141. Brian Barry, “Statism and Nationalism: A Cosmopolitan Critique,” Nomos 41 (1999): 12–66.

142. Kai Nielsen, “On the Need to Politicize Political Morality: World Hunger and Moral Obligation,” Nomos 24 (1982): 41–43.

143. David A. J. Richards, “International Distributive Justice,” Nomos 24 (1982): 286–88.

144. Barry, “Circumstances of Justice and Future Generations,” 209; Peter Danielson, “Theories, Intuitions, and the Problem of World-Wide Distributive Justice,” Philosophy of the Social Sciences 3, no. 4 (1978): 331–40, 336.

145. John Rawls, “Kantian Constructivism in Moral Theory,” Journal of Philosophy 77, no. 9 (1980): 515–72.

146. See, respectively, for example, Samuel Scheffler, “The Concept of a Person in Ethical Theory,” Monist 62, no. 3 (1979): 288–303; Robert E. Goodin, “The Political Theories of Choice and Dignity,” American Philosophical Quarterly 18, no. 2 (1981): 91–200; Norman Daniels, “Reflective Equilibrium and Archimedean Points,” Canadian Journal of Philosophy 10, no. 1 (1980): 83–103.

147. Richards, “International Distributive Justice,” 289, 291.

148. For various accounts of these novel forms of abstraction, see David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change (Wiley-Blackwell, 1991); Fredric Jameson, Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (Duke University Press, 1991); Zygmunt Bauman, Liquid Modernity (Polity Press, 2000); James Livingston, The World Turned Inside Out: American Thought and Culture at the End of the 20^th Century (Rowman & Littlefield, 2010).

149. Charles Beitz, “Cosmopolitan Ideals and National Sentiment,” Journal of Philosophy 80, no. 10 (1983): 591–600.

150. On the politics of raw materials across the twentieth century, see Jamie Martin, “Raw Materials and International Organization after the First World War,” unpublished paper (2018).

151. Eich, “The Theodicy of Growth,” 8.

152. Pogge, John Rawls.

153. Thomas Pogge, “Kant, Rawls, and Global Justice,” PhD diss., Harvard University (1983), 51.

154. Thomas Pogge, “International Relations as a Modus Vivendi,” Proceedings of the American Society of International Law Annual Meeting 81 (1987): 429, 434.

155. Pogge, Realizing Rawls, 233; Thomas Pogge, “Rawls and Global Justice,” Canadian Journal of Philosophy 18, no. 2 (1988): 239.

156. Pogge, Realizing Rawls, 233–44.

157. Ibid., 238. This phrase was not unique to Pogge; cf. Elizabeth Borgwardt, A New Deal for the World: America’s Vision for Human Rights (Harvard University Press, 2007). More recently, see Mathias Risse and Gabriel Wollner, On Trade Justice: A Philosophical Plea for a New Global Deal (Oxford University Press, forthcoming).

158. Pogge, “Kant, Rawls, and Global Justice,” chap. 6.

159. Ibid., 90, 103.

160. Ibid., 101.

161. Pogge, “Rawls and Global Justice,” 247.

162. On the culture wars, see Andrew Hartman, A War for the Soul of America: A History of the Culture Wars (University of Chicago Press, 2015).

163. On anti-totalitarianism in general, see Jeffrey Isaac, “Critics of Totalitarianism,” in Ball and Bellamy, The Cambridge History of Twentieth-Century Political Thought. On the 1970s revival, particularly in France, see Michael Scott Christofferson, French Intellectuals against the Left: The Antitotalitarian Moment of the 1970s (Berghahn Books, 2004); Stephen Sawyer and Iain Stewart, eds., In Search of the Liberal Moment: Democracy, Anti-Totalitarianism, and Intellectual Politics in France since 1950 (Palgrave Macmillan, 2015).

164. Pogge, “International Relations as a Modus Vivendi,” 435.

165. Ibid., 434, 437.

166. Pogge, Realizing Rawls, 242.

167. Pogge, Realizing Rawls, 266–69; cf. Jan-Werner Müller, “Value Pluralism in Twentieth Century Anglo-American Thought,” in Bevir, Modern Pluralism.

168. Thomas W. Pogge, World Poverty and Human Rights: Cosmopolitan Responsibilities and Reforms (Polity Press, 2002), 246 (emphasis in original).

169. Pogge, “Kant, Rawls, and Global Justice,” 45.

170. Pogge, World Poverty and Human Rights, 231.

171. See, for example, Scheffler, “The Idea of Global Justice”; Cecile Laborde, “Republicanism and Global Justice,” European Journal of Political Theory 9, no. 1 (2010): 48–69; Miriam Ronzoni, “Republicanism and Global Institutions: Three Desiderata in Tension,” Social Philosophy and Policy 34, no. 1 (2017): 186–208.

Chapter 6: The Problem of the Future

1. William D. Nordhaus and James Tobin, “Is Growth Obsolete?,” in Nordhaus and Tobin, Economic Research: Retrospect and Prospect, vol. 5, Economic Growth (National Bureau of Economic Research, 1972), http://www.nber.org/chapters/c7620.pdf (accessed 31 March 2017).

2. Samuel Brittan, “The Economic Contradictions of Democracy,” British Journal of Political Science 5, no. 2 (1975): 129–59; cf. Jim Tomlinson, “The Politics of Declinism,” in Reassessing 1970s Britain, ed. Lawrence Black, Hugh Pemberton, and Pat Thane (Manchester University Press, 2013), 41–60; David Cannadine, “Apocalypse When? British Politicians and British ‘Decline’ in the Twentieth Century,” in Understanding Decline: Perceptions and Realities of Britain’s Economic Performance, ed. Peter Clarke and Clive Trebilcock (Cambridge University Press, 1997), 263–69.

3. Crozier et al., The Crisis of Democracy; Anthony King, “Overload: Problems of Governing in the 1970s,” Political Studies 23, nos. 2/3 (1975): 284–96; Jürgen Habermas, Legitimation Crisis (Beacon Press, 1975).

4. Adam Rome, “‘Give Earth a Chance’: The Environmental Movement and the Sixties,” Journal of American History 90, no. 2 (2003): 525–54; Gottlieb, Forcing the Spring, 330.

5. Thomas Robertson, The Malthusian Moment: Global Population Growth and the Birth of American Environmentalism (Rutgers University Press, 2012).

6. Paul Ehrlich, The Population Bomb (Sierra Club/Ballantine Books, 1968).

7. Mauricio Schoijet, “‘Limits to Growth’ and the Rise of Catastrophism,” Environmental History 4, no. 4 (1999): 515–30.

8. Collins, More, 141.

9. Garrett Hardin, Exploring New Ethics for Survival: The Voyage of the Spaceship Beagle (Viking, 1972).

10. Herman E. Daly, “The Economics of the Steady State,” American Economic Review 64, no. 2 (1974): 15–21; Kenneth E. Boulding, “The Shadow of the Stationary State,” Daedalus 102, no. 4 (1973): 89–101.

11. See, for example, Editors of Ramparts, Eco-Catastrophe (Harper & Row, 1970); Robert Disch, ed., The Ecological Conscience: Values for Survival (Prentice-Hall, 1970); Thomas R. Harney and Robert Disch, eds., The Dying Generations: Perspectives on the Environmental Crisis (Dell Publishing Co., 1971).

12. Proceedings and Addresses of the American Philosophical Association 44 (American Philosophical Association, 1970–1971); Stephen R. L. Clark, The Moral Status of Animals (Oxford University Press, 1977).

13. Peter Singer, Animal Liberation: A New Ethics for Our Treatment of Animals (New York Review, 1975).

14. See, for example, Daniel Bell and Stephen R. Graubard, eds., “Toward the Year 2000: Work in Progress,” special issue of Daedalus 96, no. 3 (MIT Press/American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1967); Jenny Andersson, “The Great Future Debate and the Struggle for the World,” American Historical Review 117, no. 5 (2012): 1411–30.

15. Alison Bashford, “Epilogue: Where Did Eugenics Go?,” in The Oxford Handbook of the History of Eugenics, ed. Alison Bashford and Philippa Levine (Oxford University Press, 2010), 487–527.

16. Rawls, “Lecture on the Function of Government,” p. 10, Box 8, Folder 3, JRP.

17. For the view of the future described in this chapter in the context of climate ethics, see Katrina Forrester, “The Problem of the Future in Postwar Anglo-American Philosophy,” Climatic Change 151, no. 1 (2018): 55–66.

18. Richard Tuck, The Sleeping Sovereign: The Invention of Modern Democracy (Cambridge University Press, 2016).

19. David Runciman, “The Concept of the State: The Sovereignty of a Fiction,” in States and Citizens: History, Theory, Prospects, ed. Quentin Skinner and Bo Stråth (Cambridge University Press, 2003), 28–38. For earlier statements, cf. Aristotle, Politics, trans. C.D.C. Reeve (Hackett, 1998), book 3.

20. Peter Laslett, “The Conversation between the Generations” [1971], in Fishkin and Laslett, Philosophy, Politics, and Society, 5^th ed., 42–43.

21. On the centrality of the imagination of the future to the dynamics of capitalism, see Jens Beckert, Imagined Futures: Fictional Expectations and Capitalist Dynamics (Harvard University Press, 2016).

22. Stuart Hampshire, Freedom of the Individual (Chatto and Windus, 1965), 11.

23. On how neoliberals reconceived homo economicus as an “entrepreneur of himself,” see Foucault, The Birth of Biopolitics, 226. For the longer history of risk, see Jonathan Levy, Freaks of Fortune: The Emerging World of Capitalism and Risk in America (Harvard University Press, 2012); Dan Bouk, How Our Days Became Numbered: Risk and the Rise of the Statistical Individual (University of Chicago Press, 2015).

24. Kenneth J. Arrow, “Alternative Approaches to the Theory of Choice in Risk-Taking Situations,” Econometrica 19, no. 4 (1951): 404–37; Thomas C. Schelling, The Strategy of Conflict (Harvard University Press, 1960); cf. Isaac, “The Political Economy of Uncertainty in the Twentieth Century.”

25. Robert E. Lucas Jr., Studies in Business-Cycle Theory (MIT Press, 1981). For the earlier reorientation of economic theory to expectations, see John Maynard Keynes, The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money (Palgrave Macmillan, 2018), chaps. 5 and 12. For the centrality of the business cycle to the imaginary of economists, see Jamie Martin, “Time and the Economics of the Business Cycle in Modern Capitalism,” in Dan Edelstein, Stefanos Geroulanos, and Natasha Wheatley, eds., Power and Time (University of Chicago Press, forthcoming 2020).

26. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, §4, §§44–45.

27. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 287.

28. Ibid., 289.

29. Ibid., 286, n. 1.

30. Ibid., 284–93.

31. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 139.

32. Ibid., §24.

33. Ibid., 288–89.

34. Rawls to Solow, 15 February 1973, Box 19, Folder 7, JRP.

35. Luc Van Liederkerke, “Discounting the Future: John Rawls and Derek Parfit’s Critique of the Discount Rate,” Ethical Perspectives 11, no. 1 (2004): 73–79; cf. Mauro Boianovsky and Kevin D. Hoover, “In the Kingdom of Solovia: The Rise of Growth Economics at MIT, 1956–70”, History of Political Economy 46, vol. 5 (2014): 198–228.

36. Frank Ramsey, “A Mathematical Theory of Saving,” Economic Journal 38, no. 152 (1928): 543–59.

37. Edmund Phelps, “The Golden Rule of Accumulation: A Fable for Growthmen,” American Economic Review 51, no. 4 (1961): 638–43.

38. A. C. Pigou, The Economics of Welfare (Macmillan and Co., 1920).

39. Stephen A. Marglin, “The Social Rate of Discount and the Optimal Rate of Investment,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 77, no. 1 (1963): 96–98.

40. Ibid., 96.

41. Joan Robinson, Economic Philosophy (Aldine Publishing Co., 1962), 115–16.

42. Maurice Dobb, An Essay on Economic Growth and Planning (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1960); Gordon Tullock, “The Social Rate of Discount and the Optimal Rate of Investment: Comment,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 78, no. 2 (1964): 331–36; William J. Baumol, “On the Social Rate of Discount,” American Economics Review 58 (1968): 788–802; Amartya K. Sen, “Isolation, Assurance, and the Social Rate of Discount,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 81, no. 1 (1967): 112–24.

43. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 286, n. 21.

44. Ibid., §46, 299.

45. Rawls to Solow, 15 February 1973, Box 19, Folder 7, JRP.

46. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 288.

47. Rawls made the two to three generations argument early on, when he had first introduced the household as the unit that secured the long view of the future; see John Rawls, “Justice and Taxation,” in “Oxford Notes (1952–1953),” pp. 11–12, Box 7, Folder 2, JRP.

48. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 587.

49. Thomas Piketty, Capital in the Twenty-First Century (Harvard University Press, 2014).

50. Barry J. Eichengreen, Globalizing Capital: A History of the International Monetary System (Princeton University Press, 2008), 126–42.

51. Robert Solow, “Intergenerational Equity and Exhaustible Resources,” Review of Economic Studies 41, no. 5 (1974): 21–35; Kenneth J. Arrow, “Rawls’s Principle of Just Saving,” Swedish Journal of Economics 75, no. 4 (1973): 323–35; Partha Dasgupta, “On Some Alternative Criteria for Justice between Generations,” Journal of Public Economics 3, no. 4 (1974): 405–23; Dennis C. Mueller, “Intergenerational Justice and the Social Discount Rate,” Theory and Decision 5, no. 3 (1974); 263–73.

52. Alison Bashford, Global Population: History, Geopolitics, and Life on Earth (Columbia University Press, 2014).

53. Michael Freeden, “Eugenics and Progressive Thought: A Study in Ideological Affinity,” Historical Journal 22, no. 3 (1979): 645–71; Diane Paul, “Eugenics and the Left,” Journal of the History of Ideas 45, no. 4 (1984): 567–90. For a recent example of the invocation of eugenics to critique statist Progressive policies, see Thomas C. Leonard, Illiberal Reformers: Race, Eugenics, and American Economics in the Progressive Era (Princeton University Press, 2016). For the longer history of liberalism’s relationship to empire see Uday Singh Mehta, Liberalism and Empire: A Study in Nineteenth-Century British Liberal Thought (University of Chicago Press, 1999); Jennifer Pitts, A Turn to Empire: The Rise of Imperial Liberalism in Britain and France (Princeton University Press, 2005); Karuna Mantena, Alibis of Empire: Henry Maine and the Ends of Liberal Imperialism (Princeton University Press, 2010); Duncan Bell, Reordering the World: Essays on Liberalism and Empire (Princeton University Press, 2016).

54. Henry Sidgwick, The Methods of Ethics (Cambridge University Press, 2013), book IV, chap. 1.

55. Matthew Connelly, Fatal Misconception: The Struggle to Control World Population (Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2008), 1–17.

56. John Rawls, “Difficult Moral Problems,” p. 3, Box 7, Folder 10, JRP.

57. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 137.

58. John Rawls to Partha Dasgupta, 26 June 1972, Box 19, Folder 8, JRP.

59. For the famous counterview, see Foucault, The Birth of Biopolitics.

60. Partha Dasgupta, “On the Concept of Optimum Population,” Review of Economic Studies 36, no. 3 (1969): 295–318; Harold L. Votey Jr., “The Optimum Population and Growth: A New Look: A Modification to Include a Preference for Children in the Welfare Function,” Journal of Economic Theory 1, no. 3 (1969): 273–90.

61. Alison Bashford and Joyce E. Chaplin, The New Worlds of Thomas Malthus: Rereading the “Principle of Population” (Princeton University Press, 2016).

62. Partha Dasgupta to John Rawls, 19 June 1972, Box 19, Folder 8, JRP.

63. Jan Narveson, “Utilitarianism and New Generations,” Mind 76, no. 301 (1967): 63.

64. Ibid.; Jan Narveson, “Moral Problems of Population,” Monist 57, no. 1 (1973): 62–86, 73.

65. Narveson, “Utilitarianism and New Generations,” 65, 68.

66. Narveson, “Moral Problems of Population,” 80.

67. Narveson, “Utilitarianism and New Generations,” 71–72.

68. Stearns, “Ecology and the Indefinite Unborn,” 613.

69. Ibid., 623; Hermann Vetter, “The Production of Children as a Problem of Utilitarian Ethics,” Inquiry 12 (1969): 445–47.

70. Edwin Delattre, “Rights, Responsibilities, and Future Persons,” Ethics 82, no. 3 (1972): 254–58.

71. J. Brenton Stearns, “Ecology and the Indefinite Unborn,” Monist 56, no. 4 (1972): 623.

72. Daniel Callahan, “What Obligations Do We Have to Future Generations?,” American Ecclesiastical Review 164 (1971): 279; Callahan, “Profile,” 735–37.

73. Joel Feinberg, “The Rights of Animals and Unborn Generations,” in Philosophy and Environmental Crisis, ed. William T. Blackstone (University of Georgia Press, 1974), 64, 62.

74. Michael Bayles, “The Human Right to Population Control,” in Human Rights: AMINTAPHIL I, ed. Ervin H. Pollack (Jay Stewart Publications, 1971).

75. See, for example, Robert Hunt and John Arras, eds., Ethical Issues in Modern Medicine (Mayfield Publishing House, 1977).

76. Judith Jarvis Thomson, “A Defense of Abortion,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 1, no. 1 (1979): 47–66; Don Marquis, “Why Abortion Is Immoral,” Journal of Philosophy 86 (1989): 183–202.

77. Marshall Cohen, ed., Rights and Wrongs of Abortion: A Philosophy and Public Affairs Reader (Princeton University Press, 1974); R. M. Hare, “Abortion and the Golden Rule,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 4, no. 3 (1975): 201–22; Francis C. Wade, “Potentiality in the Abortion Discussion,” Review of Metaphysics 29, no. 2 (1975): 239–55; H. Tristram Engelhardt Jr., “The Ontology of Abortion,” Ethics 84, no. 3 (1974): 217–34.

78. Mary Warren, “Do Potential People Have Moral Rights?,” in Sikora and Barry, Obligations to Future Generations, 26.

79. Mary Ziegler, After Roe: The Lost History of the Abortion Debate (Harvard University Press, 2015), 96. For philosophical debates on persons and privacy, see, for example, Jeffrey H. Reiman, “Privacy, Intimacy, and Personhood,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 6, no. 1 (1976): 26–44.

80. Meg Devlin O’Sullivan, “Informing Red Power and Transforming the Second Wave: Native American Women and the Struggle against Coerced Sterilization in the 1970s,” Women’s History Review 25, no. 6 (2016): 1–18; Jennifer Nelson, Women of Color and the Reproductive Rights Movement (New York University Press, 2003).

81. Johanna Schoen, Choice and Coercion: Birth Control, Sterilization, and Abortion in Public Health and Welfare (University of North Carolina Press, 2005); Randall Hansen and Desmond King, Sterilized by the State: Eugenics, Race, and the Population Scare in Twentieth-Century North America (Cambridge University Press, 2013), part C.

82. David A. J. Richards, A Theory of Reasons for Action (Clarendon Press, 1971), 81, 132–37.

83. R. M. Hare, “Medical Ethics: Can the Moral Philosopher Help?,” in Philosophical Medical Ethics: Its Nature and Significance: Proceedings, ed. H. Tristram Engelhart and Stuart F. Spicker (D. Reidel, 1977).

84. Gregory S. Kavka, “Rawls on Average and Total Utility,” Philosophical Studies 27, no. 4 (1975): 237–53.

85. Brian Barry, “Justice between Generations,” in Law, Morality, and Society: Essays in Honour of H.L.A. Hart, ed. P.M.S. Hacker and Joseph Raz (Clarendon Press, 1977), 283–84.

86. Rawls to Dasgupta, 26 June 1972, Box 19, Folder 8, JRP.

87. John Rawls, “The Independence of Moral Theory,” in Rawls, Collected Papers, 286–302.

88. Derek Parfit to John Rawls, 29 June 1971, in “Comments on Rawls’s Justice as Fairness (1964–1971),” Box 19, Folder 3, JRP.

89. Narveson, “Moral Problems of Population”; Peter Singer, “A Utilitarian Population Principle,” in Bayles, Ethics and Population; R. I. Sikora, “Utilitarianism: The Classical Principle and the Average Principle,” Canadian Journal of Philosophy 5, no. 3 (1975): 409–19.

90. Derek Parfit, Reasons and Persons (Oxford University Press, 1984), x.

91. Derek Parfit, “Personal Identity,” Philosophical Review 80, no. 1 (1971): 3–27.

92. Derek Parfit, “On the Importance of Self-Identity,” Journal of Philosophy 68, no. 20 (1971): 683–90.

93. Derek Parfit, “On Doing the Best for Our Children,” in Bayles, Ethics and Population.

94. Ibid., 100.

95. See Derek Parfit, “Energy Policy and the Further Future: The Social Discount Rate,” in Energy and the Future, ed. Douglas MacLean and Peter G. Brown (Rowman & Littlefield, 1983), 166–79.

96. See Thomas Schwartz, “Obligations to Posterity,” and Gregory Kavka, “The Futurity Problem,” in Sikora and Barry, Obligations to Future Generations.

97. Cf. Don Locke, “The Parfit Population Problem,” Philosophy 62, no. 240 (1987): 131–57.

98. For the initial debate, see, for example, Jeff McMahan, “Problems of Population Choice,” Ethics 92, no. 1 (1981): 96–127; Joel Feinberg, “Wrongful Life and the Counterfactual Element in Harming,” Social Philosophy and Policy 4, no. 1 (1988): 144–78; James Woodward, “The Non-Identity Problem,” Ethics 96 (1986): 804–31.

99. Parfit, Reasons and Persons, x. For population ethics beyond Parfit, see, for example, Michael D. Bayles, Morality and Population Policy (University of Alabama Press, 1980); Daniel Callahan and Phillip G. Clark, eds., Ethical Issues in Population Aid: Culture, Economics, and International Assistance (Irvington Publishers, 1981); cf. Jonathan Glover, Causing Death and Saving Lives (Penguin Books, 1977), 71.

100. Narveson, “Moral Problems of Population,” 63.

101. Derek Parfit, “Later Selves and Moral Principles,” in Philosophy and Personal Relations: An Anglo-French Study, ed. Alan Montefiore (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1973).

102. Parfit, Reasons and Persons, 277.

103. Anderson, “A Culture in Contraflow—II,” 100.

104. Robert L. Heilbroner, “What Has Posterity Ever Done for Me?,” New York Times, 19 January 1975; Loren J. Okroi, Galbraith, Harrington, Heilbroner: Economics and Dissent in an Age of Optimism (Princeton University Press, 1988).

105. Martin Hollis and Edward J. Nell, Rational Economic Man: A Philosophical Critique of Neo-Classical Economics (Cambridge University Press, 1975); Amartya Sen, “Rational Fools: A Critique of the Behavioral Foundations of Economic Theory,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 6, no. 4 (1977): 317–44.

106. Parfit, Reasons and Persons, parts 1 and 2; on the limits of laissez-faire, see p. 62.

107. Ibid., appendix F.

108. Parfit, “Energy Policy and the Further Future,” 166–67; Tyler Cowen and Derek Parfit, “Against the Social Discount Rate,” in Peter Laslett and James S. Fishkin, eds., Justice between Age Groups and Generations (Yale University Press, 1993), 144–61.

109. Bernard Williams, “Personal Identity,” London Review of Books 6, no. 10 (7 June 1984): 14–15.

110. Parfit, Reasons and Persons, §150; cf. Nagel, The Possibility of Altruism.

111. Nagel, Mortal Questions, xii–xiii.

112. Parfit, Reasons and Persons, x; Rawls, A Theory of Justice, viii.

113. Onora Nell, “Lifeboat Earth,” in International Ethics, ed. Charles Beitz, Marshall Cohen, T. M. Scanlon, and A. John Simmons (Princeton University Press, 1985), 280. O’Neill’s surname at this point was Nell; to avoid confusion, I call her O’Neill in the text throughout.

114. Benjamin Lazier, “Earthrise; Or, the Globalization of the World Picture,” American Historical Review 116, no. 3 (2011): 602–30.

115. Adlai Stevenson II, “Strengthening the International Development Institutions,” speech before the United Nations Economic and Social Council, Geneva, Switzerland, 9 July 1965, http://www.adlaitoday.org/articles/connect2_geneva_07-09-65.pdf (accessed 4 January 2015).

116. Kenneth Boulding, “The Economics of the Coming Spaceship Earth,” in Environmental Quality in a Growing Economy: Essays from the Sixth Resources for the Future Forum, ed. Henry Jarrett (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1966).

117. Garret Hardin, “Lifeboat Ethics: The Case against Helping the Poor,” Psychology Today (September 1974): 800–812.

118. Alyssa Battistoni, “The Limits to Rawls: Ecology, Economics, and Politics in the 1970s,” unpublished paper (2017).

119. Garrett Hardin, “The Survival of Nations and Civilization,” Science 172, no. 3990 (1971): 1297. On Hardin’s white nationalism, see Southern Poverty Law Center, “Garrett Hardin,” https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/individual/garrett-hardin (accessed 7 March 2019).

120. For initial discussion, see Amnon Goldworth, Robert S. Morison, Neil A. Holtzman, and Michael D. Bayles, “Aboard the Lifeboat Debate,” Hastings Center Report 5, no. 2 (1975): 43–45; Daniel Callahan, “Doing Well by Doing Good: Garrett Hardin’s ‘Lifeboat Ethic,’” Hastings Center Report 4, no. 6 (1974): 1–4.

121. Nell, “Lifeboat Earth,” 268.

122. Ibid., 275.

123. Ibid., 265, 270.

124. For these debates within philosophy, see Bedau, “Human Rights and Foreign Assistance Programs”; Daniel Callahan, “Fame or Food: Sacrificing for Present and Future Generations,” in Ethics, Free Enterprise, and Public Policy: Original Essays on Moral Issues in Business, ed. Richard T. De George and Joseph Pichler (Oxford University Press, 1978); Aiken and LaFollette, World Hunger and Moral Obligation; Rothschild, “Food Politics,” 298–305.

125. Nell, “Lifeboat Earth,” 276.

126. Charles Fried, Right and Wrong (Harvard University Press, 1978); Walzer, Just and Unjust Wars.

127. Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia, 35.

128. Nell, “Lifeboat Earth,” 269.

129. Ibid., 276–77.

130. Onora O’Neill, Faces of Hunger: Essays on Poverty, Justice, and Development (HarperCollins, 1986); Onora O’Neill, “Kantian Approaches to Some Famine Problems,” in Matters of Life and Death: New Introductory Essays in Moral Philosophy, ed. Tom Regan (McGraw-Hill, 1980).

131. Cf. Nagel, “Poverty and Food,” 54–62.

132. Nell, “Lifeboat Earth,” 271, 275; cf. Hester van Hensbergen, “Famine, Morality, and Modern Moral Philosophy, c. 1967–1980,” MPhil essay, University of Cambridge (2016–2017).

133. See Falk, “Ecocide, Genocide, and the Nuremberg Tradition,” 126. For rights as side-constraints, see James P. Sterba, “The Welfare Rights of Distant Peoples and Future Generations: Moral Side-Constraints on Social Policy,” Social Theory and Practice 7, no. 1 (1981): 99–119.

134. Independent Commission on International Development Issues, North-South.

135. M. P. Golding, “Obligations to Future Generations,” Monist 56, no. 1 (1972): 85–99.

136. John Arthur Passmore, Man’s Responsibility for Nature: Ecological Problems and Western Traditions (Scribner, 1974), 90–98.

137. Herman Kahn and Anthony J. Wiener, The Year 2000: A Framework for Speculation on the Next Thirty-Three Years (Macmillan, 1967); Julian L. Simon, The Economics of Population Growth (Princeton University Press, 1977); cf. Paulo Dragos Aligica, Prophecies of Doom and Scenarios of Progress: Herman Kahn, Julian Simon, and the Prospective Imagination (Continuum, 2007), 52–55.

138. Julian L. Simon and Herman Kahn, eds., The Resourceful Earth: A Response to Global 2000 (Basil Blackwell, 1984).

139. On Keynes and population control, see Bashford, Global Population, 48–62.

140. Jim Gardner, “Discrimination against Future Generations: The Possibility of Constitutional Limitation,” Environmental Law 9, no. 1 (1978): 29–59; Bruce Ackerman, Social Justice in the Liberal State (Yale University Press, 1980), part 2; Jedediah Purdy, After Nature: A Politics for the Anthropocene (Harvard University Press, 2015), chap. 7.

141. D. Clayton Hubin, “Justice and Future Generations,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 6, no. 1 (1976): 70–83; English, “Justice between Generations”; Ronald M. Green, “Intergenerational Distributive Justice and Environmental Responsibility,” BioScience 27, no. 4 (1977): 260–65.

142. Passmore, Man’s Responsibility for Nature, 86.

143. Laslett, “The Conversation between the Generations,” 54–55.

144. Barry, “The Elements of Political Theory,” 13–23.

145. E. F. Schumacher, Small Is Beautiful: A Study of Economics as if People Mattered (Blond & Briggs, 1973); Collins, More, chap. 5.

146. Barry, “The Elements of Political Theory,” 17–18.

147. Ibid., 23.

148. Barry, “Justice between Generations,” 270; cf. Barry, “Contract Theory and Future Generations,” Brian Barry Literary Archive Online, https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B_S3_PS1dxMydHhtZlNUS0pZeVk/view (accessed 12 November 2018).

149. Ibid., 272.

150. Barry, “Justice between Generations,” 270–72.

151. Passmore, Man’s Responsibility for Nature, 91.

152. Barry, “Justice between Generations,” 272–75.

153. Ibid., 284.

154. Ibid., 276–77.

155. Ibid., 268–69.

156. Ibid., 277–78.

157. Barry, “Circumstances of Justice and Future Generations,” 227.

158. Thomas Sieger Derr, “The Obligation to the Future,” in Responsibilities to Future Generations: Environmental Ethics, ed. Ernest Partridge (Prometheus Books, 1981), 40.

159. Barry, “Circumstances of Justice and Future Generations,” 226.

160. John Gray to Brian Barry, 1975, Cabinet 1, Folder 19B, BBP.

161. Barry, “Justice between Generations,” 282–84; cf. Gregory S. Kavka, “The Paradox of Future Individuals,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 11, no. 2 (1982): 93–112; Schwartz, “Obligations to Posterity.”

162. Barry, “Circumstances of Justice and Future Generations,” 209; see also Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 126–27.

163. Barry, “Circumstances of Justice and Future Generations,” 207.

164. Ibid., 237. Barry takes this distinction from Danielson, “Theories, Intuitions, and the Problem of World-Wide Distributive Justice,” 336.

165. Kavka, “The Futurity Problem,” 180–203.

166. David A. J. Richards, “Contractarian Theory, Intergenerational Justice, and Energy Policy,” in MacLean and Brown, Energy and the Future, 131–50.

167. Barry, “Circumstances of Justice and Future Generations,” 239, 243.

168. Brian Barry, “Intergenerational Justice in Energy Policy,” in MacLean and Brown, Energy and the Future, 15–30; cf. Goodpaster and Sayre, Ethics and Problems of the Twenty-First Century; Sayre, Values in the Electric Power Industry.

169. MacLean and Brown, Energy and the Future, 5.

170. Barry, “The Elements of Political Theory,” 23.

171. For the argument in this paragraph and the next, see Forrester, “The Problem of the Future in Postwar Anglo-American Philosophy.”

172. For surveys of intergenerational justice theory and the climate ethics that these early debates spawned, see Axel Gosseries and Lukas H. Meyer, eds., Intergenerational Justice (Oxford University Press, 2009); Stephen M. Gardiner, Simon Caney, Dale Jamieson, and Henry Shue, eds., Climate Ethics: Essential Readings (Oxford University Press, 2010).

173. Institutional questions were addressed but only decades later. See, for example, Iñigo González-Ricoy and Axel Gosseries, eds., Institutions for Future Generations (Oxford University Press, 2016).

174. Floris Heukelom, “A Sense of Mission: The Alfred P. Sloan and Russell Sage Foundations’ Behavioral Economics Program, 1984–1992,” Science in Context 25, no. 2 (2012): 278; cf. Paul Warde, “The Invention of Sustainability,” Modern Intellectual History 8 (2011): 153–70.

175. Richard H. Thaler and Cass R. Sunstein, Nudge: Improving Decisions about Health, Wealth, and Happiness (Yale University Press, 2008).

176. Rawls, Political Liberalism, 7, n. 5.

177. John Rawls, “Lecture V: Institutions of Stationary State as Mill’s Ideal (1985),” pp. 1–2, 8, Box 36, Folder 18, JRP.

178. John Rawls and Philippe Van Parijs, “Three Letters on ‘The Law of Peoples’ and the European Union,’” in “Autour de Rawls,” special issue of Revue de Philosophie Économique 7 (2003): 9.

179. For a recent example, see Julie Rose, “On the Value of Economic Growth,” unpublished paper (2018).

180. James O’Connor, The Fiscal Crisis of the State (St. Martin’s Press, 1973); Claus Offe, Contradictions of the Welfare State (Hutchinson, 1984).

181. Daniel Bell, The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism (Basic Books, 1976). For discussion, see Kripper, Capitalizing on Crisis, 18–26.

182. Cf. John Dunn, Western Political Theory in the Face of the Future (Canto, 1979). Later, several theorists tried to address the ecological limits to abundance. See, for example, G. A. Cohen, Self-Ownership, Freedom, and Equality (Cambridge University Press, 1995), 10.

Chapter 7. New Right and Left

1. Bruce J. Schulman and Julian E. Zelizer, eds., Rightward Bound: Making America Conservative in the 1970s (Harvard University Press, 2008).

2. Krippner, Capitalizing on Crisis, 86–105.

3. Rodgers, Age of Fracture, chap. 2; Kalman, Right Star Rising, chap. 9.

4. Peter B. Evans and William H. Sewell Jr., “Neoliberalism,” in Social Resilience in the Neoliberal Era, ed. Peter A. Hall and Michèle Lamont (Cambridge University Press, 2013), 35–68.

5. For the best overview, see Blyth, Great Transformations. On conservative and libertarian movements, see Burns, Goddess of the Market, part 4; Brian Doherty, Radicals for Capitalism: A Freewheeling History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement (Public Affairs, 2007); Jason Stahl, Right Moves: The Conservative Think Tank in American Political Culture since 1945 (University of North Carolina Press, 2016).

6. James M. Buchanan, Robert D. Tollison, and Gordon Tullock, eds., Toward a Theory of the Rent-Seeking Society (Texas A&M University Press, 1980). For an overview, see Dennis C. Mueller, Public Choice (Cambridge University Press, 1979).

7. Mark Willes, “‘Rational Expectations’ as a Counter-Revolution,” Public Interest (1980): 81.

8. Blyth, Great Transformations, 142–82.

9. Phillips-Fein, Invisible Hands; Nelson Lichtenstein and Elizabeth Tandy Shermer, eds., The Right and Labor in America: Politics, Ideology, and Imagination (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016).

10. Schulman, “The Privatization of Everyday Life.”

11. For the state in neoliberalism, see Wendy Brown, “Neoliberalism and the End of Liberal Democracy,” in Brown, Edgework: Critical Essays on Knowledge and Politics (Princeton University Press, 2005), 37–59; David Harvey, A Brief History of Neoliberalism (Oxford University Press, 2005); Martijn Konings, “Neoliberalism and the State,” in Neoliberalism: Beyond the Free Market, ed. Damien Cahill, Lindy Edwards, and Frank Stilwell (Edward Elgar, 2012), 54–66; Slobodian, Globalists. For early commentary, see Andrew Gamble, “The Free Economy and the Strong State: The Rise of the Social Market Economy,” Socialist Register, 18 March 1979, 1–25.

12. Coase, “The Lighthouse in Economics.”

13. Hayek, Law, Legislation, and Liberty, vol. 2.

14. Roy Jenkins, What Matters Now (Collins/Fontana, 1972).

15. Thompson, Political Economy and the Labour Party, chaps. 14–17; Mark Wickham-Jones, “The Challenge of Stuart Holland: The Labour Party’s Economic Strategy during the 1970s,” in Black et al., Reassessing 1970s Britain. For contemporaneous developments on the British Labour right, see Stephen Meredith, Labours Old and New: The Parliamentary Right of the British Labour Party 1970–79 and the Roots of New Labour (Oxford University Press, 2008).

16. For the working class in 1970s politics, see Cowie, Stayin’ Alive. For the left in and out of the academy, see Brick and Phelps, Radicals in America, chap. 5.

17. Arrow, “A Cautious Case for Socialism,” 472–80.

18. Barber, “Absolutization of the Market”; cf. Charles Lindblom, “The Market as Prison,” Journal of Politics 44, no. 2 (1982): 324–36. On the “magic” of the market, see Jonathan Levy, Ages of American Capitalism (Random House, forthcoming), chap. 18.

19. Cf. Albert Hirschman, Rival Views of Market Society and Other Recent Essays (Harvard University Press, 1992); Marion Fourcade and Kieran Healy, “Moral Views of Market Society,” Annual Review of Sociology 33 (2007): 285–311.

20. Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time (Beacon Press, 1944).

21. Cohen, If You’re an Egalitarian, How Come You’re So Rich?; cf. Jonathan Wolff, “Fairness, Respects, and the Egalitarian Ethos” in Philosophy and Public Affairs 27 (1998): 97–122.

22. On depoliticization, see Roberts, The Logic of Discipline, 3–22, 140–44; cf. Colin Crouch, “Privatized Keynesianism: An Unacknowledged Policy Regime,” British Journal of Politics and International Relations 11 (2009): 382–99.

23. Ivor Crewe and Anthony King, SDP: The Birth, Life, and Death of the Social Democratic Party (Oxford University Press, 1995).

24. Amartya Sen, “Equality of What?,” in The Tanner Lectures on Human Values, vol. 1, ed. Sterling M. McMurrin (Cambridge University Press, 1980).

25. Cf. G. A. Cohen, “On the Currency of Egalitarian Justice,” Ethics 99, no. 4 (1989): 906–44.

26. Roger E. Backhouse, The Penguin History of Economics (Penguin Books, 2002), chap. 12.

27. Amartya Sen, On Ethics and Economics (Wiley-Blackwell, 1987).

28. Ronald Dworkin, Taking Rights Seriously (Harvard University Press, 1977).

29. Ronald Dworkin, “What Is Equality? Part 1: Equality of Welfare,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 10, no. 3 (1981): 185–246; Ronald Dworkin, “What Is Equality? Part 2: Equality of Resources,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 10, no. 4 (1981): 283–345.

30. Ronald Dworkin, in Kingsley Amis et al., “Some Views of Mrs. Thatcher’s Victory,” New York Review of Books, 28 June 1979.

31. Colin Crouch, Post-Democracy (Polity Press, 2004); Peter Mair, Ruling the Void: The Hollowing-Out of Western Democracy (Verso, 2013).

32. Dworkin, ‘What Is Equality? Part 2,” 283–90.

33. Ibid., 301–4.

34. On Dworkin’s commitment to the market, see Debra Satz, Why Some Things Should Not Be for Sale (Oxford University Press, 2010), 8, chap. 3.

35. Ibid., 284.

36. Ibid., 311.

37. Ibid., 294.

38. Ibid., 293.

39. Harry G. Johnson, “The Keynesian Revolution and the Monetarist Counter-Revolution,” American Economic Review 61, no. 2 (1971): 1–14; Rodgers, Age of Fracture, 41–76, 85–88.

40. For this argument, see Brown, “Neoliberalism and the End of Liberal Democracy,” 37–59; Evans and Sewell, “Neoliberalism,” 35–68; and the classic theoretical statement in Foucault, The Birth of Biopolitics.

41. John E. Roemer, “On Several Approaches to Equality of Opportunity,” Economics and Philosophy 28, no. 2 (2012): 166.

42. For Ronald Coase and the law and economics movement, see Steven G. Medema, Ronald H. Coase (Palgrave Macmillan, 1994); Steven M. Teles, The Rise of the Conservative Legal Movement: The Battle for Control of the Law (Princeton University Press, 2008), chap. 6.

43. Partha Dasgupta, “Positive Freedom, Markets, and the Welfare State,” Oxford Review of Economic Policy 2, no. 2 (1986): 25–36.

44. R. H. Coase, “The Problem of Social Cost,” Journal of Law and Economics 3 (1960): 1–44.

45. Andrew Gamble and Gavin Kelly, “The New Politics of Ownership,” New Left Review 220 (November/December 1996): 70.

46. Richard A. Posner, “The Ethical and Political Basis of the Efficiency Norm in Common Law Adjudication,” Hofstra Law Review 8 (1980): 487–508; cf. Guido Calabresi and A. Douglas Melamed, “Property Rules, Liability Rules, and Inalienability: One View of the Cathedral,” Harvard Law Review 85, no. 6 (1972): 1089–128. On the centrality of efficiency to law and economics, see William Davies, “Economics and the ‘Nonsense’ of Law: The Case of the Chicago Antitrust Revolution,” Economy and Society 39, no. 1 (2010): 64–83.

47. Richard Posner, “Utilitarianism, Economics, and Legal Theory,” Journal of Legal Studies 8, no. 1 (1979): 103–40.

48. Weinrib, “From Public Interest to Private Rights,” 208.

49. For a retrospective, see “Critical Legal Studies: Duncan Kennedy,” in James R. Hackney Jr., Legal Intellectuals in Conversation: Reflections on the Construction of Contemporary American Legal Theory (New York University Press, 2012), 19–46.

50. Ronald M. Dworkin, “Is Wealth a Value?,” Journal of Legal Studies 9, no. 2 (1980): 220. For more on this debate, see Guido Calabresi, “An Exchange: About Law and Economics: A Letter to Ronald Dworkin,” Hofstra Law Review 8, no. 3 (1980): 553–62; Richard A. Posner, “The Value of Wealth: A Comment on Dworkin and Kronman,” Journal of Legal Studies 9, no. 2 (1980): 243–52; George J. Stigler, “Wealth, and Possibly Liberty,” Journal of Legal Studies 7, no. 2 (1978): 213–17; Ronald Dworkin, “Why Efficiency? A Response to Professors Calabresi and Posner,” Hofstra Law Review, 8, no. 3 (1980): 563–90; Jeffrie G. Murphy, “The Justice of Economics,” Philosophical Topics 14, no. 2 (1986): 195–210.

51. Richard A. Posner, Economic Analysis of Law (Little, Brown, 1972).

52. C. Edwin Baker, “The Ideology of the Economic Analysis of the Law,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 5, no. 1 (1975): 3–48.

53. Cf. Russell Hardin, “The Morality of Law and Economics,” Law and Philosophy 11, no. 4 (1992): 331–84.

54. For Dworkin’s debts to neoliberalism, see Chris Armstrong, “Equality, Risk, and Responsibility: Dworkin on the Insurance Market,” Economy and Society 34, no. 3 (2005): 451–73.

55. Cf. Gamble and Kelly, “The New Politics of Ownership,” 69–71.

56. Dworkin, “Equality of Resources,” 338.

57. For Dworkin’s initial statement of the liberal commitment to neutrality, see Dworkin, “Liberalism,” 127; cf. Dworkin, Taking Rights Seriously, chaps. 6, 7, and 11.

58. Barry, Political Argument, 106.

59. Elizabeth S. Anderson, “What Is the Point of Equality?,” Ethics 109, no. 2 (1999): 287–337.

60. Perry Anderson, In the Tracks of Historical Materialism (University of Chicago Press, 1984), 20–31.

61. John Fekete, “Telos at 50,” Telos 50 (1981/1982): 161–70; Martin Jay, Marxism and Totality: The Adventures of a Concept from Lukács to Habermas (University of California Press, 1986), 19–20.

62. For discussions of Habermas in the United States, see Dick Howard, The Marxian Legacy (Urizen Books, 1977); Thomas McCarthy, The Political Theory of Jürgen Habermas (MIT Press, 1978); Raymond Geuss, The Idea of a Critical Theory: Habermas and the Frankfurt School (Cambridge University Press, 1981); Seyla Benhabib, Critique, Norm, and Utopia (Columbia University Press, 1986).

63. Moishe Postone, “Necessity, Labor, and Time: A Reinterpretation of the Marxian Critique of Capitalism,” Social Research 45, no. 4 (1978): 739–88.

64. Peter Singer, Marx (Oxford University Press, 1980).

65. For an overview, see Geras, “The Controversy about Marx and Justice.”

66. Sheldon S. Wolin, “On Reading Marx Politically,” Nomos 26 (1983): 91; cf. Gilbert, “The Storming of Heaven: Politics and Marx’s Capital Politics and Marx’s Capital,” Nomos 26 (1983): 163. For an ethical Marxism that drew from American democratic socialism and pragmatism, see Cornel West, Ethical Dimensions of Marxist Thought (Monthly Review Press, 1991).

67. G.H.R. Parkinson, ed., Marx and Marxisms (Cambridge University Press, 1982); Martin Carnoy, The State and Political Theory (Princeton University Press, 1984).

68. Mark Tushnet, “Is There a Marxist Theory of Law?,” in Nomos: Yearbook of the American Society for Political and Legal Philosophy, vol. 26, Marxism, ed. J. Roland Pennock and John W. Chapman (New York University Press, 1983), 171, 186.

69. For the Brenner debate, see Robert Brenner, “Agrarian Class Structure and Economic Development in Pre-Industrial Europe,” Past and Present 70, no. 1 (1976): 30–75; Robert Brenner, “The Origins of Capitalist Development: A Critique of Neo-Smithian Marxism,” New Left Review 104 (July/August 1977): 25–92; T. H. Aston and C.H.E. Philpin, eds., The Brenner Debate: Agrarian Class Structure and Economic Development in Pre-Industrial Europe (Cambridge University Press, 1985). For political Marxism, see Ellen Meiksins Wood, “The Separation of the Economic and the Political in Capitalism,” New Left Review 127 (May/June 1981).

70. John Roemer, ed., Analytical Marxism (Cambridge University Press, 1986), 6.

71. Jon Elster, Ulysses and the Sirens: Studies in Rationality and Irrationality (Cambridge University Press, 1979), and Elster, Sour Grapes: Studies in the Subversion of Rationality (Cambridge University Press, 1983).

72. Alan Carling, “In Defence of Rational Choice: A Reply to Ellen Meiksins Wood,” New Left Review 184 (November/December 1990): 107; John E. Roemer, “Neoclassicism, Marxism, and Collective Action,” Journal of Economic Issues 12, no. 1 (1978): 147–61.

73. For a retrospective, see Erik Olin Wright, “Falling into Marxism; Choosing to Stay,” in The Disobedient Generation: Social Theorists in the Sixties, ed. Alan Sica and Stephen Turner (University of Chicago Press, 2005).

74. G. A. Cohen, Karl Marx’s Theory of History: A Defence (Princeton University Press, 1978). For an earlier statement, see G. A. Cohen, “On Some Criticisms of Historical Materialism,” Aristotelian Society 44 (suppl.), no. 1 (1970): 121–41.

75. Michael Rosen, “Jerry Cohen: An Appreciation,” 2010, http://philosophy.columbia.edu/files/philosophy/content/Jerry_Cohen-an_Appreciation.pdf (accessed 13 May 2017).

76. See, for example, Michele Barrett, Women’s Oppression Today: Problems in Marxist Feminist Analysis (Verso, 1980); cf. Antony Easthope, British Post-Structuralism since 1968 (Routledge, 1988).

77. Alan Carling, “Rational Choice Marxism,” New Left Review 160 (November/December 1986): 27–31.

78. E. P. Thompson, The Poverty of Theory and Other Essays (Merlin Press, 1978); cf. William H. Sewell Jr., “How Classes Are Made: Critical Reflections on E. P. Thompson’s Theory of Working-Class Formation,” in E. P. Thompson: Critical Perspectives, ed. Harvey J. Kaye and Keith McClelland (Temple University Press, 1990).

79. Cohen, Karl Marx’s Theory of History, 73; Perry Anderson, Arguments within English Marxism (Verso, 1980), 125, 40. For this critique of Cohen, see Ellen Meiksins Wood, “Happy Campers,” London Review of Books 3, no. 2 (28 January 2010).

80. See, for example, Jon Elster, “The Labour Theory of Value,” Marxist Perspectives 3 (1978); Robert Paul Wolff, “A Critique and Reinterpretation of Marx’s Labor Theory of Value,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 10, no. 2 (1981): 89–120. Discussions of ideology were less central, but see Jon Elster, Making Sense of Marx (Cambridge University Press, 1985), chap. 8; Charles Mills, “‘Ideology’ in Marx and Engels,” Philosophical Forum 16, no. 4 (1985): 327–46; Kai Nielsen, Marxism and the Moral Point of View: Morality, Ideology, and Historical Materialism (Westview, 1989).

81. Adam Przeworski, Capitalism and Social Democracy (Cambridge University Press, 1985).

82. Jon Elster, “Exploring Exploitation,” Journal of Peace Research 15, no. 1 (1978): 3–17; Richard J. Arneson, “What’s Wrong with Exploitation?,” Ethics 91, no. 2 (1981): 202–27; Andrew Reeve, ed., Modern Theories of Exploitation (Sage Publications, 1987).

83. G. A. Cohen, “The Labor Theory of Value and the Concept of Exploitation,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 8, no. 4 (1979): 338–60.

84. John E. Roemer, “Property Relations vs. Surplus Value in Marxian Exploitation,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 11, no. 4 (1982): 281–313; John E. Roemer, A General Theory of Exploitation and Class (Harvard University Press, 1982).

85. Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century (Monthly Review Press, 1974); cf. Clifford L. Staples and William G. Staples, “Rereading Harry Braverman’s ‘Labor and Monopoly Capital’ after Twenty Years,” Social Thought and Research 23, nos. 1/2 (2000): 227–38.

86. Sheila Cohen, “A Labour Process to Nowhere?,” New Left Review 165 (September/October 1987): 34–50.

87. John E. Roemer, “New Directions in the Marxian Theory of Exploitation and Class,” Politics and Society 11, no. 3 (1982): 266, reprinted in Roemer, Analytical Marxism, 93.

88. Alex Callinicos, “The Limits of ‘Political Marxism,’” New Left Review 184 (November/December 1990): 114.

89. Carling, “Rational Choice Marxism,” 45.

90. Roemer, “New Directions in the Marxian Theory,” 94–96.

91. Erik Olin Wright, “‘A Future for Socialism,’ by John E. Roemer,” Contemporary Sociology 23, no. 6 (1994): 896–98.

92. Cf. Carling, “In Defence of Rational Choice,” 36, 100.

93. Roemer, “New Directions in the Marxian Theory,” 49; cf. John Roemer, “Unequal Exchange, Labor Migration, and International Capital Flows: A Theoretical Synthesis,” in Marxism, Central Planning, and the Soviet Economy: Economic Essays in Honor of Alexander Erlich, ed. Padma Desai (MIT Press, 1983).

94. Rosen, “Jerry Cohen: An Appreciation”; see also G. A. Cohen, “Valedictory Lecture: My Philosophical Development (and Impressions of Philosophers Whom I Met along the Way),” in G. A. Cohen, Finding Oneself in the Other, ed. Michael Otsuka (Princeton University Press, 2012), 175–92.

95. On credit markets, see Greta Krippner, “Democracy of Credit: Ownership and the Politics of Credit Access in Late Twentieth-Century America,” American Journal of Sociology 123, no. 1 (2017): 1–47.

96. Carling, “Rational Choice,” 33–36, 54.

97. Isaac, “Property, Efficiency, and the State.”

98. For property taxes, see Isaac William Martin, The Permanent Tax Revolt: How the Property Tax Transformed American Politics (Stanford University Press, 2008). For the shareholder value revolution, see Gerald F. Davis, Managed by the Markets: How Finance Reshaped America (Oxford University Press, 2009); Johan Heilbron, Jochem Verheul, and Sander Quak, “The Origins and Early Diffusion of ‘Shareholder Value’ in the United States,” Theory and Society 43, no. 1 (2014). For the centrality of asset appreciation, see Levy, Ages of American Capitalism, chap. 18.

99. Alan Ryan, Property (Open University Press, 1987); Lawrence C. Becker, Property Rights: Philosophic Foundation (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1977); Jeremy Waldron, The Right to Private Property (Clarendon Press, 1988); Stephen R. Munzer, A Theory of Property (Cambridge University Press, 1990).

100. Amartya Sen, “Well-being, Agency, and Freedom: The Dewey Lectures 1984,” Journal of Philosophy 82, no. 4 (1985), 169–221; Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum, eds., The Quality of Life (Clarendon Press, 1993).

101. Richard Arneson, “Equality and Equal Opportunity for Welfare,” Philosophical Studies 55, no. 1 (1989): 77–93; John E. Roemer, “Equality of Talent,” Economics and Philosophy 1, no. 2 (1985): 151–88; cf. T. M. Scanlon, “Preference and Urgency,” Journal of Philosophy 72, no. 19 (1975): 659–61.

102. Eric Shaw, “Retrieving or Re-imagining the Past? The Case of ‘Old Labour’ 1979–1994,” in Labour and the Left in the 1980s, ed. Jonathan Davis and Rohan McWilliam (Manchester University Press, 2018), 25–43.

103. See, for example, John Dunn, The Politics of Socialism: An Essay in Political Theory (Cambridge University Press, 1984); Jon Elster, “Socialism,” London Review of Books 6, no. 21 (15 November 1984).

104. Keith Tribe, “Liberalism and Neoliberalism in Britain, 1930–1980,” in Mirowski and Plehwe, The Road from Mont Pèlerin, 68–97.

105. James Edward Meade, The Intelligent Radical’s Guide to Economic Policy: The Mixed Economy (Allen and Unwin, 1975).

106. Julian Le Grand, The Strategy of Equality: Redistribution and the Social Services (Allen and Unwin, 1982); Bryan Gould, Socialism and Freedom (Macmillan, 1985); see also Shaw, “Retrieving or Re-imagining the Past?,” 30–32.

107. John Scott, Capitalist Property and Financial Power: A Comparative Study of Britain, the United States, and Japan (Wheatsheaf Books, 1986); Gamble and Kelly, “The New Politics of Ownership,” 78; Richard Krouse and Michael McPherson, “A ‘Mixed’-Property Regime: Equality and Liberty in a Market Economy,” Ethics 97, no. 1 (1986): 119–38.

108. Rawls, Justice as Fairness: A Restatement, 135–79.

109. Ian Forbes, “Introduction,” in Market Socialism: Whose Choice? A Debate, Fabian Society Tract 516 (Fabian Society, November 1986), 1.

110. David Miller, Market, State, and Community: Theoretical Foundations of Market Socialism (Clarendon Press, 1989), 1–6.

111. Cf. Robert Dahl, Dilemmas of Pluralist Democracy: Autonomy vs. Control (Yale University Press, 1982), chap. 6.

112. David Miller and Saul Estrin, “Market Socialism: A Policy for Socialists,” in Market Socialism, ed. Julian Le Grand and Saul Estrin (Clarendon Press, 1989), 7–9; David Miller, “Justice and Property,” Ratio 22 (1980): 1–14.

113. Miller, Market, State, and Community, 10, 14–15.

114. David Miller, “Market Neutrality and the Failure of Co-operatives,” British Journal of Political Science 11, no. 3 (1981): 325; cf. Richard Carr, “Responsible Capitalism: Labour’s Industrial Policy and the Idea of a National Investment Bank during the Long 1980s,” in Davis and McWilliam, Labour and the Left in the 1980s, 90–112; John Gray, “Contractarian Method, Private Property, and the Market Economy,” Nomos 31 (1989): 13–58.

115. Barbara Fried, “Left-Libertarianism: A Review Essay,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 32, no. 1 (2004): 66–92.

116. Cohen, “Self-Ownership, World-Ownership, and Equality: Part II,” Social Philosophy and Policy 3, no. 2 (1986): 79–80.

117. Ibid., 95–96. On Nozick and Cohen, see Christopher Brooke, “Who Gets What? A History of Distributive Justice from Mill to Rawls,” unpublished manuscript (2010), chap. 15. For a feminist critique of self-ownership, see Carole Pateman, The Sexual Contract (Stanford University Press, 1988), 152.

118. Cohen, “On the Currency of Egalitarian Justice,” 933.

119. Will Kymlicka, “Left-Liberalism Revisited,” in The Egalitarian Conscience: Essays in Honour of G. A. Cohen, ed. Christine Sypnowich (Oxford University Press, 2006), 9–35.

120. Scanlon, “The Significance of Choice,” 188, 203.

121. Cohen, “On the Currency of Egalitarian Justice,” 907–8.

122. Ibid., 920.

123. Ibid., 937.

124. See, for other similar attempts, Jon Elster, “Self-Realization in Work and Politics: The Marxist Conception of the Good Life,” in Marxism and Liberalism, ed. Ellen Frankel Paul, Fred D. Miller Jr., Jeffrey Paul, and John Ahrens (Basil Blackwell, 1986), 97–116.

125. Michael Rosen, “Sensible, but Is It Just?,” review of G. A. Cohen, Rescuing Justice and Equality, Times Literary Supplement, 21 August 2009, 29–30.

126. Cohen, “Where the Action Is,” 3–30.

127. G. A. Cohen, “Back to Socialist Basics,” New Left Review 207 (September/October 1994): 3–16; G. A. Cohen, “Incentives, Inequality, and Community,” in The Tanner Lectures on Human Values, vol. 12, ed. Grethe B. Peterson (University of Utah Press, 1991), 264–65; cf. Nicholas Vrousalis, The Political Philosophy of G. A. Cohen: Back to Socialist Basics (Bloomsbury, 2015).

128. Cohen, “Where the Action Is,” 3.

129. G. A. Cohen, Why Not Socialism? (Princeton University Press, 2009).

130. Matt Matravers, “Responsibility, Luck, and the ‘Equality of What?’ Debate,” Political Studies 50, no. 3 (2002): 558–72; Susan L. Hurley, Justice, Luck, and Knowledge (Harvard University Press, 2003).

131. Cohen, “On the Currency of Egalitarian Justice,” 934; Nelson, The Theology of Liberalism, chap. 4.

132. David Miller, “The Incoherence of Luck Egalitarianism,” in Distributive Justice and Access to Advantage: G. A. Cohen’s Egalitarianism, ed. Alexander Kaufman (Cambridge University Press, 2014), 132.

133. Williams, “Moral Luck”; Thomas Nagel, “Moral Luck,” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 50 (suppl), no. 226 (1976): 135–51.

134. Cf. David Schmidtz and Robert E. Goodin, Social Welfare and Individual Responsibility: For and Against (Cambridge University Press, 1998); Zofia Stemplowska, “Making Justice Sensitive to Responsibility,” Political Studies 57, no. 2 (2009): 237–59; Kymlicka, “Left-Liberalism Revisited,” 9–35.

135. John Roemer, “Public Ownership and Private Property Externalities,” in Alternatives to Capitalism, ed. Jon Elster and Karl O. Moene (Cambridge University Press, 1989), 159–79.

136. Jackson, Equality and the British Left, chap. 6.

137. John E. Roemer, A Future for Socialism (Harvard University Press, 1994), 125.

138. John E. Roemer, “Socialism Revised,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 45, no. 3 (2017): 261–315.

139. Roemer, A Future for Socialism, 22–24.

140. Robert Van der Veen and Philippe Van Parijs, “A Capitalist Road to Communism,” Theory and Society 15, no. 5 (1986): 643–52.

141. Peter Vallentyne and Hillel Steiner, Left-Libertarianism and Its Critics: The Contemporary Debate (Palgrave Macmillan, 2000).

142. Ibid., 253–57.

143. For contract theory of another kind in this period, see, for example, David Gauthier, “The Social Contract as Ideology,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 6, no. 2 (1977): 130–64; David Gauthier, Morals by Agreement (Oxford University Press, 1986), 218–29. For critiques, see Virginia Held, “Non-Contractual Society,” in Marsha Hanen and Kai Nielsen, eds., “Science, Morality, and Feminist Theory,” supplementary volume of Canadian Journal of Philosophy 13 (1987): 111–37; Pateman, The Sexual Contract; and later, Charles Mills, The Racial Contract (Cornell University Press, 1997).

144. Forrester, “Reparations, History and the Origins of Global Justice,” 22–51.

145. Okin, Justice, Gender, and the Family, chap. 2. For the costs to Okin and liberal feminism of doing so, see Smith, “Okin, Rawls, and the Politics of Political Philosophy.”

146. For what such a revision of the concept of the state might look like, see Cordelli, The Privatized State (forthcoming).

147. For a related argument, see Miller, “The Incoherence of Luck Egalitarianism.” For a critique of Cohen in terms of normative theory’s practical impact, see Brian Leiter, “Marxism and the Continuing Irrelevance of Normative Theory,” Stanford Law Review 54 (2002): 1129–51.

148. Anderson, “What Is the Point of Equality?,” 308, 298, 313.

149. Cf. Kok-Chor Tan, Justice, Institutions, and Luck: The Site, Ground, and Scope of Equality (Oxford University Press, 2012).

150. Robert E. Goodin, Reasons for Welfare: The Political Theory of the Welfare State (Princeton University Press, 1988).

151. G. A. Cohen, “Facts and Principles,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 31, no. 3 (2003): 211–45.

152. See, for example, J. Donald Moon, ed., Responsibility, Rights, and Welfare: The Theory of the Welfare State (Westview Press, 1988); cf. Albert Weale, Political Theory and Social Policy (Macmillan, 1983).

153. Robert E. Goodin, “Reasons for Welfare: Economic, Sociological, and Political—but Ultimately Moral,” in Moon, Responsibility, Rights, and Welfare, 24. Here Goodin drew on James Tobin, “On Limiting the Domain of Inequality,” Journal of Law and Economics 13, no. 2 (1970): 363–78.

154. Goodin, “Reasons for Welfare,” 29.

155. Cf. Satz, Why Some Things Should Not Be for Sale, part II.

156. Goodin, “Reasons for Welfare,” 31.

157. Ibid., 43.

158. Ibid., 29.

159. Nancy Fraser and Linda Gordon, “A Genealogy of ‘Dependency’: Tracing a Keyword of the US Welfare State,” Signs 19, no. 2 (1994): 309–36.

160. Daniel P. Moynihan, The Politics of a Guaranteed Income: The Nixon Administration and the Family Assistance Plan (Random House, 1973). For the longer history, not just of state regulation of the poor but of competition within government to do so, see Karen Tani, States of Dependency: Welfare, Rights, and American Governance 1935–1972 (Cambridge University Press, 2016).

161. Martin Anderson, Welfare: The Political Economy of Welfare Reform in the United States (Hoover Institution Press, 1978); cf. Quinn Slobodian, “The Road to the Alt Right: How Race and Culture Split the Neoliberal Movement,” unpublished paper (2017).

162. Burns, Goddess of the Market, 279; George Gilder, Wealth and Poverty (Basic Books, 1981).

163. George Gilder, “The Moral Sources of Capitalism,” Imprimis 9, no. 12 (December 1980).

164. Robert O. Self, All in the Family: The Realignment of American Democracy since the 1960s (Hill and Wang, 2012), part 4; Marjorie J. Spruill, Divided We Stand: The Battle over Women’s Rights and Family Values That Polarized American Politics (Bloomsbury, 2017); Cooper, Family Values, chap. 3.

165. Charles Murray, Losing Ground: American Social Policy, 1950–1980 (Basic Books, 1984); Rodgers, Age of Fracture, 202–5. On “the underclass,” see William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, The Underclass, and Public Policy (University of Chicago Press, 1987); Adolph Reed Jr., Stirrings in the Jug: Black Politics in the Post-Segregation Era (University of Minnesota Press, 1999), chap. 6. On “welfare mothers,” see Barbara Cruikshank, The Will to Empower: Democratic Citizens and Other Subjects (Cornell University Press, 1999), chap. 5; Ange-Marie Hancock, The Politics of Disgust: The Public Identity of the Welfare Queen (New York University Press, 2004).

166. Lawrence M. Mead, Beyond Entitlement: The Social Obligations of Citizenship (Free Press, 1986); Mickey Kaus, “The Work Ethic State: The Only Way to Break the Culture of Poverty,” New Republic, 7 July 1986. For philosophical justification of the argument that taxpayers need not support cultures of poverty, see, for example, Norman E. Bowie, “Welfare and Freedom,” Ethics 89, no. 3 (1979): 254–68.

167. Robert E. Goodin, “Vulnerabilities and Responsibilities: An Ethical Defense of the Welfare State,” American Political Science Review 79, no. 3 (1985): 775–87.

168. Goodin, “Reasons for Welfare,” 35.

169. Michael Walzer, “Socializing the Welfare State,” in Democracy and the Welfare State, ed. Amy Gutmann (Princeton University Press, 1988), 13–26.

170. See, for example, Fred L. Block, Richard A. Cloward, Barbara Ehrenreich, and Francis Fox Piven, The Mean Season: The Attack on the Welfare State (Pantheon Books, 1987); Francis Fox Piven, “Ideology and the State: Women, Power, and the Welfare State,” in Women, the State, and Welfare, ed. Linda Gordon (University of Wisconsin Press, 1989), 250–64. For the response, see Wendy Brown, “Finding the Man in the State,” Feminist Studies 18, no. 1 (1992): 7–34. On the welfare state as unstable, see Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis, Democracy and Capitalism: Property, Community, and the Contradictions of Modern Social Thought (Basic Books, 1986).

171. Goodin, “Reasons for Welfare,” 35.

172. See, for example, Pateman, The Sexual Contract. For the wide variety of efforts to re-conceptualize class and work in these years, including by those associated with analytical Marxism, see e.g. Adam Przeworski, “Proletariat into a Class: The Process of Class Formation from Karl Kautsky’s ‘The Class Struggle’ to Recent Controversies,” Politics and Society 7, no. 4 (1977): 343–401; Barbara and John Ehrenreich, “The Professional-Managerial Class,” Radical America 11, no.2 (1977), 7–31; Erik Olin Wright et. al., The Debate on Classes (Verso, 1989); Silvia Federici, Revolution at Point Zero: Housework, Reproduction, and Feminist Struggle (PM Press, 2012).

173. For the critique of arbitrary power and exploitation in the labor process typical of the labor republican tradition, see Gourevitch, Slavery and the Cooperative Commonwealth, chap. 3.

174. Robert E. Goodin, “Exploiting a Situation and Exploiting a Person,” in Reeve, Modern Theories of Exploitation, 167; cf. Hillel Steiner, “A Liberal Theory of Exploitation,” Ethics 94, no. 2 (1984): 225–41.

175. Goodin, “Exploiting a Situation and Exploiting a Person,” 167.

176. Ibid., 181.

177. Ibid., 192.

178. Ibid., 42.

179. Robert E. Goodin, “The Priority of Needs,” Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 45, no. 4 (1985): 615–25; Robert E. Goodin, “Self-Reliance versus the Welfare State,” Journal of Social Policy 14 (1985): 25–47; Robert E. Goodin, Protecting the Vulnerable: A Reanalysis of Our Social Responsibilities (University of Chicago Press, 1985); Le Grand, The Strategy of Equality.

180. Gøsta Esping-Anderson, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (Princeton University Press, 1990).

181. Philip Pettit, “The Freedom of the City: A Republican Ideal,” in The Good Polity: Normative Analysis of the Welfare State, ed. Alan Hamlin and Philip Pettit (Blackwell Publishers, 1989).

182. Robert E. Goodin, Utilitarianism as a Public Policy (Cambridge University Press, 1995).

183. Robert E. Goodin, “The End of the Welfare State?,” in Ball and Bellamy, The Cambridge History of Twentieth-Century Political Thought; cf. also Dennis F. Thompson, “Moral Responsibility of Public Officials: The Problem of Many Hands,” American Political Science Review 74, no. 4 (1980): 905–16.

184. Goodin, “Reasons for Welfare,” 38.

185. Piketty, Capital in the Twenty-First Century. Though for the decline in global inequality, see Branko Milanovic, “Global Income Inequality in Numbers: In History and Now,” Global Policy 4, no. 2 (2013): 198–208.

186. See, most influentially, Offe, Contradictions of the Welfare State; Moon, Responsibility, Rights, and Welfare.

187. Wilfred Beckerman, ed., Slow Growth in Britain: Causes and Consequences (Clarendon Press, 1979); James E. Alt, The Politics of Economic Decline: Economic Management and Political Behaviour in Britain since 1964 (Cambridge University Press, 1979).

188. John Dryzek and Robert E. Goodin, “Risk-Sharing and Social Justice: The Motivational Foundations of the Post-War Welfare State,” British Journal of Political Science 16, no. 1 (1986): 1–34; Nicholas Barr, The Economics of the Welfare State (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1987).

189. David Miller, “Altruism and the Welfare State,” in Moon, Responsibility, Rights and Welfare, 182.

190. J. Donald Moon, “Introduction,” in Moon, Responsibility, Rights, and Welfare, 11.

191. Miller, “Altruism and the Welfare State,” 184.

192. Goodin, Reasons for Welfare, chap. 6.

193. Brian Barry, “The Continuing Relevance of Socialism,” in Thatcherism, ed. Robert Skidelsky (Chatto and Windus, 1988), 144; see also Barry, “You Have to Be Crazy to Believe It.”

194. Brian Barry, “Does Democracy Cause Inflation? Political Ideas of Some Economists,” in The Politics of Inflation and Economic Stagnation: Theoretical Approaches and International Case Studies, ed. Leon N. Lindberg and Charles S. Maier (Brookings Institution, 1985), 317.

195. Barry, “The Continuing Relevance of Socialism,” 147.

196. Ibid., 147.

197. Ibid., 154.

198. Michelman, “The Supreme Court, 1985 Term: Foreword,” 54; Bruce Ackerman, “The Storrs Lectures: Discovering the Constitution,” Yale Law Journal 93, no. 6 (1984): 1013–72.

199. Cass Sunstein, “Naked Preferences and the Constitution,” Columbia Law Review 84, no. 7 (1984), 1689–91; Cass Sunstein, “Interest Groups in American Public Law,” Stanford Law Review 38 (1985): 29–87.

200. Kalman, The Strange Career of Legal Liberalism, 155–80.

201. Scanlon, “Contractualism and Utilitarianism.”

202. John Rawls, “The Idea of Public Reason Revisited,” University of Chicago Law Review 64, no. 3 (1997): 765–807.

203. Jürgen Habermas, Between Facts and Norms: Contributions to a Discourse Theory of Law and Democracy, trans. William Rehg (MIT Press, 1996), 305.

204. Jon Elster, “The Market and the Forum: Three Varieties of Political Theory,” in The Foundations of Social Choice Theory, ed. Jon Elster and Aanund Hylland (Cambridge University Press, 1986).

205. S. A. Lloyd, “Relativizing Rawls: Symposium on John Rawls’s Political Liberalism,” Chicago-Kent Law Review 69 (1994): 709–35; Paul Weithman, Why Political Liberalism? On John Rawls’s Political Turn (Oxford University Press, 2011).

206. Paul J. Weithman, “Contractualist Liberalism and Deliberative Democracy,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 24, no. 4 (1995): 314–43; James Bohman and William Rehg, eds., Deliberative Democracy: Essays on Reason and Politics (MIT Press, 1997); Jon Elster, ed., Deliberative Democracy (Cambridge University Press, 1998); Habermas, Between Facts and Norms; Amy Gutmann and Dennis Thompson, Democracy and Disagreement (Harvard University Press, 1996).

207. See Elster, “The Market and the Forum,” 121; Benjamin R. Barber, Strong Democracy: Participatory Politics for a New Age (University of California Press, 1984).

208. Michael Walzer, “Town Meetings and Workers’ Control,” Dissent (Summer 1978); cf. Michael Walzer, “Socializing the Welfare State,” Dissent (Summer 1988): 292–300.

209. Joshua Cohen, “The Economic Basis of Deliberative Democracy,” Social Philosophy and Policy 6, no. 2 (1989): 25–26, 39–40.

210. Ibid., 49–50.

211. Arnold S. Kaufman, “Human Nature and Participatory Democracy,” Nomos 3 (1960); C. B. Macpherson, The Life and Times of Liberal Democracy (Oxford University Press, 1977); Jane Mansbridge, Beyond Adversary Democracy (University of Chicago Press, 1980).

212. Andrew Gamble and Gavin Kelly, “Stakeholder Capitalism and One Nation Socialism,” Renewal 4, no. 1 (1996): 23–32; Jeffrey Gates, Revolutionising Share Ownership (Demos, 1996); see also Bruce Ackerman and Anne Alstott, The Stakeholder Society (Yale University Press, 1999); cf. Colin Hay, “New Labour and ‘Third Way’ Political Economy: Paving the European Road to Washington?,” in Critiques of Capital in Modern Britain and America: Transatlantic Exchanges 1800 to the Present Day, ed. Mark Bevir and Frank Trentmann (Palgrave Macmillan, 2002). For the rise of agonism, see Seyla Benhabib, ed., Democracy and Difference: Contesting the Boundaries of the Political (Princeton University Press, 1996).

213. For recent critiques along these lines, see Lea Ypi, “The Politics of Reticent Socialism,” Catalyst 3, no. 2 (2018); Alex Gourevitch and Lucas Stanczyk, “The Basic Income Illusion,” Catalyst 1, no. 4 (2018), 151–77.

214. Jane Mansbridge et al., “A Systemic Approach to Deliberative Democracy,” in Deliberative Systems: Deliberative Democracy at the Large Scale, ed. John Parkinson and Jane Mansbridge (Cambridge University Press, 2012), 25. For collective agency, see Lea Ypi, Global Justice and Avant-Garde Political Agency (Oxford University Press, 2012), chap. 2.

215. Cohen, “Where the Action Is,” 3–30; Liam B. Murphy, “Institutions and the Demands of Justice,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 27, no. 4 (1998): 251–91; A. J. Julius, “Basic Structure and the Value of Equality,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 31, no. 4 (2003): 321–55.

216. I owe this metaphor to Minh Ly.

Chapter 8. The Limits of Philosophy

1. Iris Marion Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference (Princeton University Press, 1990), chap. 1.

2. For an overview of these changes, see Livingston, The World Turned Inside Out, chaps. 2 and 3.

3. For reflections on the shift from anticolonial to postcolonial thought, see Vinayak Chaturvedi, ed., Mapping Subaltern Studies and the Postcolonial (Verso, 2000).

4. Samuel H. Beer, Britain against Itself: The Political Contradictions of Collectivism (Faber and Faber, 1982); Robert N. Bellah et al., Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in American Life (University of California Press, 1985).

5. Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (Simon & Schuster, 2000).

6. Moyn, Not Enough, chaps. 5–7.

7. Gunnell, The Descent of Political Theory, chaps. 9 and 10.

8. Strassfeld, “American Divide: The Making of ‘Continental’ Philosophy,” 1–34. For the history of these ideas, see Stefanos Geroulanos, An Atheism That Is Not Humanist Emerges in French Thought (Stanford University Press, 2010); Warren Breckman, Adventures of the Symbolic: Post-Marxism and Radical Democracy (Columbia University Press, 2013). On the construction of the continental-analytic divide, see Simon Critchley, A Companion to Continental Philosophy (Routledge, 1998), 3–6.

9. See, for example, William E. Connolly, Identity/Difference: Democratic Negotiations of Political Paradox (University of Minnesota Press, 1991).

10. For a sampling of the variety of critical engagements with Rawls by influential social and political theorists (with varying degrees of sympathy for the Rawlsian project), see Schaar, Legitimacy in the Modern State, 145–66; Pateman, The Sexual Contract, chap. 3; Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference, chaps. 1 and 4; Seyla Benhabib, “Toward a Deliberative Model of Democratic Legitimacy,” in Benhabib, Democracy and Difference, 67–94; Sheldon Wolin, Politics and Vision: Continuity and Innovation in Western Political Thought Expanded Edition (Princeton University Press, 2004), chaps. 14–15.

11. Hampshire, “Morality and Pessimism,” 18, 33.

12. Alasdair MacIntyre, “Moral Dilemmas,” Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 50 (1990): 369–82.

13. Smart and Williams, Utilitarianism: For and Against, 75, 108–18. See also Robert Nozick, Philosophical Explanations (Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1981); Richard Wollheim, The Thread of Life (Cambridge University Press, 1984).

14. Smart and Williams, Utilitarianism: For and Against, 104.

15. Williams, Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy, 197.

16. Ibid., 62.

17. Ibid., 208.

18. Ibid., 185–87.

19. Ibid., 194.

20. Ibid., 205.

21. Bernard Williams, Morality: An Introduction to Ethics (Cambridge University Press, 1972), 9.

22. Bernard Williams, “Preface to the Canto Edition,” in Williams, Morality: An Introduction to Ethics, xii.

23. Bernard Williams, Shame and Necessity (University of California Press, 1993), 251.

24. Williams, “Moral Luck,” 115–35.

25. Bernard Williams, “The Uses of Philosophy: An Interview with Bernard Williams,” Center Magazine (November/December 1983): 40–49.

26. Alasdair MacIntyre, “Does Applied Ethics Rest on a Mistake?,” Monist 67, no. 4 (1984): 498–513.

27. John Rawls to H.L.A. Hart, 6 May 1985, Box 39, Folder 34, JRP.

28. Stanley Cavell, The Claim of Reason: Wittgenstein, Skepticism, Morality, and Tragedy (Oxford University Press, 1979), 269.

29. Ibid., 306, 309.

30. Judith N. Shklar, Ordinary Vices (Harvard University Press, 1984), 24.

31. Ibid., 243–44.

32. Judith N. Shklar, “In Defense of Legalism,” Journal of Legal Education 19, no. 1 (1966): 57.

33. Williams, Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy, 96–97; cf. MacIntyre, “Does Applied Ethics Rest on a Mistake?,” 507.

34. Judith Shklar, “Conscience and Liberty,” Berkeley, California, 22 March 1990, in “Speeches, 1966–1990,” Box 21, Judith Shklar Papers, Harvard University Archives HUGFP 118 (hereafter JSP).

35. Judith N. Shklar, “Obligation, Loyalty, Exile,” in Shklar, Political Thought and Political Thinkers, ed. Stanley Hoffmann (University of Chicago Press, 1998), 39.

36. Shklar, Ordinary Vices, 25, 9.

37. Stanley Cavell, In Quest of the Ordinary: Lines of Skepticism and Romanticism (University of Chicago Press, 1988).

38. Cavell, The Claim of Reason, 299.

39. Walzer, Just and Unjust Wars, xiii, xvi.

40. Stuart Hampshire, Thought and Action (Chatto and Windus, 1959).

41. Hampshire, “Morality and Pessimism,” 39.

42. Shklar, Ordinary Vices, 230–31.

43. R. D. Laing, The Politics of Experience (Penguin, 1967). For a critique, see Juliet Mitchell, Psychoanalysis and Feminism (Vintage, 1974), 236. For the concept of experience in Anglo-Marxist circles, see Thompson, The Poverty of Theory and Other Essays; cf. Stuart Middleton, “The Concept of ‘Experience’ and the Making of the English Working Class,” Modern Intellectual History 13, no. 1 (2016): 179–208.

44. William H. Sewell Jr., Logics of History: Social Theory and Social Transformation (University of Chicago Press, 2005); Joan W. Scott, “The Evidence of Experience,” Critical Inquiry 17, no. 4 (1991): 773–97; Martin Jay, Songs of Experience: Modern American and European Variations on a Universal Theme (University of California Press, 2005), 199–210, 241–55.

45. Isaac, “Pain, Analytical Philosophy, and American Intellectual History,” 215.

46. Winch, The Idea of a Social Science; Philip Pettit, “Winch’s Double-Edged Idea of a Social Science,” History of the Human Sciences 13, no. 1 (2000): 63–77.

47. Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (University of Chicago Press, 1996); Quentin Skinner, “Meaning and Understanding in the History of Ideas,” History and Theory 8, no. 1 (1969): 3–53; Clifford Geertz, Available Light: Anthropological Reflections on Philosophical Topics (Princeton University Press, 2000), ix–xii; cf. Joel Isaac, “Kuhn’s Education: Wittgenstein, Pedagogy, and the Road to ‘Structure,’” Modern Intellectual History 9, no. 1 (2012): 89–107.

48. Bryan R. Wilson, ed., Rationality (Basil Blackwell, 1970), viii.

49. Toulmin, An Examination of the Place of Reason in Ethics, 149; cf. Bernard Williams, “Wittgenstein and Idealism,” in Williams, Moral Luck: Philosophical Papers 1973–1980 (Cambridge University Press, 1981).

50. Albert R. Jonsen and Stephen Toulmin, The Abuse of Casuistry: A History of Moral Reasoning (University of California Press, 1988); cf. Purcell, The Crisis of Democratic Theory, 66–73.

51. Alan Ryan, ed., The Philosophy of Social Explanation (Oxford University Press, 1973); Alan Ryan, The Philosophy of the Social Sciences (Macmillan, 1970); Martin Hollis and Steven Lukes, Rationality and Relativism (MIT Press, 1982); cf. Isaac, Working Knowledge, epilogue.

52. The impact of these ideas and approaches was of course vast but for key texts that shaped multiple fields see Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (Penguin Books, 1977); Edward Said, Orientalism (Vintage Books, 1979); Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, “Can the Subaltern Speak?” in Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture eds. Lawrence Grossberg and Cary Nelson (University of Illinois Press, 1988), 271–316; Ranajit Guha and Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Selected Subaltern Studies (Oxford University Press, 1988); Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (Routledge, 1990).

53. Michael Walzer, “The Politics of Michel Foucault,” in Foucault: A Critical Reader, ed. David Couzens Hoy (Basil Blackwell, 1986), 51–67; cf. also Quentin Skinner, ed., The Return of Grand Theory in the Human Sciences (Cambridge University Press, 1985), introduction.

54. On relativism, see Clifford Geertz, “Distinguished Lecture: Anti Anti-Relativism,” American Anthropologist 86, no. 2 (1984): 263–78; Michael Krausz, ed., Relativism: Interpretation and Confrontation (University of Notre Dame Press, 1989); cf. David A. Hollinger, “How Wide the Circle of ‘We’? American Intellectuals and the Problem of Ethnos since World War II,” American Historical Review 98, no. 2 (1993): 317–37. On the culture wars, see Hartman, A War for the Soul of America, 6. On the uptake of anthropological ideas, see David Scott, “Criticism and Culture: Theory and Post-Colonial Claims on Anthropological Disciplinarity,” Critique of Anthropology 12, no. 371 (1992): 371–94.

55. Rosemary J. Coombe, “‘Same as It Ever Was’: Rethinking the Politics of Legal Interpretation,” McGill Law Journal 34 (1989): 603. For the turn to culture more broadly, see William H. Sewell Jr., “The Concept(s) of Culture,” in Beyond the Cultural Turn: New Directions in the Study of Society and Culture, ed. Victoria E. Bonnell and Lynn Hunt (University of California Press, 1999), 35–36.

56. Charles Taylor, Hegel (Cambridge University Press, 1975); Charles Taylor, “Neutrality in Political Science,” in Runciman and Laslett Philosophy, Politics, and Society, 3^rd ed., 25–57. For Rawls on Taylor, see Rawls, “Justice as Fairness as an Approach to the Study of Politics, or to Political Theory, Seminar, UCLA, 1968 Spring,” pp. 5–7b, Box 8, Folder 15, JRP.

57. Richard Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (Princeton University Press, 1979). For subsequent debate, see Hilary Putnam, Reason, Truth, and History (Cambridge University Press, 1981).

58. Richard Rorty, “Solidarity or Objectivity?,” Nanzan Review of American Studies 6 (1984): 1–19.

59. Richard Rorty, “The Priority of Democracy to Philosophy,” in Prospects for a Common Morality, ed. Gene Outka and John P. Reeder Jr. (Princeton University Press, 1992), 254–78.

60. Walzer, Spheres of Justice, xiv.

61. Walzer, “Philosophy and Democracy,” 379.

62. Michael Walzer, “Review: Social Justice in the Liberal State,” New Republic 183 (25 October 1980): 41; cf. Michael Walzer, “Teaching Morality: Ethics Makes a Comeback,” New Republic 178 (10 June 1978): 12–14.

63. Peter Novick, That Nobel Dream: The Objectivity Question in the American Historical Profession (Cambridge University Press, 1988), part 4.

64. Michael Walzer, “The Political Theory Licence,” Annual Review of Political Science 16 (2013): 9.

65. For early statements, see Walzer, The Revolution of the Saints, 316; Walzer, Just and Unjust Wars, 11–12. For a mature statement, see Michael Walzer, Interpretation and Social Criticism (Harvard University Press, 1987); see also T. M. Scanlon, “Local Justice,” London Review of Books (1985): 17–18.

66. MacIntyre, “Utilitarianism and Cost-Benefit Analysis.”

67. See, for example, William Connolly and Michael Best, “The Decline of Economic Virtue,” democracy 1 (January 1981): 104–15.

68. Michael J. Sandel, “The Procedural Republic and the Unencumbered Self,” Political Theory 12, no. 1 (1984): 81–96.

69. Melvin Richter, ed., Political Theory and Political Education (Princeton University Press, 1980); Michael Walzer, “The New Masters,” New York Review of Books, 20 March 1980.

70. Charles Taylor, “Modes of Civil Society’, Public Culture 3, no. 1 (1990): 117.

71. See, for example, Bonnie Honig, Political Theory and the Displacement of Politics (Cornell University Press, 1993); Chantal Mouffe, The Democratic Paradox (Verso, 2000).

72. Thomas L. Haskell, “The Curious Persistence of Rights Talk in the ‘Age of Interpretation,’” Journal of American History 74, no. 3 (1987): 984–1012.

73. Ronald Dworkin, “Law as Interpretation,” Critical Inquiry 9, no. 1 (1982): 179–200; Ronald Dworkin, “My Reply to Stanley Fish (and Walter Benn Michaels): Please Don’t Talk about Objectivity Anymore,” in The Politics of Interpretation, ed. W.J.T. Mitchell (University of Chicago Press, 1983); cf. Sanford Levinson, “Law as Literature,” Texas Law Review 60 (1982): 373–404; Marshall Cohen, ed., Ronald Dworkin and Contemporary Jurisprudence (Rowman & Allanheld, 1984).

74. Dworkin, “The Model of Rules”; Ronald Dworkin, “Hard Cases,” in Dworkin, Taking Rights Seriously; cf. Joseph Raz, “Professor Dworkin’s Theory of Rights,” Political Studies 26, no. 1 (1978): 26.

75. Ronald Dworkin, A Matter of Principle (Harvard University Press, 1985), 4, 158, 160.

76. Cf. Rorty, “Solidarity or Objectivity?”; Richard Rorty, “The Contingency of Community,” London Review of Books 8, no. 13 (24 July 1986): 10–14.

77. John Rawls, “Concept of Rational Choice and Understanding Explanation,” p. 6, Box 8, Folder 12, JRP.

78. Walzer, Spheres of Justice, 313; cf. Joseph Raz, “Morality as Interpretation,” Ethics 101, no. 2 (1991): 392–405.

79. Richard Rorty, “Postmodernist Bourgeois Liberalism,” Journal of Philosophy 80, no. 10 (1983): 587.

80. Richard Rorty, “Solidarity or Objectivity?,” in Rorty, Objectivity, Relativism, and Truth: Philosophical Papers, vol. 1 (Cambridge University Press, 1991), 28–29.

81. Sheldon Wolin, The Presence of the Past: Essays on the State and Constitution (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989), 41, 81.

82. Theodore M. Porter, Trust in Numbers: The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life (Princeton University Press, 1995), chaps. 8 and 9.

83. On conservatism, see Joseph Crespino, In Search of Another Country: Mississippi and the Conservative Counterrevolution (Princeton University Press, 2009); Lisa McGirr, Suburban Warriors: The Origins of the New American Right (Princeton University Press, 2001).

84. Rodgers, Age of Fracture, chap. 6; Thomas J. Sugrue and John D. Skrentny, “The White Ethnic Strategy,” in Schulman and Zelizer, Rightward Bound, 171–92. On the shift from race to culture, see Thomas C. Holt, The Problem of Race in the Twenty-First Century (Harvard University Press, 2000).

85. See, for example, Erich Fromm, The Sane Society (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1956); Sheldon S. Wolin, Politics and Vision: Continuity and Innovation in Western Political Thought (Little, Brown and Co., 1960); Robert Paul Wolff, The Poverty of Liberalism (Beacon Press, 1968); Eric Hobsbawm, “The Idea of Fraternity,” New Society 34 (November 1975).

86. Eric Hobsbawm, “Introduction: Inventing Traditions,” in The Invention of Tradition, ed. Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger (Cambridge University Press, 1983); Rogan, The Moral Economists, chap. 4.

87. Amitai Etzioni, The Moral Dimension: Toward a New Economics (Free Press, 1988); cf. Fourcade and Healy, “Moral Views of Market Society.” On the political ambivalence of neo-Polanyians, see Brick, Transcending Capitalism, 260–65; Daniel Immerwahr, “Polanyi in the United States: Peter Drucker, Karl Polanyi, and the Midcentury Critique of Economic Society,” Journal of the History of Ideas 70, no. 3 (2009): 445–66.

88. Walzer, Spheres of Justice, 1–17.

89. Bellah et al., Habits of the Heart.

90. Alasdair C. MacIntyre, A Short History of Ethics (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1967), 268; David B. Clark, “The Concept of Community: A Re-Examination,” Sociological Review 21, no. 3 (1973): 397–416; Raymond Plant, “Community: Concept, Conception, and Ideology,” Politics and Society 8, no. 1 (1978): 79–107.

91. Michael Sandel, “Morality and the Liberal Ideal,” New Republic, 7 May 1984, 15–17; Alasdair MacIntyre, “Is Patriotism a Virtue?,” Lindley Lecture, University of Kansas (1984). For a different contemporary critique of rights theories, see Mark Tushnet, “An Essay on Rights,” Texas Law Review 62, no. 8 (1984): 1363–403.

92. Parfit, Reasons and Persons, 453–54; see Anderson, “A Culture in Contraflow—II,” 100.

93. Charles Taylor, Philosophical Papers, vol. 1, Human Agency and Language (Cambridge University Press, 1985), and Taylor, Philosophical Papers, vol. 2, Philosophy and the Human Sciences (Cambridge University Press, 1985).

94. Charles Taylor, “What Is Human Agency?,” in Taylor, Philosophical Papers, vol. 1, 22–25, 34.

95. Ibid., 41–43.

96. Charles Taylor, “The Concept of a Person,” in Taylor, Philosophical Papers, vol. 2, 97.

97. Ibid., 104.

98. Ibid., 112.

99. Ibid., 113.

100. Barber, “Justifying Justice,” 672.

101. Macpherson, “Rawls’s Model of Man and Society,” 346; cf. David Miller, “The Macpherson Version,” Political Studies 30, no. 1 (1982): 120–27.

102. Charles Taylor, “Atomism,” in Powers, Possessions, and Freedom: Essays in Honour of C. B. Macpherson, ed. Alkis Kontos (University of Toronto Press, 1979), 39–61, reprinted in Taylor, Philosophical Papers, vol. 2, 187–210.

103. Barry, “And Who Is My Neighbor?,” 651.

104. Sandel, Liberalism and the Limits of Justice, 54–65.

105. Miller, Social Justice, 332; Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory (University of Notre Dame Press, 1981), chap. 16.

106. Sandel, Liberalism and the Limits of Justice, 85.

107. For the claim of moral arbitrariness in liberal egalitarianism, see Nelson, The Theology of Liberalism, chaps. 4–6.

108. Bell, The Coming of Post-Industrial Society, 419; Sandel, Liberalism and the Limits of Justice, 144; cf. Sandel, “Morality and the Liberal Ideal.”

109. Sandel, Liberalism and the Limits of Justice, 79.

110. Cf. James Livingston, Pragmatism, Feminism, and Democracy: Rethinking the Politics of American History (Routledge, 2001), chap. 3.

111. Amy Gutmann, “Communitarian Critiques of Liberalism,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 14, no. 3 (1985): 308–22; Christopher Lasch, “The Communitarian Critique of Liberalism,” Soundings 69, nos. 1/2 (1986): 60–76; Alfonso J. Damico, ed., Liberals on Liberalism (Rowman & Littlefield, 1986).

112. Clarke E. Cochran, Character, Community, and Politics (University of Alabama Press, 1982). See also, later, David Miller, On Nationality (Oxford University Press, 1995).

113. Alasdair MacIntyre, Whose Justice? Which Rationality? (University of Notre Dame Press, 1988), 19.

114. Michael Novak, “Toward a Liberal Morality,” in “‘Liberalism and Community’: A Symposium,” New Republic, 9 May 1988, 21. For earlier iterations, see Daniel Bell, “The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism,” Journal of Aesthetic Education 6, nos. 1/2 (1972): 16; Lionel Trilling, Beyond Culture (Viking Press, 1965); cf. Howard Brick, Daniel Bell and the Decline of Intellectual Radicalism: Social Theory and Political Reconciliation in the 1940s (University of Wisconsin Press, 1986), 199–211.

115. Daniel Rodgers, Age of Fracture, chap. 6; cf. Toby Reiner, “The Sources of Communitarianism on the American Left: Pluralism, Republicanism, and Participatory Democracy,” History of European Ideas 37, no. 3 (2011): 293–303.

116. The Responsive Community, founded by Amitai Etzioni, was published from 1990 to 2004 out of the Institute of Communitarian Policy Studies at George Washington University. For the parallel trajectory of communitarianism in 1990s Britain, see Sarah Hale, Blair’s Community: Communitarian Thought and New Labour (Manchester University Press, 2006).

117. Barbara Ehrenreich, “Another Communitarianism,” in “‘Liberalism and Community’: A Symposium,” New Republic, 9 May 1988, 21; cf. Robert B. Reich, “A Question of Geography,” in ibid., 22–23.

118. For the variety of communitarianisms, see Robert Booth Fowler, The Dance with Community: The Contemporary Debate in American Political Thoughts (University Press of Kansas, 1991); Shlomo Avineri and Avner De-Shalit, eds., Communitarianism and Individualism (Oxford University Press, 1992); C. F. Delaney, ed., The Liberalism-Communitarianism Debate (Rowman & Littlefield, 1994); Stephen Mulhall and Adam Swift, Liberals and Communitarians (Wiley-Blackwell, 1996).

119. Sandel, Liberalism and the Limits of Justice, 185; Sandel, “The Procedural Republic and the Unencumbered Self,” 81–96.

120. David Miller, “The Incoherence of Luck Egalitarianism,” 148–49; Lyla A. Downing and Robert B. Thigpen, “Beyond Shared Understandings,” Political Theory 14, no. 3 (1986): 451–72.

121. Sandel, Liberalism and the Limits of Justice, 185; John R. Wallach, “Liberals, Communitarians, and the Tasks of Political Theory,” Political Theory 15, no. 4 (1987): 581–611.

122. For those proposing democratic alternatives to liberalism, communitarianism, and socialism, some of whom also targeted Rawls, see Bowles and Gintis, Democracy and Capitalism; William E. Connolly, Politics and Ambiguity (University of Wisconsin Press, 1987); Benjamin Barber, The Conquest of Politics: Liberal Philosophy in Democratic Times (Princeton University Press, 1988).

123. Nancy Rosenblum, Another Liberalism: Romanticism and the Reconstitution of Liberal Theory (Harvard University Press, 1987); Stephen Macedo, Liberal Virtues: Citizenship, Virtue, and Community in Liberal Constitutionalism (Oxford University Press, 1990).

124. For feminist philosophical debate about the public/private distinction and gendered conceptions of selfhood in this period, see Pateman, “Feminist Critiques of the Public/Private Dichotomy,” 281–303; Linda Alcoff, “Cultural Feminism versus Post-Structuralism: The Identity Crisis in Feminist Theory,” Signs 13, no. 3 (1988): 405–36. For feminist debate about community, see Iris Marion Young, “The Ideal of Community and the Politics of Difference,” Social Theory and Practice 12, no. 1 (1986): 12–13; Marilyn Friedman, “Feminism and Modern Friendship: Dislocating the Community,” Ethics 99, no. 2 (1989): 275–79; Susan Hekman, “The Embodiment of the Subject: Feminism and the Communitarian Critique of Liberalism,” Journal of Politics 54, no. 4 (1992): 1098–119. On the family, cf. Okin, Justice, Gender, and the Family, chap. 3; Walzer, Spheres of Justice, chap. 9.

125. Bernard Williams, “Pluralism, Community, and Left-Wittgensteinianism,” in Williams, In the Beginning Was the Deed: Realism and Moralism in Political Argument (Princeton University Press, 2005), 34.

126. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 565.

127. Sandel, Liberalism and the Limits of Justice, 80–81.

128. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 563–64.

129. Rawls, “Justice as Fairness” (1958), in Rawls, Collected Papers.

130. Rawls, A Brief Inquiry into the Meaning of Sin and Faith.

131. John Rawls, “[Philosophy 272] Contemporary Political Philosophy Bibliographies (1986),” Box 53, Folder 11, JRP.

132. Gutmann, “Communitarian Critics of Liberalism”; and the response in Charles Taylor, “Cross-Purposes: The Liberal-Communitarian Debate,” in Liberalism and the Moral Life, ed. Nancy L. Rosenblum (Harvard University Press, 1989); Michael Walzer, “The Communitarian Critique of Liberalism,” Political Theory 18, no. 1 (1990): 6–23.

133. Rawls, Political Liberalism, 27.

134. The debate over whether Rawls changed his mind is, again, vast. For an early response, see Patrick Neal, “Justice as Fairness: Political or Metaphysical?,” Political Theory 18, no. 1 (1990): 24–50. For the most persuasive account, see Weithman, Why Political Liberalism?

135. Rawls, Political Liberalism, lecture IX.

136. On Walzer, see John Rawls, “Seminar 8, Dec. 1 1983,” and “Walzer, Michael, 1983, Fall,” Box 48, Folder 5, JRP.

137. Ackerman, “The Storrs Lectures: Discovering the Constitution”; Elster, “The Market and the Forum.”

138. Joyce Appleby, Liberalism and Republicanism in the Historical Imagination (Harvard University Press, 1992); Daniel T. Rodgers, “Republicanism: The Career of a Concept,” Journal of American History 79, no. 1 (1992): 11–38.

139. J.G.A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition (Princeton University Press, 1975); Richard Tuck, Natural Rights Theories: Their Origin and Development (Cambridge University Press, 1979); Quentin Skinner, “The Republican Ideal of Political Liberty,” in Machiavelli and Republicanism, ed. Gisela Bock, Quentin Skinner, and Maurizio Viroli (Cambridge University Press, 1990), 293–309; cf. Samuel James, “J.G.A. Pocock and the Idea of the ‘Cambridge School’ in the History of Political Thought,” History of European Ideas (2018).

140. For a reconstruction of Rorty’s thought, see Norman Geras, Solidarity in the Conversation of Humankind (Verso, 1995). For Rorty’s influence on historians, see John Pettegrew, ed., A Pragmatist’s Progress? Richard Rorty and American Intellectual History (Rowman & Littlefield, 2000). For the citizenship debates, see Will Kymlicka and Wayne Norman, “Return of the Citizen: A Survey of Recent Work on Citizenship Theory,” Ethics 104, no. 2 (1994): 352–81.

141. Michael J. Sandel, Democracy’s Discontent: America in Search of a Public Philosophy (Harvard University Press, 1998), 56; Michael J. Sandel, “A Reply to My Critics,” in Debating Democracy’s Discontent: Essays on American Politics, Law, and Public Philosophy, ed. Anita L. Allen and Milton C. Regan Jr. (Oxford University Press, 1998), 320.

142. Michael Walzer, The Company of Critics: Social Criticism and Political Commitment in the Twentieth Century (Peter Halban, 1989), 233.

143. See, for example, Brian Barry, “Social Criticism and Political Philosophy,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 19, no. 4 (1990): 360–73; Michael Walzer, interview with Katrina Forrester, 21 January 2011.

144. Walzer, Interpretation and Social Criticism; Michael Walzer, Thick and Thin: Moral Argument at Home and Abroad (University of Notre Dame Press, 1994).

145. Richard Bellamy, “Gramsci, Walzer, and the Intellectual as Social Critic,” Philosophical Forum 29 (1998): 138–59; Walzer, The Company of Critics, 233–34.

146. Bruce Ackerman, We the People, vol. 1, Foundations (Harvard University Press, 1991).

147. Amitai Etzioni, The Spirit of Community: The Reinvention of American Society (Touchstone Press, 1993).

148. Judith N. Shklar, American Citizenship: The Quest for Inclusion (Harvard University Press, 1991); Rogers M. Smith, Civic Ideals: Conflicting Visions of Citizenship in US History (Yale University Press, 1997).

149. For the exclusionary basis of liberalism itself, see Uday S. Mehta, “Liberal Strategies of Exclusion,” Politics and Society 18, no. 4 (1990): 427–54; Marc Stears, “The Liberal Tradition and the Politics of Exclusion,” Annual Review of Political Science 10 (2007): 85–101.

150. Singh, Black Is a Country, introduction; Aziz Rana, Two Faces of American Freedom (Harvard University Press, 2010). For a different critique of this chronology see Partha Chaterjee, The Politics of the Governed: Reflections on Popular Politics in Most of the World (Columbia University Press, 2004), 27–41. On forms of silencing histories of slavery and resistance, see Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History (Beacon Press, 1995), 95–107. For canon-formation as itself a way of silencing the past, see Susan Buck-Morss, “Hegel and Haiti,” Critical Inquiry 26, no. 4 (2000), 845.

151. For more recent efforts to make oppressed minorities central to liberal egalitarianism, see Elizabeth Anderson, The Imperative of Integration (Princeton University Press, 2013). For efforts that focus on the agency of oppressed minorities, see Shelby, Dark Ghettos.

152. Walzer, Spheres of Justice, chap. 11.

153. Charles Taylor, “The Politics of Recognition,” in Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Recognition, ed. Amy Gutmann (Princeton University Press, 1992), 34; cf. David Scott, “Culture in Political Theory,” Political Theory 31, no. 1 (2003): 92–115.

154. Nancy Fraser, “From Redistribution to Recognition? Dilemmas of Justice in a ‘Post-Socialist Age,’” New Left Review 212 (July/August 1995): 68–93.

155. Peter Berger, “On the Obsolescence of the Concept of Honour,” in Revisions: Changing Perspectives in Moral Philosophy, ed. Alasdair MacIntyre (University of Notre Dame Press, 1983), 172–81.

156. Taylor, “The Politics of Recognition,” 26; cf. Charles Taylor, Sources of the Self: The Making of the Modern Identity (Harvard University Press, 1989).

157. Axel Honneth, The Struggle for Recognition: The Moral Grammar of Social Conflicts (Polity, 1995), chaps. 8–9, 163.

158. Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference, chap. 1; Will Kymlicka, Liberalism, Community, and Culture (Oxford University Press, 1989); Will Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights (Oxford University Press, 1995).

159. James Tully, Strange Multiplicity: Constitutionalism in an Age of Diversity (Cambridge University Press, 1995); Duncan Ivison, Paul Patton, and Will Sanders, Political Theory and the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (Cambridge University Press, 2000); Miller, On Nationality.

160. Brian Barry, Culture and Equality (Polity Press, 2001).

161. For this critique, see Smith, Civic Ideals, 484–87.

162. Moyn, The Last Utopia; Rodgers, Age of Fracture; Crewe and King, SDP. On the shift to neoliberal economic policy in Britain and France, see Eric Helleiner, States and the Reemergence of Global Finance: From Bretton Woods to the 1990s (Cornell University Press, 1994), chaps. 6 and 7. On the complexities and roots of French anti-totalitarianism, see Sawyer and Stewart, In Search of the Liberal Moment.

163. Michael Walzer, “On ‘Failed Totalitarianism,’” in 1984 Revisited: Totalitarianism in Our Century, ed. Irving Howe (Harper & Row, 1983).

164. Moyn, The Last Utopia. For an account of this shift, which took place most prominently in France but was mirrored elsewhere, see Christofferson, French Intellectuals against the Left.

165. Wollheim, The Thread of Life; Stanley Cavell, Pursuits of Happiness: The Hollywood Comedy of Remarriage (Harvard University Press, 1981). Williams rejected psychoanalytical theories in Williams, Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy, 45. For how his ideas might be reconciled with psychoanalysis, see Jonathan Lear, “Psychoanalysis and the Idea of a Moral Psychology: Memorial to Bernard Williams’ Philosophy,” Inquiry 47, no. 5 (2004): 515–22.

166. Shklar, “Rousseau’s Two Models,” 49.

167. Judith Shklar to Daniel Bell, 28 December 1981, Box 2, JSP.

168. See Shklar, Ordinary Vices; Shklar, “Torturers,” review of Elaine Scarry, The Body in Pain, London Review of Books 8, no. 17 (October 1986): 26–27; see also Samuel Moyn, “Taboo and Torture: On Elaine Scarry,” Nation, 5 February 2013.

169. Judith Shklar to Frederick Whelan, 12 January 1983, Box 2, JSP.

170. Judith Shklar, “Conscience and Liberty,” Berkeley, 22 March 1990, in “Speeches, 1966–1990,” Box 21, JSP.

171. Judith Shklar, “Ideology Hunting: The Case of James Harrington,” in Shklar, Political Thought and Political Thinkers, 231–32.

172. Judith Shklar, “The Liberalism of Fear,” in Shklar, Political Thought and Political Thinkers.

173. Katrina Forrester, “Experience, Ideology, and the Politics of Psychology,” in Between Utopia and Realism: Judith N. Shklar, ed. Samantha Ashenden and Andreas Hess (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2019).

174. Richard Rorty, Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity (Cambridge University Press, 1989), xv.

175. Bernard Williams, “The Liberalism of Fear,” in Williams, In the Beginning Was the Deed, 61; Bernard Williams, Truth and Truthfulness: An Essay in Genealogy (Princeton University Press, 2002); cf. Bernard Williams, “Getting It Right,” London Review of Books 11, no. 22 (23 November 1989): 3–5; Richard Rorty, “To the Sunlit Uplands,” London Review of Books 24, no. 21 (31 October 2002): 13–15.

176. Williams, “‘Taking Sides: The Education of a Militant Mind,’ by Michael Harrington, New York Times Book Review (1986),” in Bernard Williams, Essays and Reviews: 1959–2002 (Princeton University Press, 2015), 255–56.

177. Corey Robin, Fear: The History of a Political Idea (Oxford University Press, 2004).

178. John Dunn, “Hope over Fear: Judith Shklar as Political Educator,” in Liberalism without Illusions: Essays on Liberal Theory and the Political Vision of Judith N. Shklar, ed. Bernard Yack (University of Chicago Press, 1996), 52.

179. Judith Shklar, “Putting Cruelty First,” Daedalus 111, no. 3 (1982): 17–27; Bernard Williams, “The Women of Trachis: Fictions, Pessimism, Ethics,” in Williams, The Sense of the Past: Essays in the History of Philosophy (Princeton University Press, 2006), 55–58.

180. Williams, “The Liberalism of Fear,” 55; cf. Judith Shklar, “What Is the Use of Utopia?,” in Shklar, Political Thought and Political Thinkers, 190. On historicism against the left, see also J.G.A. Pocock, “Political Ideas as Historical Events: Political Philosophers as Historical Actors,” in Richter, Political Theory and Political Education, 157–58.

181. See, for example, Stuart Hampshire, Innocence and Experience (Harvard University Press, 1991), introduction and chap. 2; cf. the classic statement in Isaiah Berlin, “Two Concepts of Liberty,” in Berlin, Four Essays on Liberty (Oxford University Press, 1969).

182. Robert Meister, After Evil: A Politics of Human Rights (Columbia University Press, 2012).

183. Bernard Williams, “Review, ‘A Matter of Principle,’ Ronald Dworkin,” in Williams, Essays and Reviews, 257.

184. Katrina Forrester, “Hope and Memory in the Thought of Judith Shklar,” Modern Intellectual History 8, no. 3 (2011): 591–620.

185. John Dunn, The Cunning of Unreason: Making Sense of Politics (HarperCollins, 2001); Williams, “Getting It Right,” 3–5.

186. For legitimacy among justice theorists and others, see Thomas Nagel, “Moral Conflict and Political Legitimacy,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 16, no. 3 (1987): 215–40; Bernard Manin, “On Legitimacy and Political Deliberation,” Political Theory 15, no. 3 (1987): 338–68; and, later, Williams, In the Beginning Was the Deed, chap. 1.

187. Dunn, The Cunning of Unreason.

188. Sheila Fitzpatrick, “What’s Left?,” London Review of Books 39, no. 7 (30 March 2017); cf. Moishe Postone, “Critique and Historical Transformation,” Historical Materialism 12, no. 3 (2004): 56.

189. Richard Rorty, Achieving Our Country: Leftist Thought in Twentieth-Century America (Harvard University Press, 1998); Richard Rorty, Philosophy and Social Hope (Penguin, 1999).

190. Edward Hall, “Contingency, Confidence, and Liberalism in the Political Thought of Bernard Williams,” Social Theory and Practice 40, no. 4 (2014): 545–49.

191. Gunnell, The Descent of Political Theory; Bell, “What Is Liberalism?,” 699–705; Katrina Forrester, “Liberalism Doesn’t Start with Liberty,” Nation, 22 December 2014.

192. Shklar, Ordinary Vices, 5; Rawls, Political Liberalism, xxiv; Barry, Culture and Equality, 21, 195; Wolin, The Presence of the Past, 4.

193. Moyn, Not Enough, chap. 6.

194. Cf. Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference, chap. 1.

195. Williams, “The Idea of Equality.”

196. Williams, In the Beginning Was the Deed; Raymond Geuss, Philosophy and Real Politics (Princeton University Press, 2008). For a survey of political realism, see Enzo Rossi and Matt Sleat, “Realism in Normative Political Theory,” Philosophy Compass 9, no. 10 (2014): 689–701.

Epilogue

1. Anthony Giddens, Beyond Left and Right: The Future of Radical Politics (Stanford University Press, 1994); Michael Freeden, Liberal Languages: Ideological Imaginations and Twentieth-Century Progressive Thought (Princeton University Press, 2004), 173–203.

2. Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man. For the view that most political argument now took place within the “liberal tradition,” see Thomas Nagel, “Rawls and Liberalism,” in The Cambridge Companion to Rawls, ed. Samuel Freeman (Cambridge University Press, 2003), 62. For the dominance of philosophical liberalism, see Michael Freeden, Ideologies and Political Theory: A Conceptual Approach (Clarendon Press, 1996), 226–75.

3. John E. Roemer, “A Pragmatic Theory of Responsibility for the Egalitarian Planner,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 22, no. 2 (1993): 146–66; Arthur Ripstein, “Equality, Luck, and Responsibility,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 23, no. 1 (1994): 3–23; Ronald Dworkin, Sovereign Virtue: The Theory and Practice of Equality (Harvard University Press, 2000); Samuel Scheffler, “What Is Egalitarianism?,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 31, no. 1 (2003): 5–39, 190–98; Derek Parfit, “Equality or Priority?,” in The Ideal of Equality, ed. Matthew Clayton and Andrew Williams (St. Martin’s Press, 2000).

4. Rawls, Political Liberalism; Habermas, Between Facts and Norms; Gerald Gaus, Justificatory Liberalism: An Essay on Epistemology and Political Theory (Oxford University Press, 1996); Rawls, “The Idea of Public Reason Revisited.”

5. Thomas Pogge, “Cosmopolitanism and Sovereignty,” Ethics 103, no. 1 (1992): 48–75; Daniele Archibugi, David Held, and Martin Köhler, eds., Re-imagining Political Community: Studies in Cosmopolitan Democracy (Stanford University Press, 1998); John Rawls, “The Law of Peoples,” in On Human Rights: The Oxford Amnesty Lectures 1993, ed. Stephen Shute and Susan Hurley (Basic Books, 1993), 41–82; Thomas W. Pogge, “An Egalitarian Law of Peoples,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 23, no. 3 (1994): 195–224; Nagel, “The Problem of Global Justice,” 113–47.

6. David Held, Democracy and the Global Order: From the Modern State to Cosmopolitan Governance (Stanford University Press, 1995); Miller, On Nationality; Martha Nussbaum et al., For Love of Country: Debating the Limits of Patriotism, ed. Joshua Cohen (Beacon Press, 1996); Charles Taylor, Reconciling the Solitudes: Essays on Canadian Federalism and Nationalism (McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1993); Yael Tamir, Liberal Nationalism (Princeton University Press, 1993); Margaret Canovan, Nationhood and Political Theory (Edward Elgar, 1996); Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship.

7. Andrew Dobson, ed., Fairness and Futurity: Essays on Environmental Sustainability and Social Justice (Oxford University Press, 1999); Nick Fotion and Jan C. Heller, eds., Contingent Future Persons: On the Ethics of Deciding Who Will Live, or Not, in the Future (Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1997); Laslett and Fishkin, Justice between Age Groups and Generations; John Broome, “Discounting the Future,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 23, no. 2 (1994): 128–56. For a recent overview, see Melissa Lane, “Political Theory on Climate Change,” Annual Review of Political Science 19 (2016): 107–23.

8. Honig, Political Theory and the Displacement of Politics; Fraser, “From Redistribution to Recognition,” 71–72; Chantal Mouffe, “Democracy, Power, and the ‘Political,’” in Benhabib, Democracy and Difference, 245–56.

9. Rawls, Justice as Fairness: A Restatement, 135–79.

10. Richard Krouse and Michael McPherson, “Capitalism, ‘Property-Owning Democracy,’ and the Welfare State,” in Gutmann, Democracy and the Welfare State; Krouse and McPherson, “A ‘Mixed’-Property Regime”; Elster and Moene, Alternatives to Capitalism.

11. O’Neill and Williamson, Property-Owning Democracy; Martin O’Neill and Joe Guinan, “The Institutional Turn: Labour’s New Political Economy,” Renewal: A Journal of Social Democracy 26, no. 2 (2018): 5–16; Alan Thomas, Republic of Equals: Predistribution and Property-Owning Democracy (Oxford University Press, 2017).

12. Ron, “Visions of Democracy in ‘Property-Owning Democracy.’”

13. Burgin, The Great Persuasion; Jackson, “At the Origins of Neo-Liberalism”; Werner Bonefeld, “Freedom and the Strong State: On German Ordoliberalism,” New Political Economy 17, no. 5 (2012): 633–56.

14. For a critique of Dworkin’s “administrative conception of equality,” see Scheffler, “What Is Egalitarianism?”

15. For challenges to the scope and site of the basic structure, see Okin, Justice, Gender, and the Family, chap. 2; Cohen, “Where the Action Is,” 3; Mills, The Racial Contract. For challenges to the conceptualization of the basic structure, see Liam Murphy, “Institutions and the Demands of Justice,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 27, no. 4 (1999), 260–1; Chiara Cordelli, “Justice as Fairness and Relational Resources,” Journal of Political Philosophy 23, no. 1 (2015): 86–110.

16. Richard Robison, “Neo-Liberalism and the Market State: What Is the Ideal Shell?,” in The Neoliberal Revolution: Forging the Market State, ed. Richard Robison (Palgrave Macmillan, 2006).

17. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis; Hinton, From the War on Poverty to the War on Crime; Schickler, Racial Realignment; Judith Stein, How the United States Traded Factories for Finance in the 1970s (Yale University Press, 2010); Gary Gerstle, “The Rise and Fall (?) of America’s Neoliberal Order,” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 28 (2018): 241–64.

18. Forrester, “Reparations, History, and the Origins of Global Justice Theory.”

19. Smith, “Okin, Rawls, and the Politics of Political Theory.”

20. See, for example, Elizabeth S. Anderson, “Is Women’s Labor a Commodity?,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 19, no. 1 (1990): 71–92; Debra Satz, “Markets in Women’s Reproductive Labor,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 21, no. 2 (1992): 107–31.

21. Barry, “Do Countries Have Moral Obligations?,” 28.

22. Rodgers, Age of Fracture.

23. Samuel Arnold, “The Difference Principle at Work,” Journal of Political Philosophy 20, no. 1 (2012): 94–118; Lucas Stanczyk, “Productive Justice,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 40, no. 2 (2012): 144–64; Elizabeth Anderson, Private Government: How Employers Rule Our Lives (and Why We Don’t Talk about It) (Princeton University Press, 2017); Julie L. Rose, Free Time (Princeton University Press, 2016); Hélène Landemore and Isabelle Ferreras, “In Defense of Workplace Democracy: Towards a Justification of the Firm-State Analogy,” Political Theory 44, no.1 (2016): 53–81; Martin O’Neill, “Philosophy and Public Policy after Piketty,” Journal of Political Philosophy 25, no. 3 (2017): 343–75; Pablo Gilabert, “Dignity at Work,” in Philosophical Foundations of Labour Law, ed. Hugh Collins, Gillian Lester, and Virginia Mantouvalou (Oxford University Press, 2018): 68–86. The corporation has for some time had a place in the normative work of political theorists associated with the Cambridge School of the history of political thought because of its own focus on Hobbes and the state. See Runciman, “Is the State a Corporation?”; Melissa Lane, “The Moral Dimension of Corporate Accountability,” in Global Responsibilities: Who Must Deliver on Human Rights?, ed. Andrew Kuper (Routledge, 2005), 229–50; Christian List and Philip Pettit, Group Agency: The Possibility, Design, and Status of Corporate Agents (Oxford University Press, 2011); Quentin Skinner, From Humanism to Hobbes: Studies in Rhetoric and Politics (Cambridge University Press, 2018).

24. Tom Sorell and Luis Cabrera, eds., Microfinance, Rights and Global Justice (Cambridge University Press, 2015); Boudewijn de Bruin, Lisa Herzo, Martin O’Neill, and Joakim Sandberg, “Philosophy of Money and Finance,” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2018), https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2018/entries/money-finance/ (accessed 10 November 2018); Alex Gourevitch, “Labor Republicanism and the Transformation of Work,” Political Theory 41, no. 4 (2013): 591–617; K. Sabeel Rahman, “Democracy against Domination: Contesting Economic Power in Progressive and Neorepublican Political Theory,” Contemporary Political Theory 16, no. 1 (2017): 41–64.

25. Each of these literatures is now vast. For influential statements, see William Galston, “Realism in Political Theory,” European Journal of Political Theory 9, no. 4 (2010): 385–411; Bonnie Honig and Marc Stears, “The New Realism: From Modus Vivendi to Justice,” in Floyd and Stears, Political Philosophy versus History?, 177–205; Valentini, “Ideal vs. Non-Ideal”; Jeremy Waldron, Political Political Theory (Harvard University Press, 2016). Cf. also Lorna Finlayson, The Political Is Political: Conformity and the Illusion of Dissent in Contemporary Political Philosophy (Rowman & Littlefield, 2015).

26. Iris Marion Young, “Responsibility and Global Labor Justice,” Journal of Political Philosophy 12, no. 4 (2004): 365–88; Cecile Fabre, Justice in a Changing World (Polity, 2007); Lea Ypi, Robert E. Goodin, and Christian Barry, “Associative Duties, Global Justice, and the Colonies,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 37, no. 2 (2009): 103–35; Catherine Lu, “Colonialism as Structural Injustice: Historical Responsibility and Contemporary Redress,” Journal of Political Philosophy 19, no. 3 (2011): 261–81; Anna Stilz, “Collective Responsibility and the State,” Journal of Political Philosophy 19, no. 2 (2011): 190–208; Jacob T. Levy and Iris Marion Young, eds. Colonialism and its Legacies (Lexington Books, 2011); Lea Ypi, “What’s Wrong with Colonialism?,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 41, no. 2 (2013): 158–91.

27. Zacka, Where the State Meets the Street; Cordelli, The Privatized State (forthcoming).

28. Tommie Shelby, “Ideology, Racism, and Critical Social Theory,” Philosophical Forum 34, no. 2 (2003): 153–88; Mills, “‘Ideal Theory’ as Ideology”; Sally Haslanger, “‘But Mom, Crop-Tops Are Cute!’ Social Knowledge, Social Structure, and Ideology Critique,” Philosophical Issues 17, no. 1 (2007): 70–91; more recently, see Jason Stanley, How Propaganda Works (Princeton University Press, 2015).

29. For an alternative vision, see Jonathan White and Lea Ypi, The Meaning of Partisanship (Oxford University Press, 2016).

30. Ypi, “The Politics of Reticent Socialism.”

31. Rawls, “Nature of Political and Social Thought and Methodology (1960–1964),” p. 6, Box 35, Folder 10, JRP.