CHAPTER 9
ETHNOBOTANY OF USEFUL PLANTS IN EASTERN GHATS AND ADJACENT DECCAN REGION
M. CHANDRASEKHARA REDDY,1 K. SRI RAMA MURTHY,1 S. SANDHYA RANI,2 and T. PULLAIAH2
1Department of Botany and Biotechnology, Montessori Mahila Kalasala, Vijayawada–520010, Andhra Pradesh, India, E-mail: chandra4bio@gmail.com drmurthy@gmail.com
2Department of Botany, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapur–515003, Andhra Pradesh, India, E-mail: pullaiah. thammineni@gmail.com; sandhyasakamuri@gmail.com
CONTENTS
9.7Ornamental and Decorative Plants
9.9Additional Non-Timber Forest Products
ABSTRACT
Eastern Ghats is one of the richest of biodiversity centers in India. The hill ranges are discontinuous and separated by rivers, which flow through them. The spermatophytes of Eastern Ghats provide various useful products for human consumption, which include timber and non-timber forest products. The knowledge regarding traditional uses of various plant species is dwindling in recent days. It is very important to protect our indigenous traditional knowledge regarding the green wealth. Therefore, in the present paper the ethnobotanical uses regarding all useful plants other than ethnomedicine and ethnic food plants are given.
9.1INTRODUCTION
The Eastern Ghats and Deccan region of Peninsular India harbors a rich diversity of ethnobotanical plants, which generate considerable benefits for social and economic perspectives. However in these days the traditional values of ethnobotanical species are difficult to reconcile with acute conflicts. There are many important sectors in developing the ethnobotany and there is no doubt that the plant kingdom is a treasure house of diverse natural products (Kala, 2007), such as medicine, food, aromatic compounds, dyes, timber, gums, resins, arrack, toddy, etc. The literature indicates that most traditional knowledge regarding the medicinal and edible plants was well documented in India, whereas the other uses of ethnoplant species have relatively limited documentation. This traditional knowledge is acquired due to the close interaction of the local communities with the forests and their products. In recent days due to rapid development, human beings are being attracted to luxurious life thus neglecting the traditional ethnic knowledge and they are adversely affecting the forests by ruthless destruction for personal use, industrialization and urbanization. Due to this the tribal people who are like gold mines of traditional knowledge regarding forest resources are also coming out of forests and attracted towards the urban culture leaving their knowledge. So it is very important to procure and document the knowledge regarding all the ethnobotanical uses of all groups of plants prior to its extinction for the benefit of future generation. Apart from this in recent days forests in Eastern Ghats region are under severe pressure for meeting growing demands for fuel, timber and other forest products from an ever increasing human and livestock population and industrial demands.
Forests of Eastern Ghats is a rich source for goods like wild food plants, honey, oils, gums, resins, gum-resins, dyes, wax, lac, fibers, fuel wood, charcoal, fencing material, brooms, wildlife products, raw materials like bamboo and cane for handicrafts, etc. besides the medicinal plants (Omkar et al., 2012). Earlier several botanists studied extensively the biodiversity and vegetation of Eastern Ghats. Rao (1998) studied vegetation and valuable plant resources that are found in the Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh, India with a special note on conservation. Tree wealth and its prominent role in life and economy of tribal people living in the forests of Eastern Ghats, Andhra Pradesh were reported by Rani et al. (2003). Phytodiversity and useful plants of Eastern Ghats of Orissa with a special reference to the Koraput region was reported by Misra et al. (2009). The ethnomedicinal and ethnic food plants that are found in Eastern Ghats of India are also well reported (Ellis, 1992; Ramarao and Henry, 1996; Kadavul and Dixit, 2009; Parthipan et al., 2011; Ramasubbu et al., 2012; Krishnamurthy et al., 2014). It is equally important to document the other uses of plants (fiber, wood, dye, gums, resins, latex, arrack and toddy, etc.). An account of these different uses of plants used by the tribals in Eastern Ghats and Deccan region is given in the next section.
9.2FIBER YIELDING PLANTS
The importance of fiber yielding plants has been considered next to the food plants in their usefulness in human society (Sahu et al., 2013). The use of the plant fibers was preferred from time immemorial due to its easy availability. The use of cotton fiber and silk is known since 5000 BC. Boehmeria nivea, Crotalaria juncea, Corchorus capsularis, Gossypium arboretum, Hibiscus cannabinus, Linum usitatissimum are the best-known commercial plants, which provide durable and flexible fiber. The utility of plant fibers is manifested in a diverse range of products, which includes making ropes, papers and various household materials. The fiber production also contributes significantly to the economy of the region in various ways including agricultural, clothing, small-scale industry and products for other household operations. It has been estimated that nearly 700 species yield fibers in India. However majority of the traditional fiber yielding plants remained underutilized because these uses are need based or site specific. However the plant fibers have specific qualities, such as thermal insulation, resistance to water and other desirable traits (Pandey and Gupta, 2003). Different plant parts are used for extraction of fiber like bark, leaf, stem and young shoots. It is interesting to note that there are 26 types of preparations, which were used in combinations of different parts. Use of bark as fiber is more frequent, due to the presence of long soft tissues.
9.3DYE YIELDING PLANTS
Dyes are the natural or synthetic compounds used to add a color or to change the color of materials. Dyes are capable of being fixed to materials and do not wash out with detergents and water or fade easily on exposure to light (Rashid, 2013). In the human civilization plants have been used not only for the basic needs of life, such as food, fiber, fuel, clothing and shelter but also as sources of natural dyes for dyeing cloths, design and painting. A spectrum of beautiful natural colors ranging from yellow to black exists in the plant sources. These colors are exhibited by various organic and inorganic molecules and their mixtures (Das and Mondal, 2012a). The indigenous knowledge system associated with extraction and processing of natural dyes from plants is ancient process (Antima et al., 2012). The invention of indigo, the most important Indian natural dye, is as old as the textile marketing itself. The natural dyes are environmentally friendly, for example turmeric, the brightest of naturally occurring yellow dye, is a powerful antiseptic, which revitalizes the skin. Throughout history people have been using natural dyes for their textiles and other materials like leather, cosmetics, inks, etc. (Tiwari and Bharat, 2008), by using common locally available plants. Many natural dyestuff and stains were obtained from plants and dominated as sources of coloring producing different color like red, yellow, blue, black and a combination of these. Nature has gifted us with more than 500 dye-yielding plant species (Mahanta and Tiwari, 2005). Many of these plants have been identified as potentially rich in natural dye contents and some of them have been used in natural dyeing like Kalamkari and Lacquering toys. Almost all parts of the plants like leaves, flowers, roots, berries, bark, rhizomes, tubers, shoots, sap, wood, etc. produce dyes (Gokhale et al., 2004). Some plants have given more than one color depending upon the parts of the plant, which are used. The shade of the color a plant produces will vary according to time of the year the plant is picked, how it was grown, soil conditions, etc. The minerals in the water used in a dye bath can also alter the color. Some natural dyes contain natural mordants to hold fast the dye and to prevent them from touching the cloth (Das and Mondal, 2012b)
It is interesting to note that over 2000 pigments are synthesized by various parts of plants of which only about 150 have been commercially exploited (Siva, 2007). In India, there are more than 450 plants that can yield dyes. In addition to their dye-yielding characteristics, some of these plants also possess medicinal value (Chandramouli, 1995; Chengaiah et al., 2010). Among these more than 200 species are found in Eastern Ghats itself (S.S.C. Reddy et al., 2002; Krishnamurthy et al., 2014) of which 50 are considered to be the most important. The colors thus derived from these plants are fast colors and give strength to the cloth, making the cloth durable for years together and gives a shine as years pass on. The following plants have been extensively used in Kalamkari for coloring the fabrics on the mordanted cloth. Albizia odoratissima bark yields brown shades, Rubia cordifolia roots give red color, Oldenlandia umbellata roots, Morinda citrifolia roots, Ventilago maderaspatana gives red color, Woodfordia fruiticosa leaves are used as lavelling agent, Punica granatum leaves produce the olive green color on alum mordanted cloth after boiling, Acacia catechu bark gives rich reddish brown color after boiling on alum mordanted cloth, Indigofera tinctoria leaves yield blue color, Terminalia chebula flowers are used for producing the yellow color, Butea monosperma flowers give yellow color to the cotton cloth, Curcuma longa rhizome gives yellow, Nyctanthus arbor-tristis corolla tube of flowers yield orange color, Cedrella toona flowers yield yellow color, Soymida febrifuga bark yield brown shades and Symplocos racemosa bark yield brown shades. Few plant parts are also used as mordants and these include Symplocos racemosa bark and leaves, Bixa orellana bark, Terminalia chebula bark and fruit, Curcuma longa rhizome, Woodfordia fruticosa flowers, Cassia fistula bark, Erythrina indica aqueous extract, etc. (Rani et al., 2002; Pullaiah and Rani, 1999).
The wooden toys of Etikoppaka have earned the name for their exquisite craftman ship. Wood of Wrightia tinctoria (locally known as Ankudu, Reppala) and rarely wood of Millingtonia hortensis are used in toy manufacturing. Dyes (synthetic as well as plant based) have been used in lacquering of toys. Usage of vegetable dyes is very meager when compared to synthetic dyes in dyeing of toys. The following plants have been used for extracting the dyes, for lacquering of toys: Indigofera tinctoria, Lawsonia inermis, Mallotus philippensis, Vetiveria zizanioides, Centella asiatica, Acacia catechu, Punica granatum, Terminalia arjuna, Terminalia chebula, Curcuma longa, Phyllanthus emblica, etc. (Rani et al., 2002).
9.4GUMS AND RESINS
Various gums, gumresins, latex, oleoresins and resins are obtained from various parts of different plants found in the forests of Eastern Ghats and Deccan. Many of them are little known and some may prove useful and valuable articles both for medicinal (Sravani et al., 2014) and commercial purposes.
Gums obtained from plants are solids consisting of mixtures of polysaccharides (carbohydrates) which are either water-soluble or absorb water and swell up to form a gel or jelly when placed in water. They are insoluble in oils or organic solvents, such as hydrocarbons, ether and alcohol. The mixtures are often complex and on hydrolysis yield simple sugars, such as arabi-nose, galactose, mannose and glucuronic acid. Some gums are produced by exudation, usually from the stem bark of a tree or shrub but in a few cases from the root. The exudation is often considered to be a pathological response to injury to the plant, either accidental or caused by insect borers or by deliberate injury (tapping). Seed gums are those isolated from the endosperm portion of some seeds (Coppen, 1995).
Plant gums originating from many countries have been an important item in international trade for centuries in food, pharmaceuticals, paper, textile and other industries. Depending upon their major use, plant gums may be broadly classified as food and non-food or technological grade gums. The former can be used as food additives in various kinds of confectioneries, foods and beverages and include gum arabic, gum tragacanth, gum karaya and gum carob. The latter category finds its major use in non-food industrial applications and include ‘gum ghatti,’ ‘gum talha’ and a variety of other gums.
The term gum resin is occasionally found in the literature but it has no precise meaning (and is best avoided) although it is generally used to describe a resinous material which contains some gum. The coagulated part of some commercially important latex, such as chicle and jelutong are often referred to as non-elastic gums or masticatory (chewing) gums, but they are not gums in the proper sense of the word (Coppen, 1995).
Latex – a fluid, usually milky white in color, consists of tiny droplets of organic matter suspended or dispersed in an aqueous medium. The most well-known example is rubber latex, in which the solids content is over 50% of the weight of the latex. The solids can normally be coagulated to form a solid mass by boiling the latex. The principal components of the coagulum are cis or transpolyisoprenes and resinous material. If the polyisoprene is mainly cis, it confers elasticity to the solid and makes it rubber-like; if it is mainly trans, the solid is non-elastic and gutta-like. Latexes are usually obtained by cutting the plant to make it bleed. Latex-yielding plants occur in fewer families than those which produce gums and resins -Apocynaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Sapotaceae are among the important ones (Coppen, 1995).
A resin, because of a high content of volatile oil, is softer than one which contains little or no oil. The term is, nevertheless, sometimes shortened to resin when describing soft resins. (The term is also used in another context to describe prepared extracts of spices or other plant materials – after evaporation of the solvent used to extract the spice a soft extract, or oleoresin, remains).
A solid or semi-solid material, usually a complex mixture of organic compounds and which is insoluble in water but soluble in certain organic solvents are called terpenes. Oil-soluble resins are soluble in oils and hydrocarbon-type solvents; spirit-soluble resins are soluble in alcohols and some other solvents. Resins are very widely distributed in the plant kingdom although a few families are notable in accounting for a large proportion of the resins of commerce (e.g., Leguminosae, Burseraceae and Pinaceae). Resins can occur in almost any organ or tissue of the plant; a few (such as lac) are produced from insects. Most resins of commerce are obtained as exudates by tapping (Coppen, 1995).
9.5WOOD YIELDING PLANTS
Forests produce a wide range of services that are essential to human well-being and one major financial output consists of timber that can be used for a variety of manufacturing building, fuel, and other materials. Timber is harvested from forest ecosystems annually in a wide range. India is blessed with a variety of timber yielding tree species and as many as 1500 species are commercially utilized for diverse purposes. Among those it is no wonder that sandalwood which is available in India is the second most expensive wood in the world, next to the African Blackwood (Dalbergia melanoxylon). The carved images of gods and mythological figures have a high demand in the market. A wide variety of articles, such as boxes, cabinet panels, jewel cases, combs, picture frames, hand fans, pen holders, card cases, letter openers and bookmarks are made from sandalwood (Kumar et al., 2012). Pterocarpus santalinus, commonly known as Red sanders, belongs to the family Fabaceae. It is endemic to Eastern Ghats of India and considered globally endangered, with illegal harvest being a key threat. The plant is known for its characteristic timber of exquisite color, beauty and superlative technical qualities. The red wood yields a natural dye santalin, which is used in coloring pharmaceutical preparations and foodstuffs (Arunakumara et al., 2011). Next to the above-mentioned two species Teak (Tectona grandis) wood played a prominent role. It is widely used in preparing doors, windows and other house hold furniture (Shah et al., 2007).
Some of the other important tree species grown in India are Azadirachta indica, Eucalyptus spp., Acacia spp., Dalbergia sissoo, Swietenia spp., Casuarina spp., Melia dubia, Ailanthus excelsa, Leucaena leucocephala, etc. Productivity of forests in general and particularly that of commercial forest plantations is very much affected by frequent outbreak of pests and diseases, besides human interventions and various natural calamities. The total production of timber in India from forests is reported at an average 2.3 million cu.m in 2010. The wood and wood products imports to India have gradually increased since 1998 and have reached 6.3 million m3 in 2011 with a total import value of Rs. 9800 crores. Though wood is imported from about 100 countries, six countries namely Malaysia, Myanmar, New Zealand, Ghana, Ivory Coast, and Gabon constitute bulk of the timber imports to India (about 80%). Teak constitutes about 15% of total timber imports to India and the major teak exporting countries to India include Myanmar, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Ecuador, Costa Rica and Benin.
Fuel wood is the main source of energy in the developing world. The use of wood by mankind for energy purposes is as old as human civilization itself. One of the most serious problems in the developing world is shortage of fuel wood. The total fuel-wood consumption estimated in household sector is 248 million m3 and about 13 million m3 additional fuel-wood is consumed in hotels and restaurants, cottage industries and cremation of dead human bodies. This makes the total annual consumption of fuel-wood to be 261 million m3, which comes from different sources. The production of fuel-wood from forests has been estimated to be 52 million m3 (FSI, 2009) and remaining 209 million m3 from farmland, community land, homestead, roadside, canal side and other wastelands (ICFRE, 2010). India produces about 23.19 million m3 of timber log domestically and imports nearly 20% of its requirement from countries, such as Malaysia (57%) and Myanmar (18%). It is very important to be aware of the timber yielding plants and rapid growing plants which will give wood in short period to reduce timber import in future.
9.6SACRED PLANTS
India is famous for its religious culture. During religious ceremonies a wide variety of plants are used because of their holy nature. Some plants are treated as gods and goddesses and worshipped while some species are used for doing pooja for Gods. People also believe in Kalpavriksa, for example, a tree fulfilling all human desires. In India coconut plant is known as kalpavriksa. One of the most common offerings in Indian temples is a coconut. It is also offered on occasions like weddings, festivals, the use of new vehicle, house, etc. The coconut is broken and placed before the Lord. It is later distributed as prasada. Coconut fruit is also offered as tambulum along with betel leaves and areca nuts. Even in purnakumbha a coconut is part of kalasha. Plants are considered sacred because of their close association with a deity (Bilva with Lord Shiva and Tulasi with Lord Krishna). Some plants are believed to have originated from bodies or limbs of Gods and hence the sanctity (Butea is believed to have originated from the body of Lord Brahma). Some plants became sacred owing to their association with great individuals. (Peepal under which Gouthama Budha attained enlightment is considered sacred by the Buddhists) (Reddy and Krishnaveni, 2014).
Indian women offer leaves of Mangifera, Prosopis, Ocimum, Aegle, etc. to God in different vratas and worship to give health and wealth. They also make pradakshinas (go around certain number of times) around the Ficus benghalensis and pray for the longevity of their husbands and for fulfillment of their wishes. In India, different sides of the houses are associated with different plants. Ficus benghalensis tree on the eastern side, Ficus religiosa in the south, Cocos nucifera in the east is always auspicious. Mangifera indica is auspicious at every place and believe that it gives wealth. Religious importance of trees can be seen from the birth to marriage. People believe that God has bestowed some specific power to certain plants, like Ficus religiosa, Azadirachta indica, Ocimum tenuiflorum (Syn.: O. sanctum), Curcuma longa, Centella asiatica, Cynodon dactylon which have divine qualities. Therefore these plants are used in a number of religious activities (Robinson and Cush, 1997).
9.7ORNAMENTAL AND DECORATIVE PLANTS
Most of the present day flowers have come from the wild progenitors, a few of which still exist in natural habitat (Thomas et al., 2011). Along with the established ornamentals like rosa, primula, senecio, rhododendron, orchids, etc., many other beautiful herbs, shrubs, and trees have been introduced in the gardens. Nature has given a wealth of wild flower and ornamental plants, unfortunately many of them have been destroyed to such an extent that several have become extinct and survival of many is endangered by over exploitation by human beings (Arora, 1993). Ornamental horticulture is the functional and esthetic integration of wild flowering and beautiful plants into commercial important plants for use in landscape. The wild vegetation of Eastern Ghats and adjacent Deccan region is blessed with rich and fascinating plant species and holds a large number of curious, botanically interesting, exquisite, economically important, rare, threatened, endangered and endemic plants (Pullaiah et al., 2007). This region is a huge repository of plants of botanical importance and a reservoir of genetic variability, ecosystem diversity and species diversity.
Hundreds of wild plants from India have found their way into many European botanical gardens where they have been much appreciated. Eastern Ghats of India possess potential of raw ornamentals from wild sources. Some of the ornamental plants which are under usage in floriculture and landscaping originally hailed from Eastern Ghats and Deccan. The indigenous floristic wealth in our country proclaims its own significance and is deeply involved in our culture, literature, socio economic life, romance and poetry. It is very much interesting but a bit precarious task to incorporate such ornamental wild plants and flowers into floriculture trade. The prime source of introduction of these plants would be in the botanic gardens which can very well coordinate and exchange seeds and plant material. It is more important to collect such plants, which are not available commercially and found in nature only (Sharma and Goyal, 1991). Extensive literature survey on these wild horticultural ornamental plants was made and a fair number of wild plants that have great economic importance have been listed.
9.8TENDU LEAF AND ECONOMY
The deciduous forest species Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb.is quite important as it yields valuable tendu leaves which are used for making bidis (for rolling local cigarettes). Tendu leaves make excellent wrappers, and the success of the beedi is due, in part, to this leaf (Goud et al., 1997; Lal, 2009). The leaves are in abundance shortly after the tobacco crop is cured and so are ready to be used in beedi manufacture. Collected in the summer and made into bundles, the leaves are dried in the sun for 3–6 days before being used as wrappers (Gupta, 1992). Throughout India, collection of tendu leaf (D. melanoxylon) generates part time employment for 7.5 million people – a majority of them tribal women (Arnold, 1995). Bauhinia racemosa leaves are also used for making bidis.
9.9ADDITIONAL NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS
Along with the above-mentioned useful plants, some other plants were also used by the tribals living in the forests of Eastern Ghats hill ranges. Leaves, roots, bark and seeds of many plants have wider uses and help the economy of tribal’s. A number of tribal families are dependent on these products for their livelihood. They collect these products and sell them in markets nearby forests or to Girijan Cooperative Corporation limited. The roots of Decalepis hamiltonii and Hemidesmus indicus are collected by the forest tribes and dried in houses, made into pieces and directly sold in tribal markets or they prepare health drink from them and sell it in bazaars. Leaves of some species like Bauhinia vahlii and Butea monosperma are collected from forests and used them to make meal plates after drying. Some species (like Semecarpus anacardium, Madhuca longifolia and Borassus flabellifer) are used for collection of arrack and toddy (intoxicating drink), which are used by tribes for drukenness. Several other species are used for various other purposes, like brooms and broom sticks preparation. Some species are used as pesticides and as fertilizers while some are used to protect stored grains from pests in houses and for other purposes like toothbrush, shampoos, detergents, etc.
In the present paper the details regarding some of the important traditional useful plants that are available in forests of Eastern Ghat hill ranges and adjacent Deccan region of Peninsular India are listed with their botanical names, parts used, purpose of use in Table 9.1.
TABLE 9.1Ethnobotanical Uses of Plants
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The receipt of financial assistance from the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), New Delhi, is gratefully acknowledged.
KEYWORDS
•Dyes
•Ethnobotany
•Fibers
•Gums
•Ornamental
•Sacred Plants
•Tendu Leaf
•Wood
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