The Foundation of Buddhist Practice

Choosing Spiritual Mentors and Becoming a Qualified Disciple

THE DHARMA IS the key to having a meaningful and happy life now and in the future. To practice it seriously, two conditions must be present: The external condition is relying on the guidance of a qualified spiritual mentor. The internal condition is a precious human life with the freedom and fortune to practice the Dharma. The stages of the path begin with these two essential topics. This and the next chapter address the relationship between a qualified spiritual mentor and a qualified disciple, as well as the importance of those qualities and the method to cultivate them.

Importance of Relying on Spiritual Mentors

When we are seriously interested in following the path, forming a healthy relationship with a qualified spiritual teacher is essential. If we need teachers for ordinary skills such as driving or typing, we certainly need them for more complex and delicate endeavors such as transforming our mind into that of a buddha. Tsongkhapa tells us (LC 1:70):

Thus the excellent teacher is the source of all temporary happiness and highest goodness, beginning with the production of a single good quality and the reduction of a single fault in a student’s mind and eventually encompassing all the knowledge beyond that.

Spiritual teachers play a unique and important role in our lives. Qualified spiritual mentors guide us along the path by giving us teachings, Dharma advice, precepts, oral transmissions, and empowerments. When we experience blocks in our practice, they teach us the antidotes to overcome them. When we have spiritual experiences, they help us determine if the experiences were authentic or deceptive. When our practice is progressing well, our spiritual mentors encourage us to continue. The Sutta on Half (of the Holy Life) (Upaḍḍha Sutta, SN 45.2) relates a conversation between the Buddha and his disciple Ānanda about the importance of a spiritual teacher. Thinking that a successful Dharma practice is half due to spiritual teachers and half to one’s own effort, Ānanda says to the Buddha, “Venerable Sir, this is half of the holy life, that is, spiritual friendship, spiritual companionship, spiritual comradeship.” While our own effort is undoubtedly essential, to emphasize that the spiritual path cannot be actualized without a spiritual mentor, the Buddha replies:

Not so, Ānanda! Not so Ānanda! This is the entire holy life, Ānanda, that is, spiritual friendship, spiritual companionship, spiritual comradeship. When a monastic has a spiritual friend, a spiritual companion, a spiritual comrade, it is to be expected that he will develop and cultivate the noble eightfold path . . . By the following method, too, Ānanda, it may be understood how the entire holy life is spiritual friendship, spiritual companionship, spiritual comradeship: By relying on me as a spiritual friend, Ānanda, beings subject to birth are freed from birth; beings subject to aging are feed from aging; beings subject to death are freed from death; beings subject to sorrow, lamentation, pain, displeasure, and despair are freed from sorrow, lamentation, pain, displeasure, and despair. By this method, Ānanda, it may be understood how the entire holy life is spiritual friendship, spiritual companionship, spiritual comradeship.

This passage has sometimes been taken out of context and interpreted to mean that having ordinary friends who practice the Dharma is the entire spiritual life. While having such friends is a boost to our practice, it is clear in the sūtra that the Buddha is referring to himself as the spiritual teacher whose spiritual friendship is crucial and must not be neglected. By extension, our spiritual mentors become the virtuous friends that guide us when the Buddha is no longer physically present.

In the context of training in samādhi and meditation, Buddhaghosa emphasizes the importance of relying on a spiritual teacher (Vism 3.126):

When he dedicates himself to a teacher, he should say, “I relinquish this, my person, to you, Venerable.” For one who has not dedicated his person thus becomes unresponsive to correction, hard to speak to, and not amenable to advice, or he goes where he likes without asking the teacher. Consequently, the teacher does not help him with either material needs or the Dhamma, and does not train him in the scriptures. Failing to get these two kinds of help, he finds no footing in the doctrine, and he soon descends to inappropriate behavior or to the lay state. But if he has dedicated his person, he is not unresponsive to correction, does not go about as he likes, is easy to speak to, and lives in dependence on the teacher. He receives the twofold help from the teacher and attains growth, increase, and fulfillment in the doctrine.

Spiritual Mentors

The Sanskrit name for a spiritual teacher is guru — lama in Tibetan. Both of these terms have the connotation of someone heavy with good qualities and superior in spiritual qualities. These terms do not have the connotation of someone being a living buddha, for not all gurus are awakened. If we said that all gurus are buddhas, there would be some gurus who became buddhas without working very hard on the path! Mistakenly thinking that all teachers are buddhas and later discovering that a certain person lacks all the qualities of an awakened one not only leaves us disappointed but also puts the lama in a difficult situation. The only thing the lama can do then is just shake his head because he lacks all of a buddha’s qualities. Therefore it makes more sense to follow the real connotation of the terms “lama” and “guru” because genuine spiritual teachers have superior qualities in comparison to their followers.

Being a Dharma teacher depends on other people wanting to take that person as their teacher. In Tibet in the past, a person did not become a teacher by being appointed by some authority. Rather, through diligent training a person became a good practitioner. A small group who saw that person’s qualities asked him to teach. As those students practiced and developed good qualities, others gained respect for the teacher, and gradually that person became known as a great teacher.

Similarly, nowadays in monasteries the process of becoming a teacher occurs within the monastic structure. Monastics study for their geshe or khenpo degree. Students in the lower classes then ask the new geshes and khenpos who are respected for their learning, understanding, and memorization to teach. When students benefit from the explanations and guidance of the new geshes and khenpos, they become known as good teachers and other monastics are eager to attend their classes.

In the contemporary secular world, “teacher” connotes someone in an academic field who, after completing certain requirements, is certified as a teacher by an organization, whether or not that person has any students. Perhaps in the West that model would be better. That is for Westerners to determine. In that case, Buddhists could form an organization that certifies people as teachers after examining their Dharma understanding as well as their personal conduct. However, an organization cannot certify someone’s spiritual attainments, so issuing certificates attesting to attainment of spiritual realization or level of the path does not make sense. In any case, it is not necessary to be a realized master to teach at a Dharma center. A good education in Buddhism, personal integrity, and genuine care for the students’ well-being are sufficient.

Although we are the ones who choose our spiritual mentors, there are certain conditions under which someone becomes one of our teachers — for example, if they give us refuge and the five precepts, monastic ordination, bodhisattva ethical restraints, or tantric initiation. For this reason, it is necessary that we check the person’s qualifications before attending these ceremonies and not rush blindly into things.

Buddhism is spreading to countries where it has not existed before, and there it encounters different cultural values and ways of doing things. The model of a spiritual mentor-disciple relationship that has existed for centuries in Asia does not easily transplant into a secular modern society. Traditional spiritual mentors and contemporary students raised in secular societies both enter into a teacher-student relationship with expectations that they may not be aware of.

In traditional Tibetan Buddhist monasteries, there are many types of teachers: Some are like parents who look after the physical well-being of the young monastics, teach them the alphabet, and guide them in appropriate behavior in the monastery. More advanced students teach the lower-level debate and philosophy classes. Geshes teach the more advanced classes, while rinpoches — both ordained and lay — and some geshes give initiations and tantric teachings. Tibetan monastics and lay followers relate to these people differently, according to their role in that individual’s practice, their standing in the monastery, and their reputation in Tibetan society. When Tibetans go to other countries, people in the Dharma centers do not necessarily know what kind of teacher is coming, and out of respect they treat everyone as though he were a highly esteemed lama. This can create misunderstandings.

The expectations for a secular teacher and a Dharma teacher differ greatly. In a secular educational facility, students trust that the school hires competent teachers. They often do not choose their teachers; if they need to attend a required class, students take it from whoever is teaching it. The teacher’s job is to impart information and knowledge; they seldom get involved in a student’s personal development as a human being. Students who are experiencing difficulties are usually referred to a school counselor. Students in colleges and universities pay to attend, and they fill out evaluation forms of the classes and teachers at the end of the semester. Teachers are hired employees in a paid position who can be fired if their work or behavior is not up to standard. Teachers and students do not live together, and after the semester is done they go their separate ways.

In the past, children in secular schools were taught to respect their teachers, but depending on the country, that is often not the case nowadays. The advent of online classes has changed the teacher-student relationship even more, so that teachers and students may never meet in person. The teacher’s job is to plan the curriculum and assess the student’s assimilation of knowledge; the student’s job is to learn the material. There is little sense of personal connection to each other, the other person simply being a name or face on the computer screen.

A relationship with a Dharma teacher — here meaning a qualified spiritual mentor who teaches the sūtras and commentaries — is different. The focus of this relationship is not only the conveyance of knowledge but also character building. The teacher is responsible for guiding students spiritually over time so that they become ethical, kind, and wise human beings with the correct understanding of the Buddha’s teachings and the ability to meditate on them.

In the context of the Dharma, disciples and students are expected to investigate a prospective teacher’s qualities before taking him or her as one of their spiritual mentors, because a mentor-disciple relationship is expected to be lifelong. This is not the case when studying with a secular teacher in school.

In addition, Dharma teachers traditionally do not charge for teachings and students do not pay their teachers; they support them by making offerings and volunteering their services. Here the motivation is one of gratitude, and the offering is given to create merit; it is not payment due, as in a business relationship. As part of their spiritual development, Dharma students are taught to appreciate and respect their teachers. This helps to reduce the students’ arrogance and increases their receptivity to learning the Dharma. There is a natural hierarchy in the spiritual mentor-disciple relationship that is useful for subduing students’ self-centered attitude. Students do not seek equal status with their teachers.

In traditional monastic settings, teachers and students may live in the same building, with students caring for some of the teacher’s personal needs, such as preparing meals, cleaning, making appointments, running errands, and organizing events.

In entering a relationship with a spiritual mentor, having appropriate expectations is important. Although we may have emotional needs, the role of Dharma teachers is not to fulfill these. Complications arise if we have conscious or unconscious expectations that our spiritual mentors will meet our emotional needs, be our psychotherapist, tell us whom to marry, or choose our career. The role of spiritual mentors is to guide us in learning the Dharma, critically reflecting on its meaning, and correctly meditating on it. This is why it is so important to be under their guidance. However, spiritual mentors do not do the work of gaining realizations for us. We must practice the Dharma ourselves.

In brief, the differences in roles and expectations between a traditional Dharma teacher-disciple relationship and a contemporary, secular teacher-student relationship are great. It is important for everyone to be aware of these as we navigate the uncharted waters of the Dharma as it flows into new countries and cultures.

REFLECTION

1.Why is it important to have spiritual mentors?

2.How does the relationship with a spiritual mentor differ from one with a schoolteacher or professor?

Three Types of Practice, Three Types of Spiritual Mentors

Tibetan Buddhism includes three types of practice, each with its own emphasis, method of practice, and ethical restraints: Fundamental Vehicle, Perfection Vehicle, and Vajra Vehicle. In the Fundamental Vehicle, students learn the four truths of āryas and come to seek liberation from cyclic existence. To bring this about, they take refuge in the Three Jewels and practice the three higher trainings. In terms of ethical restraints, they avoid the ten nonvirtues and take prātimokṣa precepts as a lay or monastic follower of the Buddha. The lay precepts consist of the five precepts — to abandon killing, stealing, unwise or unkind sexual behavior, lying, and taking intoxicants. The monastic precepts include those of novice and fully ordained monastics.

On this basis, we go on to practice the Perfection Vehicle, which is one branch of Mahāyāna.26 Here students learn and meditate on the methods to cultivate bodhicitta and come to seek full awakening in order to benefit others most effectively. To actualize this, they take the bodhisattva precepts and engage in practicing the six perfections of generosity, ethical conduct, fortitude, joyous effort, meditative stability, and wisdom.

The Vajra Vehicle is also a branch of the Mahāyāna, and thus the motivation to practice it is the same. Practitioners enter the Vajra Vehicle because their compassion is exceptionally strong. They want to attain awakening quickly because they cannot endure sentient beings’ suffering. To accomplish this, they receive empowerment into the practice of a tantric deity and engage in the practice of deity yoga. All tantric practitioners adopt the bodhisattva ethical code, and those initiated into the yoga tantra and highest yoga tantra also adopt the tantric ethical code.

These three types of practice have three types of teachers. Many similarities exist in the qualifications of each type of teacher and the way students relate to them, but differences also exist. Fundamental Vehicle, Perfection Vehicle, and Vajra Vehicle texts reveal a progression in the way of regarding and relating to teachers. Our Fundamental Vehicle teacher instructs us in the four truths, gives us refuge and lay or monastic precepts, and teaches us the Vinaya, the monastic discipline. As such, he or she acts as a representative of the Buddha. We see our teacher as a teacher, our preceptor as a preceptor, and relate to him or her on a human level. We regard him as a wise elder, a sincere practitioner from whom we can learn.

For monastics, three Vinaya teachers are important for their training. The first is their preceptor or abbot/abbess (upādhyāya, upādhyāyā), the person heading the saṅgha of monastics that ordains them. Second is the activity instructor (karma ācārya), who gives guidance and instruction during the ordination ceremony. Third is the interview instructor (raho ’nuśāsaka ācārya), who privately interviews the candidate to see if obstacles to ordination exist. Another important teacher is the resident teacher (T. gnas kyi bla ma), the principal teacher of the monastery in which the monastic resides. Vinaya puts great importance on the resident teacher because that is the person who trains the junior monastics on a daily basis.

Perfection Vehicle texts speak of buddhas and bodhisattvas emanating in many forms to benefit others. Since our Perfection Vehicle teacher leads us on the bodhisattva path and gives us the bodhisattva ethical restraints, we view that person as an emanation of the Buddha or a high bodhisattva. Here the teacher is seen as equal to, or like, a buddha in the sense that the karma accumulated in relation to our teacher is similar to that accumulated in relation to the Buddha. By making offerings to or harming our Perfection Vehicle teacher, we accumulate karma equal to acting in a similar way toward the Buddha himself.

When we have trained in the Fundamental Vehicle and Perfection Vehicle practices and are sufficiently mature in the Dharma, we may request empowerment into practices of various tantric meditational deities. Students imagine the guru giving the empowerment to be the meditational deity and the environment to be the deity’s abode or maṇḍala. When doing tantric practice following empowerment, we imagine ourselves and all sentient beings as buddhas and the environment as a pure land. In this case not seeing our tantric master as a buddha would be strange.

Only in tantric practice is it essential to regard the tantric master as a buddha. This view should not be taught to beginners who are not mature in the Dharma, because it is open to misinterpretation and confusion.

I recommend going about the stages of practice in a gradual way. First form a relationship with a Fundamental Vehicle teacher, learn the four truths, and take refuge and some level of prātimokṣa precepts. Later, as your practice progresses, seek out a spiritual mentor who can teach you the bodhisattva path, practice the six perfections, and undertake the bodhisattva ethical restraints. After some time, when you are properly prepared, seek a qualified tantric master, receive empowerment into that practice, and meditate on deity yoga.

Shabkar Tsokdruk Rangdrol, the great Tibetan yogi who did extensive retreat and was a prolific writer, speaks of these three kinds of teachers:

From the teacher who showed the path of deliverance,

I received the sacred teachings of individual liberation.

My practice was to shun wrongdoing and cultivate virtue.

From the bodhisattva teacher,

I received the sacred Mahāyāna teachings on generating bodhicitta.

My practice was to cherish others more than myself.

From the Vajradhara teacher,

I received the sacred teachings, empowerments, and instructions of the secret Mantrayāna.

My practice was to meditate upon the generation and completion states, and Dzogchen.27

Investigate a Person’s Qualities

If, like a spiritual mentor, the pilot of a plane is not well trained, traveling with him or her is risky. To help disciples assess the training of a potential spiritual mentor, the Buddha explained the qualities of the various types of spiritual teachers. Students are responsible for evaluating the qualifications of prospective teachers and choosing with whom they wish to form a mentor-disciple relationship. Sakya Paṇḍita commented that people are very careful and diligently test the purity of jewels before purchasing them. Examining spiritual mentors and teachings is even more important than checking the quality of jewels, since we are seeking the truth that will lead us to lasting happiness. We should not run after spiritual mentors like dogs gobbling up meat. Instead of being impressed by titles and elaborate thrones, we must seek spiritual mentors who are learned and practice well.

Some people are naive and easily misled by charismatic teachers who claim to be spiritually realized. In the West this may happen because Buddhism is new and people do not yet know the qualities to look for in good teachers. Difficulties arise in Asia too. Some years ago, a person from mainland China came to see me and said that a false lama from Tibet had gone to China and claimed to be a Dharma king, but was actually seeking money and sex. Blind to his true motivation, some Chinese were devoted to him. Similar things have happened in Mongolia as well.

The Buddha would not have described in detail the qualifications for choosing suitable spiritual guides if simply having great faith in anyone called a “teacher” or “lama” were sufficient. Although we may be attracted to a person who is charismatic, entertaining, or makes us feel good, these are not signs of having Dharma knowledge or spiritual attainments. Our spiritual teachers should be people we can rely on and trust and who have correct knowledge of the Dharma and its practice.

We must investigate and examine a teacher thoroughly before deciding that he or she will be one of our teachers. Immediately accepting someone as our teacher without proper investigation is unwise. I recommend that people attend Dharma teachings and get to know the person first. At this time, do not regard him or her as your teacher, let alone as a buddha. Consider the person as a Dharma friend who shares information with you. Observe his or her conduct in daily life, and assess his understanding of the teachings as best as you can. Ask other students about the teacher’s qualities, and look at the qualities of those students to see if you want to become like them by following the same teacher. Check if the teacher has a good relationship with his or her teachers. In addition, read Dharma books so that you have a general knowledge of Buddhist tenets and can assess if this person’s teachings are correct. After some time, if you see that this person teaches in accord with the Buddhadharma, is reliable, knowledgeable, ethical, kind, and a good practitioner, then form a mentor-disciple relationship with him or her.

The Buddha recommends that prospective disciples examine even the Buddha himself (MN 47). But how is an unawakened, ordinary being who “does not know the mind of another as it really is” to investigate this? The Buddha instructs us to first use empirical observation, watching the person’s behavior and listening to his or her speech to see if defilements are present or if his speech and deeds are pure. Then examine how he or she handles the role of a teacher: Is he attracted to gaining respect and offerings or does he have genuine compassion for his disciples and a sincere wish to guide them on the path? Third, directly ask the teacher if he has eliminated observable faults and if he is accomplished in the Vinaya and the Dharma. Doing this assumes the person is neither deluded regarding his own practice nor lying. It is rather bold to ask a teacher this question, and most accomplished teachers will be hesitant to discuss their level of attainment. However, if we are satisfied so far by our investigation of the teacher, we then practice what he teaches and see the results for ourselves. If, through diligent and correct practice, we realize the result the teacher described, then we know with certainty through our own experience that he is a reliable spiritual mentor.

Having a hundred or even a thousand qualified spiritual mentors is fine. But if teachers are not qualified, it is better not to have any and to rely on Dharma texts until we meet qualified mentors. However, to receive monastic ordination or tantric empowerment, we must rely on a living person. We cannot receive these from a text or by ourselves. Since this is the case, in these areas you must wait until you meet a qualified teacher.

Qualities of a Spiritual Mentor

According to the three types of spiritual teachers, there are three sets of qualities to look for. Śākyaprabha’s Three Hundred Verses on the Novice (Śrāmaṇeratriśatakakārikā) describes the qualities of a suitable Vinaya teacher:

1.Keeping pure ethical conduct.

2.Having knowledge of what to practice and abandon on the path as well as of Vinaya rituals and procedures.

3.Having compassion for the sick.

4.Having disciples who are gentle, kind, and wise.

5.Providing their monastic disciples with requisites for living and Dharma teachings.

6.Being able to teach a Dharma topic at the right time to a disciple capable of benefiting from it.

In short, a Fundamental Vehicle teacher should have the following three qualities:

1.This person is worthy of respect because he or she is self-disciplined and has refined behavior as a result of keeping the precepts purely and serious Dharma practice. Also, this person is willing to help the disciple whenever required.

2.He or she has stable ethical conduct. For monastics, this means the person has been fully ordained for at least ten years.

3.He or she is learned and wise, having profound knowledge of the three baskets of scriptures (Tripiṭaka).

Fundamental Vehicle teachers should also be disillusioned with cyclic existence and not seek worldly success or many possessions for themselves. They should also have strength to endure the difficulties involved in teaching and guiding disciples.

In Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras (Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra), Maitreya described the ten qualities of a fully qualified Perfection Vehicle mentor (17.10):

Rely on a friend who is subdued, calm, and quiet;

has more virtue, is energetic, learned in scripture;

has realized suchness, is endowed with eloquence, has a compassionate nature, and ignores weariness.

To present these qualities in an expanded way, a fully qualified Perfection Vehicle teacher:

1.Is disciplined and subdued in his or her behavior (higher training in ethical conduct).

2.Has serenity and meditative experience (higher training in concentration).

3.Is pacified through developing wisdom (higher training in wisdom).

4.Has more qualities than the student.

5.Is enthusiastic to practice Dharma and benefit others.

6.Is learned in the scriptures.

7.Has realized the emptiness of all phenomena, not just the emptiness of the person. This refers to having the correct view of selflessness.28

8.Is skillful in giving teachings, articulate, and able to explain the Dharma clearly.

9.Is compassionate, always wishing to benefit others.

10.Does not easily become tired or discouraged by expounding the Dharma to others.

It is important for a Mahāyāna spiritual mentor to possess the first three qualities — the three higher trainings — because without having disciplined and subdued one’s own body, speech, and mind, subduing those of others will be difficult.

Someone may be able to discipline her own mind, but without other qualities she will not be able to adequately guide others in the methods for transforming their minds. Thus wide knowledge and understanding of the Mahāyāna teachings as expressed in the fourth, sixth, and seventh qualities are necessary. Such a teacher has discerned the exact meaning of the Buddha’s teachings by employing reasoning and scriptural quotations. She also has a broad knowledge and understanding of the path, which is necessary to lead sentient beings with a variety of dispositions and capabilities to awakening.

The remaining qualities — the fifth, eighth, ninth, and tenth — demonstrate that a spiritual teacher wishes to benefit others and has the ability to endure the hardships of guiding them.

The ten qualities of an excellent spiritual mentor may be abbreviated in three: he or she should be learned and wise, disciplined, and have a kind heart. His discipline should not prevent learnedness, and his learnedness should not lead to the neglect of discipline. Even if he has both learning and discipline, if he lacks a kind heart, he will not be able to help others on a vast scale. If he has a kind heart, but lacks learning and discipline, he will likewise be unable to lead others on the path. Thus all three qualities are necessary.

Although finding teachers with all ten qualities fully developed may be difficult, try to find teachers with as many of those qualities as possible. Follow teachers who have at least more good qualities than negative ones, are more interested in future lives than in this life, and consider others more important than themselves.

The qualities of a suitable tantric master are explained in all four classes of tantra. This person should have the qualities of a Perfection Vehicle spiritual mentor and have received empowerment into Vajrayāna. In addition to keeping the tantric precepts and commitments purely, he or she should have studied the practices well, completed the appropriate retreats and concluding fire pūjā, and experienced some deep insight through this path. In the case of a highest yoga tantra guru, the person should optimally have some stability in, if not realization of, the completion stage. Otherwise seek a person who has stability in the generation stage practice; however, if they do not have the correct understanding of emptiness, their practice is lacking. For a tantric guru, the determination to be free from saṃsāra and an understanding of emptiness that is complemented by bodhicitta is presupposed. Clearly not everyone who recites tantric sādhanas is qualified to give empowerments and tantric instructions! In Fifty Verses of Relying on a Spiritual Master (Gurupañcāśikā), Aśvaghoṣa describes the qualities of a vajra master in detail. These will be explained in a later volume on tantra.

Do not be too quick to regard a person as your spiritual mentor. Rather, for however long it takes — two years, five years, or longer — regard this person as a spiritual friend. In the meantime, examine his or her behavior, attitudes, and ways of teaching until you are confident of his or her integrity and ability to guide you.

In certain situations a Dharma connection is automatically formed, and after that you should regard that person as one of your spiritual mentors. A person who gives you refuge, the five lay precepts, or monastic precepts becomes one of your Vinaya teachers. Those from whom you receive the bodhisattva ethical restraints become your Perfection Vehicle teachers. Someone who gives you an empowerment, tantric transmission, or tantric commentary becomes one of your Vajrayāna masters.

REFLECTION

1.One by one, contemplate qualities for a Fundamental Vehicle, Perfection Vehicle, and Vajrayāna spiritual mentor.

2.Reflect on the purpose of the three sets of qualities and how each applies to the respective stage of development of the disciple.

3.Make a determination to examine the qualities of prospective spiritual mentors and to choose wisely.

Seek Internal Qualities, Not Titles or External Appearance

Some people may believe that the titles a person has indicates whether he or she is a qualified spiritual mentor. However, this is not necessarily the case. Each Buddhist tradition employs an array of titles that can be confusing to newcomers and that are not necessarily used in a systematic fashion.

Nowadays the title lama is used in a variety of ways — in some cases it indicates a Dharma teacher, in others it indicates someone who has completed a three-year retreat. Some people are qualified teachers, but out of humility do not want to be called lama, while some people who have not done extensive study and practice are eager to assume that title.

Geshe is a degree awarded by the large monasteries after the completion of many years of serious scriptural study and debate. In general, geshes have vast learning in the scriptures and some also have meditative experience and realizations. However, after completing their studies, some geshes are eager to go abroad not just to teach but to receive offerings.

Khenpo indicates an abbot of a monastery and khensur a former abbot, although in some Tibetan traditions, khenpo is an educational degree similar to geshe. Gen-la is used to address adult monks, our own Dharma teacher, or teachers of secular subjects as well. Choe-la is the respectful way to address a nun.

Tulku is a title given to someone recognized as the reincarnation of a previous master. Tulku literally means an emanation body of a buddha, but not everyone with this title is an emanation of the Buddha or even a bodhisattva. There are different levels of tulkus according to the respect and renown of the previous master.

Rinpoche, which means “precious one,” is often used to address tulkus. Some students call their teachers who are not recognized incarnations “Gen Rinpoche” (precious teacher) to indicate their respect. Having the title rinpoche does not indicate that one has spiritual realizations. Some may be manifestations of buddhas or of ārya bodhisattvas — those who have directly perceived emptiness and compassionately manifest to benefit sentient beings. Others may be lower-level bodhisattvas who have not yet eradicated afflictions and are not able to control the rebirth process. Still other people are identified as incarnations of great masters due to their accumulation of merit in the past, even though they have not entered even the first of the five bodhisattva paths. We should not assume that everyone who uses the title rinpoche is a realized being.

The system of recognizing incarnations of previous spiritual masters is a Tibetan cultural tradition. It is not a practice taught by the Buddha. In the 1960s I discussed limiting the number of tulkus, but one adviser told me that would be difficult because it is the Tibetans’ custom. Nowadays being recognized as a rinpoche has become a position of social status, not one of religious import, and this is not healthy.

We should seek teachers who are well-educated in the Dharma, practice it sincerely, and have compassion for others. In looking at Tibetan society, I often see people ignoring learned geshes and khenpos but showing great respect to rinpoches who are not learned. I tell the young rinpoches that they should not rely on the reputation of their previous lives but should study diligently, practice sincerely, and be humble in this life. If they do, they will be an honor to their predecessor’s name. If they do not and merely use their social status to manipulate or deceive others, they are a disgrace, not only to their predecessor but also to the Buddhadharma.

Nowadays, many people look for the incarnations of their deceased teachers, but letting a child speak for him- or herself is better. A child may display obvious characteristics, such as clearly remembering a previous life or reciting texts not memorized in this life. In such cases, we cannot fail to recognize that the child is unusual. Only then could recognition as a tulku possibly be beneficial.

I favor allowing children to grow up naturally and to develop their qualities in this life. Those who have gained spiritual realizations in the past will naturally progress in their own practice and benefit others in this life whether or not they are identified and given a title.

Some people who are unknown in Tibetan society go to the West or Taiwan and suddenly have many titles and are publicized as great teachers. This is completely inappropriate. One lama from Amdo commented to me that in the past lamas’ names were short but the list of their realizations was long. But now they have very long and lofty titles, and the list of their realizations is short.

Teachers who are monastics must wear monastic robes, and those who are not monastics should not wear monastic robes or even maroon clothing that resembles monastic robes. The general public as well as Buddhists become very confused when they see a teacher, whom they believe to be a monastic, with a spouse and children. Lay teachers should wear lay clothes, or if they wear a long robe, it should be white and their upper shawl should be predominantly white but with some maroon stripes. For many years I have recommended this and am happy to see at least some lay teachers follow my advice.

Although the Buddhadharma flourished in Tibet, the general public’s level of understanding of the Buddhadharma was low. Many people would look at the height of a teacher’s throne or the number of horses in his procession to determine who to respect. They didn’t consider that a famous bandit would also have many horses in his caravan!

In Tibet, and now in exile, some people placed great emphasis on external appearance — brocade robes, colorful costumes, and the shape and size of hats. But our Teacher, Śākyamuni Buddha, did not have a hat; nor did he wear special robes. His robes were the same as those of other monastics. Even though some of the Indian masters, such as Asaṅga and Candrakīrti, are depicted with big hats, it is questionable whether such hats were worn in the great Indian monastic universities such as Nālandā.

In Tibet there was perhaps some reason for wearing a hat because the weather was cold. Bald teachers especially found hats helpful! However, Tibetans went to an extreme and made hats in elaborate shapes, sizes, and designs, so much so that some foreigners came to distinguish the different schools of Tibetan Buddhism by the color of their hats. This is very unfortunate. In addition to the yellow, red, and black hats that are so famous, perhaps monastics nowadays could wear green hats, indicating that they care for the environment!

We must try to understand the essence of the Buddha’s teachings and the commentaries of the great Indian masters. By doing so, we will see that the true gauge for evaluating the quality of a teacher is his or her understanding and behavior. Faith in spiritual teachers should be well earned. Some great teachers, such as Milarepa, looked like poverty-stricken beggars. The Kadam master Dromtonpa was a humble nomad. The twentieth-century Dzogchen master Dza Patrul Rinpoche looked like an ordinary wanderer. These truly great spiritual masters had no external appearance of grandeur. Our priority should be understanding the meaning of the Dharma, not wearing elegant robes, donning colorful costumes and hats, sitting on expensive seats, or riding in luxurious vehicles. Nowadays we have to add sporting expensive watches and displaying a range of costly technological gadgets to this list. Of course, every lama says this when teaching, but in their own lives some do not follow it.

Recently the emphasis on elaborate rituals — complete with drums, cymbals, dances, and colorful masks — has increased in the Tibetan tradition, and the emphasis on teaching has diminished. The time has come to change this and to return to the Nālandā tradition of ancient India. Practitioners’ philosophical views and conduct must be grounded in the teachings of the Buddha and the great Indian masters. We must simplify ceremonies and rituals, strengthen our philosophical understanding, and implement the teachings in daily life. If we do this, Buddhism will play an important and meaningful role in the upcoming centuries. If we do not, it could degenerate into mere show.

It is important for all of us who consider ourselves to be followers of the Buddha to constantly check our motivation. In my own case, whenever I sit on a high throne to teach, self-importance and pride seldom arise. Even so, I notice that occasionally my thoughts become defiled by the eight worldly concerns. I think how nice it would be if people complimented me on my Dharma talk and how disappointed I would be if they criticized it. Our vulnerability to worldly concerns is real, so we must be extremely careful. To ensure that we are engaging in genuine Dharma practice, we must check that our motivation is not defiled by the eight worldly concerns. Otherwise, self-importance will lead us to have other faults. It then becomes easy to abuse power, greedily seek offerings from the faithful, or manipulate others. We may even envy other teachers and compete with them. All of these corruptions arise once we become proud. However, when we honor the responsibility that comes with sharing the Dharma with others, we will constantly monitor our motivation and repeatedly turn our mind to benefiting others.

REFLECTION

1.Why is following the guidance of a spiritual mentor important?

2.What kind of qualities do you want to look for in selecting a spiritual mentor?

3.Are you easily influenced by titles, external appearances, and charisma? If so, what ideas do you have for redirecting your focus to important qualities?

Becoming a Qualified Disciple

In addition to seeking qualified teachers, we must make ourselves into receptive vessels so that we can benefit from our mentors’ instructions. We may receive profound teachings from excellent mentors, but without attempting to develop the qualities of a good disciple, the benefit will be minimal. Āryadeva describes the qualities of a disciple who will realize the meaning of selflessness (CŚ 276):

An unprejudiced, intelligent, and interested

listener is called a vessel.

The first quality for suitable Mahāyāna students is being impartial and open-minded. We should try to be free from preconceptions and not close-mindedly cling to our own views. If we are biased, we will follow only the teachings that please our ego and accord with our own ideas. Dismissing valuable teachings that challenge our opinions hampers our spiritual progress.

Intelligence is the second quality of a disciple. This does not refer to intelligence in academic subjects, but to having the discriminative intelligence that can discern correct and incorrect views as well as what to practice and what to abandon. Without intelligence, our actions, meditation practice, and view will be skewed.

Intelligent and discerning disciples also examine the source of a teaching and are not satisfied unless they know it originated with the Buddha. They investigate if that teaching has been studied and explained by sages, actualized by yogis, and translated by excellent translators. Using reasoning and scriptural citations, they establish a teaching’s validity.

Even if students are open-minded and intelligent, if they do not practice, they will not progress. Therefore, interest, diligence, eagerness, and commitment to engage in the practice are essential for spiritual transformation.

Two more qualities of a suitable disciple are often added to these three. The first, respect and veneration toward the teacher and teaching, makes us a receptive vessel to receive the Dharma, whereas arrogance and apathy prevent spiritual growth. Appreciating our teachers’ wisdom and kindness and respecting the excellent qualities of the teachings moistens our minds, making it receptive to the Buddhadharma.

Attentively taking the teacher’s advice and instructions to heart by putting them into practice enables us to plumb the depth of the teachings and integrate them into our very being. Do not think that these instructions must be given one-on-one. Even when we are in an audience of a thousand people, our mentor’s spiritual instructions remain the key to actualizing the path.

People who sincerely wish to attain liberation or full awakening will cultivate these qualities in order to become receptive disciples and increase the benefit they receive from listening to teachings. In doing so, they become more self-confident and responsible in their Dharma practice. With clear understanding, they will be capable of receiving teachings and empowerments from various spiritual mentors and lineages without becoming either confused or sectarian. Not falling into mistaken ideas of “surrendering everything to the guru,” they will not be led astray by teachers with impure motivations. Instead they will derive great benefit from relationships with qualified spiritual mentors. Their clarity of mind and good qualities will increase, and they will become good examples for newcomers on the path.

This book began with an explanation of the two truths, the four truths of the āryas, and the noncontradictory nature of dependent arising and emptiness. These instructions guide a practitioner of middle capacity on the path to liberation and enable a sharp-faculty advanced disciple to ascertain the possibility of attaining full awakening. When you understand these instructions well, you will know the kind of qualities a spiritual mentor must have to guide a disciple on the path to liberation and full awakening. You will also understand the qualities a disciple must have to be a receptive vessel, and the way the disciple should rely on the spiritual mentor.

To illustrate the importance of being an intelligent disciple, the Buddha gives the example of misguided people and intelligent ones who want to get the poison from a water snake in order to use it as medicine. A misguided person grasps the snake’s coils or its tail, enabling the snake to turn its head around and bite him. The poison that this person sought to make into medicine now makes him suffer. Similarly, a person may hear or read the Dharma but not think about it clearly. He thereby injects his own preconceptions into the teaching, twisting the meaning to conform to his ideas, which are based on attachment and animosity. Or, due to ignorance, he misunderstands the actual meaning of the teachings and practices that. This person may also have the wrong motivation, learning the Dharma for the sake of criticizing others or winning a debate. Sadly, a person who incorrectly grasps the teachings often does not realize he is doing so and instead proceeds to share his distorted understanding with others, harming not only himself but others as well. This damage may affect many future lifetimes.

On the other hand, intelligent people grasp the snake’s head, and by pressing it in a certain way, extract the poison and make it into medicine. Similarly, wise disciples learn the Dharma and examine the meaning with wisdom. Through wise investigation, they will come to correct conclusions and accept the teachings. Their motivation is to derive spiritual benefit, and they succeed in doing this, thus bringing happiness to themselves and others for a long time to come. The Buddha concludes the simile with this advice (MN 22.12):

When you understand the meaning of my statements, remember it accordingly; and when you do not understand the meaning of my statements, then ask either me or those monastics who are wise about it.

We, too, should ask our teachers and other senior Dharma students when we do not understand a teaching. Even when we think we understand a teaching properly, it is always good to check our understanding with those who are more knowledgeable and skilled in practice than we are. In that way, the Dharma will be wonderful medicine that cures our own and others’ suffering.

In case someone misunderstands the simile of the snake and thinks that Dharma is something to grasp onto and identify with, the Buddha continues the sūtra using the simile of the raft. This simile illustrates that, having understood the teachings correctly, we should use them to cross the ocean of saṃsāra and reach the shore of nirvāṇa, without clinging to the teachings unnecessarily.

A traveler comes across a large body of water. The bank where he stands is dangerous, but the far side is safe. Since there is no ferry, he binds branches together to make a raft and, holding onto the raft correctly, paddles to the other shore. Feeling relieved upon safely reaching the other shore, the traveler should not hoist the raft on his shoulder and carry it around because of attachment to the raft. The sensible thing to do is to set the raft down and go on his way.

When you know the Dhamma to be similar to a raft, you should abandon even the Dhamma; how much more so what is contrary to the Dhamma.

The Pāli commentary indicates that here Dhamma refers to serenity and insight. Practitioners should not get attached to even the peace of serenity and the sublimity of insight, let alone cling to wrong views such as thinking attachment to sensual pleasure is not an obstruction on the path. While exerting effort to cultivate serenity and insight is essential, we should not cling to the peacefulness that these states bring, but continue to practice until we gain complete liberation.

The Buddha makes a similar point in the Greater Discourse on the Destruction of Craving (Mahātaṇhāsankhaya Sutta), where he questions the monastics regarding their understanding of how the four nutriments perpetuate the five aggregates of saṃsāra. The monastics assure him that they have understood with proper wisdom not only how the aggregates arise because of the four nutriments but also how they cease when their respective nutriments cease. The Buddha replies (MN 38.14):

Monastics, purified and bright as this view is, if you adhere to it, cherish it, treasure it, and treat it as a possession, would you then understand that the Dhamma has been taught as being similar to a raft, to be used for the purpose of crossing over, not for the purpose of grasping? — “No, venerable sir,” [replied the monastics].

A view may be correct and sublime, but if we treat it as a personal possession, create an identity out of it, or adhere to it with attachment, we have missed the boat. However, going to the other extreme and thinking we can cross the water without a raft is unwise, as is casting the raft aside before we have reached the other side. Open-minded and intelligent disciples will discern the correct view and then contemplate and meditate on it without clinging to it with attachment.

Leaving the raft behind after reaching the other shore does not mean that those who are liberated give up the Buddha’s teachings and do whatever they like. They show their incredible gratitude and reverence for the Dharma by teaching others and guiding them on the path.

By means of the similes of the snake and the raft, we see the importance of making ourselves into suitable vessels to receive and hold the Dharma. While having a fully qualified spiritual master is necessary to progress on the path, it is not sufficient. The more that we put effort into developing correct understanding and good qualities, the more our spiritual mentor will be able to lead us on the path to awakening.

REFLECTION

1.What are the five qualities of an excellent disciple? How will developing each one help you on the path?

2.What ideas do you have to increase the five qualities of a suitable disciple in yourself?

3.What have you learned from the simile of the snake and the simile of the raft?