The Foundation of Buddhist Practice

The Workings of Karma

OUR ACTIONS CAN BE classified in several different ways. Learning these enriches our understanding of karma and its effects, which, in turn, helps us to be more mindful of thoughts, words, and deeds.

Projecting and Completing Karma

Projecting and completing karma are differentiated by the types of results they bring. Projecting karma ripens in rebirth in a saṃsāric realm with the five aggregates of a desire-realm or form-realm being or the four aggregates of a formless-realm deva. It is the second of the twelve links of dependent origination. Completing karma determines the specific attributes or experiences in that life. The projecting karma of ethical conduct leads the mind to be born with human aggregates, and the completing karma of speaking kindly to others makes the body attractive.

All four branches must be complete for an action to become projecting karma, but this is not necessary for a completing karma. In births resulting from either virtuous or nonvirtuous projecting karma, we can experience the results of either virtuous or nonvirtuous completing karma. The chart gives some examples of possible results.

	VIRTUOUS PROJECTING KARMA	NONVIRTUOUS PROJECTING KARMA
Virtuous completing karma	Human life with eight freedoms and ten fortunes	Pampered pet
Nonvirtuous completing karma	Human life lived in poverty	Beasts of labor

While projecting karma determines the type of body we appropriate — human, animal, and so forth — completing karma affects such factors as the genetic predispositions of the body and whether those predispositions are activated.

Vasubandhu says that a projecting karma produces only one rebirth and only one rebirth arises from a projecting karma, whereas Asaṅga states that one projecting karma can produce one or many rebirths and many karmas can produce one or many rebirths.

The results of many completing karmas are experienced in one life. Someone may be born in a war-torn country because of one nonvirtuous completing karma, but receive shipments of food, medicine, and clothing resulting from virtuous completing karma. Circumstances in our lives may frequently change depending on the completing karma that ripens at any particular time.

Collective and Individual Karma

Sentient beings are social and often act together. We belong to various groups and work, play, practice Dharma, and raise the next generation together. As such, we experience common results together. Asaṅga’s Compendium of Knowledge discusses various possibilities of how this occurs.

Some actions are done collectively by a large group; they result in experiences shared by everyone in that group, such as living in the same country or experiencing a natural disaster. Collective karma is also created in small groups: The people attending Dharma teachings or a soccer game create collective karma. All the participants will experience a similar result in a future group situation.

We also create individual karma when we are part of a group; this results in experiences that are not shared by others. Everyone at a Dharma teaching creates virtuous group karma because the purpose of the gathering is virtuous. Within that group, one person listens attentively and thinks, “These teachings are important and I want to practice them.” Another person with a wandering mind thinks, “I wonder what’s for lunch?” In the future, these two people will find themselves in a similar agreeable situation but will experience it differently because of the individual karma they created. Similarly, as the result of collective karma they created together, many people may be in a place plagued by an epidemic, but owing to individual karma, some will fall ill while others won’t.

It is important to be heedful of the groups that we choose to join and the purposes for which they are established because we reap the result of the collective actions of that group that correspond to the purpose of the group. The First Dalai Lama says (EPL 614):

If one asks: In the course of a war and so forth, if one person kills another, does the karmic path arise only for that single person?

No. In a war and so forth, since they are all there with the same purpose of killing, they all have the karmic path in the same way as the killer.

While sitting in a crowd of thousands who have gathered to hear His Holiness teach, I (Chodron) marvel at the opportunity to be part of a group that has formed for the purpose of developing compassion and attaining awakening. The collective karma created by this group is very different from a group whose purpose is to increase the value of a company’s stock.

Sometimes without choice we find ourselves part of a group whose purpose or activities we do not agree with. For example, we may be the citizen of a state that employs capital punishment. If we do not endorse this activity, we do not create this particular collective karma. Being clear and aware of our intentions in such situations is extremely important so that we can skillfully guide our creation of karma.

Naturally Nonvirtuous Actions and Proscribed Actions

Karma is also divided into naturally nonvirtuous (prakṛti-sāvadya) actions and actions proscribed by the Buddha (prajñaty-avadya). Those that are naturally nonvirtuous — such as the ten nonvirtues — are so-called because they are done with a nonvirtuous motivation, their nature is nonvirtuous, and they have the potential to produce suffering results. Whoever does them — whether that person is monastic or lay — creates nonvirtue (akuśala) and negativity (pāpa) and will experience unpleasant results.57

Actions proscribed by the Buddha are those regulated by precepts, such as the prātimokṣa precepts of monastics. Some of these actions are not naturally nonvirtuous and do not necessarily involve an afflictive motivation; they may also be done with a neutral or constructive motivation. Examples are singing, dancing, watching entertainment, wearing perfumes, ornaments, and cosmetics, eating after midday, and handling money.

When those who hold monastic precepts transgress a precept, they commit an offense or downfall (āpatti) by engaging in an action proscribed by the Buddha. To purify this, they must confess and apply the appropriate method as prescribed in the vinaya. For this reason, it is very important for monastics to attend a poṣadha rite with four or more fully ordained monastics. Depending on the gravity of the offense, the way of making amends differs. Someone committing a remainder offense must enter a period of penance in which he or she temporarily relinquishes monastic privileges. A monastic who obtains an article by wrong livelihood must relinquish the article. Minor offenses are purified by confessing them to another monastic who is free from that transgression.

If the transgressed precept regulates an action that is naturally nonvirtuous, such as killing an animal or telling small lies, the monastic creates negativity and needs to apply the four opponent powers to purify this karma in addition to amending the offense by confessing to the saṅgha.

Even if the action itself is not naturally negative, people engaging in it — whether they hold precepts or not — may still create negativity if they have a nonvirtuous intention while doing the action. A monastic who handles money with contempt for the precepts creates negativity as well as an offense that must be confessed to the saṅgha. Similarly, when monastics motivated by attachment or anger eat in the evening, they must rectify both the negativity as well as the offense. If they eat after noon under circumstances in which the Buddha allowed them to eat — for example, the monastic is ill, working for the saṅgha, or traveling — there is no offense or negativity. If none of those extenuating circumstances apply and the monastic eats because she sees the food as medicine to keep her body healthy so she can practice the Dharma, there is an offense but no negativity.

In brief, in a case where the offense also creates negativity — such as a monastic lying — the negativity and the offense are one nature but nominally different. As such, they are purified by different methods. When offenses have been confessed to the saṅgha with the prescribed ritual, they are said to have been purified. However, the negativity can only be purified through sincere application of the four opponent powers. On the other hand, if the person purifies the negativity by engaging in the four opponent powers, but does not confess the offense and make amends to the saṅgha and attend poṣadha, the offense remains and obscures the mind. Until the person confesses and makes amends, he is not fit to carry out certain monastic activities such as giving ordination. If the person is not conscientious, these offenses may later lead him to engage in negativities or create further offenses.

Intention Karma, Intended Karma, and Mental Karma

Karma is of two types, intention karma (cetanā-karma) and intended karma (cetayitvā karma). Vasubandhu explains (ADK):

Karma gives rise to the diversity of the world.

It is [of two kinds], intention [karma] and what it produces [intended karma].

Intention is mental karma:

[the intended karma] it produces is physical and verbal karma.

These [physical and verbal karmas] consist of perceptible and imperceptible [karma].

Intention karma is mental karma, specifically the mental factor of intention. Once a strong intention has arisen in the mind, physical and verbal actions — intended karma — follow. Physical and verbal actions may be either perceptible karma (vijñapti) that reveals the person’s intention or imperceptible karma (avijñapti) that does not. For example, when strong malice is present in our mind, the mental factor of intention that accompanies it is mental karma. That intention to harm another person leads us to speak spitefully to him; our voice uttering the snide comment is perceptible verbal karma. The harsh tone of our voice reveals our intention to hurt him.

Asaṅga says (ADS):

What is mental karma? It is a mental action that conditions the mind; it consists of meritorious, demeritorious, and immutable [actions].

Mental karma (manas karma) is the mental factor of intention, which accompanies a primary mind and is included in the fourth aggregate (miscellaneous factors). When the mental factor of intention accompanies a primary mental consciousness that is also accompanied by a virtuous mental factor, such as faith or love, it becomes constructive karma. That intention is mental karma and intention karma.

Similarly, the intention that accompanies a primary mental consciousness that is also accompanied by a nonvirtuous mental factor, such as attachment, resentment, or discouragement (which is a form of laziness), is destructive karma. The intention is mental karma and intention karma, and the nonvirtuous mental factor is an affliction.

Intentions — intention karmas — produce intended karmas (cetayitvā karma), which are physical and verbal actions. Motivated by the intention that shares the same primary mental consciousness as attachment, someone engages in the verbal intended karma of lying in order to get what he wants. Motivated by the intention that shares the same primary mental consciousness as vengeance, someone may kill another person who speaks divisively about her to ruin her reputation.

A strong mental intention that instigates lying and a strong mental intention that abandons lying are both the mental factor of intention and intention karma. The former is accompanied by a nonvirtuous mental factor such as anger, the latter by a virtuous one such as integrity. When either intention is accompanied by the other branches that form a complete karmic path, it becomes the second link of dependent origination and has the power to propel a rebirth in cyclic existence. The physical or verbal actions that are brought about by these mental karmas are intended actions.

Physical and Verbal Karma, Perceptible and Imperceptible Forms

All Buddhist schools agree that karma is connected to our intentions. Sautrāntikas, Cittamātrins, and Svātantrikas say that all karma of body, speech, and mind is the mental factor of intention. The mental factor of intention that motivates an action is intention karma, and the mental factor of intention at the time of doing the physical or verbal action is intended karma. For them both intention karma (mental karma) and intended karma (physical and verbal actions) are intentions.

Vaibhāṣikas say that karma can be of two kinds: intention karma, which is the mental factor of intention, and intended karma, which is karma of body and speech. The karmas of body and speech are of two types: perceptible forms (vijñapti) and imperceptible forms (avijñapti). Perceptible physical karma is “the shape of the body when it is motivated by an intention and is moving, for example, when prostrating or killing . . . perceptible verbal karma is the sound of the voice,” for example, when lying or speaking kindly. The shape of the body and the sound of our voice are forms, and they “are perceptible forms in that they enable others to understand our motivation” for doing the action (EPL 558–59). Perceptible forms may be virtuous, nonvirtuous, or neutral.

Imperceptible forms are subtle forms that are not perceivable by the sense faculties and that arise only when a person has a strong intention. They are either virtuous or nonvirtuous. Neutral actions lack the powerful intention necessary to bring forth an imperceptible form. Imperceptible forms continue to exist no matter if the person is conscious, sleeping, or engaged in other actions. An example is monastic precepts.

Imperceptible forms are obscure phenomena, established by reliable cognizers depending on authoritative scripture. Chim Jampelyang in Ornament of Abhidharma (mngon pa’i rgyan) quotes a sūtra that establishes their existence:

All forms are subsumed in three types of form: (1) forms that are visible and obstructive, (2) forms that are invisible but obstructive, and (3) forms that are invisible and nonobstructive.

An example of visible and obstructive forms is a table. It can be perceived by the eye consciousness and obstructs the space it occupies so that other things cannot occupy that space at the same time. Examples of invisible but obstructive forms are sounds, tastes, and odors; they cannot be seen by the eye but are obstructive. The sound of people laughing is obstructive because it prevents our hearing someone who is whispering. An example of invisible and nonobstructive forms is imperceptible forms. Vaibhāṣikas assert that only imperceptible forms are examples of the third type of forms, whereas Prāsaṅgikas include other phenomena such as dream objects.58

The Treasury of Knowledge speaks of three types of imperceptible forms: ethical restraints, antirestraints, and other imperceptible forms.

1.Ethical restraints (saṃvara) constrain us from afflictive activity. They are of three types: prātimokṣa restraints, concentration restraints, and unpolluted restraints. (a) Prātimokṣa restraints are of eight types: the precepts of male and female fully ordained monastics, training nuns, male and female novices, male and female lay followers with the five precepts, and lay followers with the eight one-day precepts. When we take the precept not to kill, steal, and so forth, an imperceptible form arises in us that acts like a dam that helps us restrain from doing that destructive action. These ethical restraints remain until they are completely broken, voluntarily relinquished, or we die. (b) The concentration restraint is possessed by beings who have meditative stability arising from concentration. (c) The unpolluted restraint is possessed by āryas in meditative equipoise. When āryas are in meditative equipoise, their right speech and right action — two factors of an ārya’s eightfold path — are imperceptible forms that are unpolluted by ignorance.

2.Antirestraints (asaṃvara) are the opposite of restraining from destructive actions. They arise due to someone’s strong intention to act destructively and remain until that person gives up that profession and its motivation or until he dies. Examples are the antirestraints of a butcher or exterminator.

3.Other imperceptible forms arise by depending on holy objects, making firm promises, and acting with strong reverence or other positive motivations. The Scripture on Discernment (Vinayavibhaṅga) describes seven virtues derived in relation to substances (aupadhika puṇya kriyā vastu) that are meritorious imperceptible forms: offering a residence to the saṅgha, offering a prayer hall to the saṅgha, offering cushions or seats for the prayer hall, offering food regularly to the saṅgha, offering food to travelers and guests, offerings useful items to the sick and to medical professionals, and offering food to the saṅgha at the monastery if it is difficult for the monastics to go on alms round because of inclement weather. The Buddha praised these virtues as being “of great fruit, highly beneficial, splendid, and enormous in nature.” The merit of those who offer these will “unceasingly increase at all times, whether they are walking, sitting, sleeping, or waking.”

Our intention in making these seven offerings is that others will use them to create merit. Whenever they do so, we accumulate a virtuous imperceptible form. This imperceptible form continues until we die, unless it vanishes because we have strong afflictions or the prayer hall and so forth is destroyed. At our death the imperceptible form is lost, but its having-ceased (naṣṭa) goes on to future lives.59 When suitable conditions arise, it will ripen and bring its happy result.

Another example of the third type of restraint is the imperceptible form that arises when we ask someone to perform a constructive or destructive physical or verbal action. For example, a military commander accumulates the karma of killing by ordering his soldiers to kill the enemy. Although he does not kill with his own hands, he accumulates the nonvirtuous imperceptible form of killing each time one of his soldiers kills. The military commander will experience the suffering result of these actions of killing, as will the soldiers. When we tell friends and relatives to give donations to those in need, charities, and temples, we accumulate virtuous imperceptible forms when they make the offerings.

Vasubandhu cites the above two situations — creating merit through certain material objects and accumulating karma when we order or ask others to perform an action — as reasons to prove the existence of imperceptible forms. Without imperceptible forms, our merit from offering the seven substances could not increase if later our mind were in a nonvirtuous or neutral state. Without the existence of imperceptible forms, we could not accumulate nonvirtue if our mind were in a virtuous state at the time someone we told to steal goes out and robs. This is because we cannot accumulate destructive karma when our mind is in a virtuous state and cannot accumulate merit when our mind is in a nonvirtuous state.

Furthermore, while in meditative equipoise on emptiness on the path of seeing, āryas possess all branches of the eightfold path. If there were no imperceptible forms, they could not possess right speech, right action, and right livelihood at that time. Also, the fact that precepts and ethical restraints are imperceptible forms enables them to act as a dam that impedes transgressions.

While the explanation of imperceptible forms is found in the Treasury of Knowledge, a text expressing Vaibhāṣika and Sautrāntika tenets, many Tibetan scholars say it is also accepted by Prāsaṅgikas. To support this, they point to a passage in the Discrimination of the Five Aggregates, a text attributed to Candrakīrti that describes imperceptible forms as “any form that is a phenomena source that is neither visible nor obstructive and can only be perceived by the mental consciousness, such as ethical restraints, antirestraints . . .”60

By saying that physical and verbal karmas are the mental factor of intention, Sautrāntikas, Cittamātrins, and Svātantrikas have difficulty explaining what physical actions are and how physical movement of the body is karma. The Prāsaṅgika presentation is more aligned with conventions. They say that in the action of prostrating, there is the physical karma that is a perceptible form — the form of the body moving. In addition, there is an intention that motivates that action, and that intention is the mental karma of prostrating. All tenet schools agree that the second link of dependent origination is the mental factor of intention (when the other branches of a karmic path are complete). The karma of harsh words or the karma of saving someone’s life is the mental factor of intention that motivates those actions; this intention leaves the karmic potential that brings forth a new rebirth.

According to Vaibhāṣikas and Prāsaṅgikas, imperceptible forms belong to the aggregate of form but are forms for mental consciousness (dharmāyatanarūpa). As such, they are included in the phenomena source (dharmāyatana), not the form source (rūpāyatana).

I have a theory to explain why Vaibhāṣikas and Prāsaṅgikas agree that physical and verbal actions are form, whereas the other schools say they are intention. Vaibhāṣikas are not very analytical; they understand things according to worldly conventions and the perceptions of ordinary people. In worldly conventions, we say, “I heard her speak the truth. We saw him beat the dog.” On the basis of these ordinary conventions, we speak of physical and verbal actions as things that we see and hear — as forms.

Sautrāntikas, Cittamātrins, and Svātantrikas posit things on the basis of their being objective phenomena that exist from their own side. The originator of the Svātantrika school, Bhāvaviveka, said in the Blaze of Reasoning:

We also actually impute the term “self” to [the mental] consciousness conventionally . . . because [the mental] consciousness takes rebirth, it is said that it is the self.61

All schools who accept rebirth say that the self transmigrates. People who are unable to posit phenomena as existing by mere designation usually posit the mind — specifically the mental consciousness — to be the self, since it, and not the body, is what transmigrates. Within the mental consciousness, only the mental factor of intention can be pointed to as being karma. Why? When these people analyze actions while considering them to be objectively existent, they see that unless an intention is involved, an action cannot be karma. A boulder rolling downhill is action, but not karma. Thus they point to the mental factor of intention as the karma and not the physical and verbal actions per se.

According to Prāsaṅgikas, if we analytically search for something that objectively exists beyond the conventional norm, we cannot find anything. They thus accept things as existing merely by convention, and conventionally we say we perceive physical and verbal actions through our senses. For this reason, Prāsaṅgikas accept physical and verbal karmas to be form.

Gloomy and Bright Karmas and Their Effects

The Buddha spoke of four kinds of karma (MN 57.7):⁶²

There are these four kinds of karma declared by me after I had realized them for myself by direct knowledge. What four? There is gloomy karma with gloomy results; there is bright karma with bright results; there is karma that is gloomy and bright with gloomy and bright results; there is karma that is neither gloomy nor bright, with neither gloomy nor bright results, which leads to the destruction of karma.

1.Nonvirtue is gloomy karma with gloomy fruition. It is afflictive by nature and produces disagreeable results in one of the three unfortunate states. Born there, afflictive contact arises, leading to afflictive painful feelings such as feelings experienced in the hell states.

2.Bright karma and bright fruition is virtue included in the form realm. The mental states of beings in this realm are either virtuous or neutral; their nonvirtuous mental factors have been temporarily suppressed, so their actions do not produce the duḥkha of pain.63 Form-realm beings do not experience unpleasant feelings. Bright karma is created in a mindstream that is not mixed with negative thoughts; it brings a pleasant result that is unmixed with suffering in that being’s mindstream.

3.Gloomy-bright karma with gloomy-bright fruition is the virtue of the desire realm. While this karma is bright in that it is virtuous, it arises in a mindstream that also has nonvirtuous thoughts, making it gloomy-bright virtue. It yields pleasant results, but the mindstream in which it ripens also experiences painful feelings, making its result gloomy-bright. Human beings, some beings in the unfortunate states, such as pet animals, and some devas experience this.

4.Unpolluted karma is neither gloomy nor bright. Cyclic existence is perpetuated by polluted karma. Wise ones, who have realized emptiness directly, do not create polluted karma and free themselves from uncontrolled rebirth. Vasubandhu says (EPL 675, n 118):

Unpolluted karma causes the termination and the elimination of those three [types of] karma . . . Since it is contrary to entering into [the process of cyclic existence, unpolluted karma] is not included within the [three] realms; therefore is has no fruition [in saṃsāra].

In the consciousness that is an ārya’s true path realizing emptiness nondually, the mental factor of intention is unpolluted karma. Arhats and pure-ground bodhisattvas also create unpolluted karma when they engage in other activities in post-meditation time. Such karma is unpolluted in that it is not created under the influence of ignorance; it is never nonvirtuous and does not generate causes for rebirth. It is the remedy to the above three types of karma, leads out of cyclic existence, and gives rise to true cessations and nirvāṇa. Until arhats leave their body, they will experience the results of previous karma, some of which may be painful. However, they do not react to pain by generating more afflictions, and thus do not accrue new karma.

Unpolluted karma also refers to the subtle intention that arhats and bodhisattvas on the pure grounds must generate for their physical, verbal, and mental actions owing to the presence of cognitive obscurations in their mindstreams. Unpolluted karma and the latencies of ignorance give rise to the mental body of arhats and bodhisattvas on the pure grounds. Buddhas do not have unpolluted karma because they have eliminated the cognitive obscurations. Being effortless and spontaneous, their actions are called awakening activities (T. ’phrin las). These compassionate actions are a special type of activity that is effective because of buddhas’ great virtue. Their ability to successfully use awakening activities to benefit sentient beings depends on the accumulation of merit by those sentient beings and their karmic connection with the buddhas.

In terms of highest yoga tantra, the mind of someone experiencing the fourth-stage actual clear light has the mental factor of intention, which could be considered unpolluted mental karma. When this person emerges from the actual clear light, he or she immediately manifests a pure illusory body, which is unpolluted in the sense that the mind associated with it is free from afflictive obscurations. This illusory body is considered a physical phenomenon, so perhaps its actions could be considered unpolluted karma of the body and speech.

Purifying Destructive Karma

With only a superficial glance, we may believe our actions are basically virtuous, but if we closely observe our physical, verbal, and mental activities we may find that our motivations for constructive action are often weak, the actions are done hurriedly or distractedly, and we forget to dedicate the merit. Constructive actions require much effort on our part, like a tired donkey carrying a heavy load uphill. On the other hand, when faced with circumstances in which acting negatively could bring immediate benefit to our selfish aims, we easily engage in destructive actions, like water flowing downhill. We have strong habits with such behavior from previous lives. Understanding this, mindful observance of our ethical standards and purification of past misdeeds becomes imperative to avoid pain and to secure happiness.

The Sūtra Showing the Four Dharmas (Caturdharmanirdeśa Sūtra) reveals an excellent practice for purifying all destructive actions — the four opponent powers — which were described briefly in chapter 6 (LC 1:252):

Maitreya, when a bodhisattva mahāsattva possesses these four powers, they will overcome any negativities they have done and accumulated. What are they? They are the power of regret, the power of the antidote, the power of resolve, and the power of reliance.

First learn to accurately assess your actions, accept responsibility for your misdeeds, admit them, and regret them. Strong regret is the key to purification, for without it there is no motivation to counteract negativities. Regret is not guilt, so do not despise yourself thinking that the more you berate yourself the more you atone for your misdeeds.

Make an effort to understand how you became involved in these negativities by reflecting, “Was my interpretation of the situation accurate or was it skewed by my self-centeredness? What was my motivation? How were my body, speech, and mind involved in this action? Do I engage in this action often? Did I rejoice afterward?” Then contemplate, using your Dharma knowledge, how you could think about and deal with a similar situation should it happen in the future. Such in-depth reflection will help you to uncover destructive emotional, verbal, and physical behaviors, and by understanding these, you can begin to change them.

In chapter 2 of Engaging in the Bodhisattvas’ Deeds, Śāntideva proposes many points to reflect on that evoke our regret. If we were to die at this moment, the seeds of these harmful actions would be on our mindstream, so alarmed at the prospect of experiencing an unfortunate rebirth, we should regret our nonvirtues and turn to the Three Jewels for guidance. Engaging in destructive actions out of attachment for friends and family is futile, considering that we will have to separate from them, and our destructive karma will continue with us into our next life. Misdeeds bring frightening results in this and future lives, so this is no time to be complacent. In this way, express regret (BCA 2.28–29):

Since beginningless cyclic existence,

in this life and in others,

unknowingly I committed negativities

and caused them to be done [by others].

Overwhelmed by the mistakes of ignorance,

I rejoiced in what was committed,

but now, seeing these mistakes,

from my heart I confess them to the Protectors.

Second, perform virtuous actions as an antidote to your misdeeds. Although all virtuous actions fulfill this, six practices in particular are recommended:

1.Recite, study, or contemplate sūtras, especially the Perfection of Wisdom Sūtras (Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras) and the Sūtra of the Golden Light (Suvarṇaprabhā Sūtra).

2.Meditate on emptiness by contemplating Nāgārjuna’s teachings or the Heart Sūtra.

3.Recite mantras containing the names of the buddhas, such as the Vajrasattva mantra.

4.Make buddha images and statues, create altars and shrines, and build stūpas or monasteries.

5.Make offerings to the buddhas and bodhisattvas.

6.Recite the names of buddhas, for example, the names of the thirty-five buddhas.

Prostrating to these buddhas with reverence for their excellent qualities while reciting their names is especially powerful. Meditation on bodhicitta — even for a few minutes — and engaging in actions motivated by bodhicitta have the power to purify the seeds of destructive karma created over eons. Other remedial actions are making donations to charities, monasteries, or spiritual practitioners; doing volunteer work in a hospital, Dharma center, or other health facility; and printing Dharma books for free distribution.

Third, make a strong determination to abandon such actions in the future. This fortifies your inner strength to oppose habitual destructive ways of thinking and acting and to change your ways; it is like making New Year’s resolutions, only you should keep these! If you cannot resolve to abandon certain actions forever, resolve to avoid them for a certain period of time. During that time, be very conscientious to avoid the action. This will give you confidence, and then you can extend the time some more.

Fourth, reestablish good relationships with the objects of our destructive actions — holy objects such as the Buddha, Dharma, and Saṅgha, or our spiritual mentors, or sentient beings. By taking refuge, we reaffirm our connection with the Three Jewels and our spiritual mentors. By generating bodhicitta, we replace the negative intentions that caused us to harm others with positive feelings toward them.

The order of the four opponent powers may vary according to the specific purification practice you do. In Prostrations to the Thirty-Five Buddhas, first you take refuge and generate bodhicitta, then prostrate as the remedial action, followed by generating regret and resolve to avoid repeating the actions. In the Vajrasattva practice the order is taking refuge and generating bodhicitta, regret, reciting Vajrasattva’s mantra as the remedial action, and resolving not to do the action again.

As ordinary beings we don’t know where we will be reborn, and the time between this life and an unfortunate rebirth is one breath. If we don’t purify our misdeeds and work hard to prevent an unfortunate rebirth before we die, it may be a long time before we have the opportunity to practice the Dharma again.

It’s important to do purification before the seeds of harmful actions ripen; once a cup is broken, we cannot unbreak it. Similarly, doing pūjās after a suffering result has occurred cannot undo the present suffering, although it will create virtue that could reduce future suffering. The efficacy of the pūjā depends on a variety of factors, including the potency of the karmic seeds that are about to ripen.

Making specific predictions about the extent to which negativities have been reduced or eliminated is difficult and depends on many factors, such as the intensity of the regret, the sincerity of our resolve to refrain from repeating the action, the concentration with which we did the remedial behavior, and the sincerity of our refuge and bodhicitta. It also depends on whether we did the four opponent powers over a long or short period of time and whether all four opponent powers were applied or only some.

Although purification done by ordinary beings does not remove karmic seeds from the mindstream, it weakens them so that their results will be less intense or will last for a shorter period of time. Instead of experiencing a car accident, we may trip and stub our toe. Rather than suffering from domestic disharmony for years, we may endure it for only some weeks or months. Instead of being born in an unfortunate state, we may fall ill in this life. Understanding this, we will not become upset when we fall ill or encounter unpleasant situations. Instead we will think, “How fortunate that a powerful destructive karma is now ripening. Compared to the intense suffering I would have experienced for a long time had it ripened in an unfortunate rebirth, I can manage the current misery.” Seeing the situation in this way protects our mind from creating more negative karma by angrily reacting to problems. It enables our mind to remain unperturbed by this comparatively small suffering that will soon end.

Purification can also prevent the coming together of the cooperative conditions for a karma to ripen. Purification may “burn” the karmic seeds so that they do not bring a result, but only by realizing emptiness directly is the potency to produce unfortunate rebirths completely eliminated. It is good to seal purification practices, as well as all our virtuous practices, by contemplating emptiness and dependent arising. We do this by reflecting that the I who created the destructive action, the action itself, its karmic seed, and so forth arise dependently and yet are empty of inherent existence. Similarly, the person doing the purification practice, the action of purifying, and the karmic seeds that are purified lack inherent existence but exist dependently. Although all the factors involved in creating nonvirtue and in purifying negativities lack inherent existence, they still exist and function on the conventional level, and so purification is important.

Doing the four opponent powers repeatedly may bring certain signs of purification or the reduction of the strength of the seeds of destructive actions. We may repeatedly dream of being with our spiritual mentor or the saṅgha, or in a temple. Dreaming that we walk on a mountain or see the rising of the sun or moon may also indicate purification. This does not mean that every dream involving these is a sign of purification; dreams are due to a variety of factors. Changes in daily life occurrences also indicate purification. Whereas previously our mind was often unclear and heavy, now we are more attentive when listening to Dharma teachings or studying. We understand the meaning more easily and have deeper meditation experiences. Our mind is less resistant to the Dharma and integrating the Dharma in our lives becomes much easier.

While purification is always possible and advisable, avoiding destructive actions is better. We may glue a cup back together, but it’s better not to have broken it to start with. However, when strong negative emotions, mental obscuration, lack of mindfulness or conscientiousness, or carelessness overpower us and we act negatively, it’s important not to despair but to remember that we can purify these actions, and then put energy into doing so. This not only aids our spiritual practice but also helps us psychologically by reducing guilt and making us more honest with ourselves.

Being indolent in purifying our nonvirtue only harms us. I find it amusing, yet sad, that although some people call themselves Buddhists, they heed the advice of fortune tellers more than the teachings of the omniscient Buddha. The Buddha warned us that suffering will come from our harmful actions, yet we ignore this and think there is no need to exert so much energy to purify our karma by doing the four opponent powers. But if a fortune teller tells us that we will fall ill unless we do a particular antidotal activity, we are eager to follow his instructions. It should not be like this!

Creating Our Future

Contemplating karma and its effects makes us question if doing something simply because it feels good in the moment or brings us temporary benefit is wise. Drinking liquor may make us temporarily feel good, but we also say and do many foolish things. Initially certain actions may benefit our self-centered aims, but their karmic consequences in the long run will bring suffering. On the other hand, waking up early in the morning to do our meditation practice may be uncomfortable now, but it brings so many beneficial results later. Being honest in business may initially bring less profit, but it will result in greater security and wealth later.

The Buddha outlined excellent advice for how to make a decision or tackle a difficult situation: if an action brings both long- and short-term benefits, do it. If it brings long-term benefit, but temporary discomfort, doing it is still worthwhile. But if it brings immediate happiness yet causes suffering as the long-term karmic effect, then avoid it. If it brings misery now and in the future, definitely avoid it.

These teachings on karma are not theoretical; they relate to our daily life activities when we continually engage in actions that become the causes for pain or for happiness and awakening. Although understanding the detailed workings of karma and explaining them by reasoning alone is difficult, accepting the natural law of karma and its results is supported by more valid reasons and fewer logical inconsistencies than other explanations. Knowing this, be confident in thinking, “Having attained a precious human life, I have the potential and the responsibility to create the causes for happiness, and I will do this.”

Who Creates Constructive Karma?

Scriptures say that the demarcation between Dharma and non-Dharma actions is the presence or absence of the eight worldly concerns. They further say that Dharma motivations begin with the aspiration for a good rebirth, followed by the determination to be free from cyclic existence and attain liberation, and culminate in bodhicitta.

However, people can create constructive karma without believing in rebirth or having a Dharma motivation. For example, at the time of the Buddha, an old man wanted to become a monk, but Śāriputra could not determine if he had created enough merit to receive ordination. The Buddha, with his supernormal power that sees the karma of all sentient beings, observed that in a previous life, the old man had been a fly on a piece of cow dung that floated in water around a stūpa. Although this tiny insect did not have the motivation to take a human rebirth and become a monk, through contact with this holy object he accumulated the merit that enabled him to be ordained. Such merit is called the “root of virtue concordant with liberation,” which arises when sentient beings have contact with powerful holy objects.64 This is a unique kind of dependent arising wherein the object becomes powerful owing to the buddhas’ and ārya bodhisattvas’ inconceivable collection of merit and to their altruistic aspiration that anyone who even sees, hears, thinks about, or contacts them receives benefits that will ripen in awakening.

Non-Buddhist practitioners who develop very high states of meditative concentration also create constructive karma that brings fortunate rebirth in the form and formless realms in their next lives, where they experience the bliss that arises from deep states of samādhi.

Many human beings act with kindness. They may know nothing about karma or future lives yet feel compassion for those who are suffering and help them motivated by genuine care. They work hard without getting angry or complaining; they are honest and respect those worthy of respect. Some care for the ill and elderly, others teach children or work to prevent global warming. Some seek protection for wildlife and endangered species, others strive for human rights. Such actions create merit leading to a good rebirth.

Mother Teresa was not Buddhist; she did not necessarily accept rebirth, although she probably aspired to be born in heaven. Her dedication to the welfare of the poor was extraordinary, and the actions she did to care for them were certainly virtuous. She created much merit that will certainly bring happy results.

The law of karma and its results functions whether someone believes in it or not. Similarly, whether someone believes that gravity exists or not, she still walks on the ground because of its power. Someone who does not know what constitutes nonvirtue may still engage in destructive actions and experience their painful results even if he does not consider his actions unethical.

Secular ethics is a useful guideline for those who do not adhere to any spiritual path and want their daily actions to be beneficial. Their main aim is their own interests in this life, but they consciously focus on not harming others when fulfilling this aim. In this way, even if not all of their daily actions are virtuous, at least they will be neutral and some will be virtuous. Animals, too, create constructive and destructive karma. Their ignorance, however, hinders them from deliberately refraining from harmful acts and engaging constructive ones.

Needless to say, someone who gives a gift to bribe another person is not practicing generosity. Similarly, harming one living being in order to give to another is not the practice of generosity, nor is giving weapons the practice of generosity.

In the early years of the Communist Party in China, some of its members had a real sense of altruism and dedicated their entire lives to improving the welfare of the peasants and the poor. This was virtuous. Unfortunately, they were biased, and with hatred destroyed the lives and possessions of the educated and the wealthy. These Communist officials had two contradictory emotions: compassion for the poor and animosity toward the rich. These mutually opposed emotional states constitute two separate mental states; one motivates virtuous activities, the other nonvirtuous actions. They create different karma depending on which mental state motivates them to act at a particular time and what act they do. Such situations are not unique to Communist officials. We see this happens quite often in our own lives as well.

The Complexity of Karma

Some accounts of karmic events are puzzling. For example, Śāntideva relates the story of Śāriputra relinquishing bodhicitta. Śāriputra was a bodhisattva on the path of accumulation, whose bodhicitta was not stable. Once, another person returned Śāriputra’s generosity with ingratitude, provoking Śāriputra to give up bodhicitta. Scriptures say that after generating bodhicitta, if someone relinquishes it, he is reborn as a hell being. Yet Śāriputra achieved arhatship in that life.65 How can this be explained? Śāntideva responds by saying that the complex workings of karma are beyond our understanding; only the buddhas’ wisdom comprehends it fully.

Another story says that Nāgārjuna died from decapitation as a result of karma he created in a previous life when he accidentally cut off the head of an ant with a scythe. Explaining this story in the context of the general Buddhist understanding of karma is difficult, considering that one sūtra says that Nāgārjuna was a highly realized bodhisattva. He was renowned as a great practitioner and teacher of Guhyasamāja Tantra, and in Ocean of Reasoning, Tsongkhapa spoke of him having fully developed bodhicitta and wisdom realizing emptiness. If such an outstanding person as Nāgārjuna with these magnificent qualities was unable to achieve buddhahood in a single lifetime, then the teaching in the Guhyasamāja Tantra that attaining awakening in a single lifetime is possible must be a fairy tale. In this light, we see that the story about him being decapitated because of having inadvertently killed an ant cannot be taken in a literal or ordinary way.66

In the Sublime Continuum, Maitreya said that the Buddha, while not wavering from absorption in emptiness, appears in diverse emanations. From this perspective, Śākyamuni Buddha was an emanation body. Emanation bodies come from the enjoyment body, and this, in turn, is a manifestation of the truth body. Therefore, the Buddha was awakened before he appeared in our world in the form of the prince from Kapilavastu. All the activities and events in his life were in fact demonstrations done intentionally to teach us. From this perspective, it could be that Nāgārjuna was already a buddha and the story of his death was a demonstration done to teach us.

The law of karma and its effects is very subtle, and its intricacies are beyond our understanding; only an omniscient buddha is able to know these fully. Since the Buddha is not present here and now, we cannot ask him for clarification regarding the subtle aspects of karma. Buddhaghosa says (Vism 19.17):

The succession of kamma and its result . . . is clear in its true nature only to the Buddha’s knowledge of kamma and its result, which knowledge is not shared by disciples.

Vasubandhu agrees (ADKB):

Nobody but the Buddha understands in its entirety karma, its infusion, its activity, and the fruit that is obtained.⁶⁷

When discussing karma and how it ripens, the number of complications is enormous. Unfortunately, my head is too small for this vast expanse of knowledge. Now I see the truth in Milarepa’s statement, “I don’t know about the complex issues of Parchin (lit. “crossing to the other shore”; it explains the bodhisattvas’ paths and practices), but if you can move from saṃsāra to nirvāṇa, then you have indeed gone to the other shore. I don’t know about the complications of Vinaya (lit. “taming,” and refers to monastic precepts and rites), but if this very crude mind of yours is tamed, then this is Vinaya.”

Creating the Causes for Higher Rebirth, Liberation, and Awakening

Nāgārjuna sets out the aims of the spiritual path (RA 3–4):

That [disciple] first [practices] the Dharma of higher rebirth;

afterward comes the highest good,

because, having obtained higher rebirth,

one proceeds in stages to the highest good.

Here, [we] maintain that higher rebirth is happiness,

and highest good is liberation.

In brief, the method for attaining them

is summarized as faith and wisdom.

Can people who are not Buddhist create constructive karma for higher rebirth and the highest good of liberation and awakening? For an action to become the cause for upper rebirth, it is not necessary that the person doing it have the motivation to attain that state, but for an action to become the cause for the ultimate spiritual aims of liberation and awakening, the person must have the intention to attain those states.

Candrakīrti says that ethical conduct is a cause for higher rebirth, liberation, and full awakening (MMA 24):

For common beings, those born from the word [śrāvakas],

those set toward solitary awakening, and

those conqueror’s heirs [bodhisattvas], a cause of the highest good

and higher rebirth is none other than proper ethical conduct.

Tsongkhapa comments in Illuminating the Thought, a commentary to Candrakīrti’s Supplement, that this does not exclude other virtuous actions from being causes of higher rebirth and highest good.

There are, however, many other causes that are not ethical conduct. Thus this means that to achieve special higher states and the highest good, a definite relation with ethical conduct is necessary. If ethical conduct is forsaken, there is no way that these can be accomplished.68

There are three causes for a precious human life: (1) Observance of pure ethical conduct entails, at the least, avoiding the ten destructive paths of actions and practicing the ten constructive ones. It is the projecting cause that makes us take rebirth as a human being. (2) The cultivation of other virtuous qualities is the practice of generosity, fortitude, meditation, and so on. It brings conducive circumstances for Dharma practice: done with proper motivation, generosity is the cause for wealth; ethical conduct brings good health, long life, and good relationships; fortitude produces an attractive appearance; joyous effort enables us to be able to attain our goals. Concentration maintains our positive motivation, and wisdom enables us to choose qualified spiritual mentors and understand the Dharma correctly. (3) Powerful dedication prayers direct our constructive karma to ripen in a precious human life. Having these good circumstances in future lives will enable us to continue on the path to awakening with ease. Planting the karmic seeds to have them is done in this life.

Without living ethically and observing karma and its effects, a fortunate rebirth is not possible. The First Dalai Lama says (EPL 655):

As it says in (Āryadeva’s) The Four Hundred: “By ethical conduct one goes to a high rebirth; by the view one goes to the supreme state.” For the purpose of obtaining higher rebirths, ethical conduct is foremost.

To attain liberation, in addition to renunciation of saṃsāra and the determination to attain nirvāṇa, we must have the wisdom realizing emptiness. Renunciation and the aspiration for nirvāṇa give us the motivation to practice the path of cleansing the mind of ignorance, which is the root of saṃsāra. The wisdom realizing emptiness is the actual realization that overcomes ignorance. The Buddha’s teachings describe how to cultivate renunciation and wisdom realizing emptiness; we should examine if other paths contain these teachings.

To attain buddhahood, two critical factors are required: bodhicitta and the wisdom realizing emptiness. As above, the wisdom realizing emptiness is necessary to cleanse the mind of all ignorance, which keeps us bound in cyclic existence, and its latencies, which inhibit the mind from knowing all existents. Bodhicitta gives us the aspiration and energy to create the vast merit necessary to attain full awakening. Here, too, the Buddhadharma teaches us how to cultivate these two factors, and we need to examine if other paths also contain these teachings.

When we speak of higher spiritual goals such as liberation and awakening, the meaning of “Dharma” becomes more specific. It must be the teachings and the path that lead to nirvāṇa and awakening. In this context, actions motivated by attachment to rebirth in cyclic existence and actions done without the correct understanding of emptiness are not suitable.

The attainment of full awakening requires the bodhicitta motivation. After all, how could there be a buddha who lacks compassion and the altruistic intention? In Bodhisattva Grounds (Bodhisattva Bhūmi), Asaṅga says that someone who has fully dedicated his or her body, speech, and mind for the welfare of sentient beings continuously holds the thought to do all actions totally for the benefit of all sentient beings. With such an intention, she has no fault or infraction in the bodhisattva training and she creates great virtue. Śāntideva says (BCA 1.18–19):

And for those who have perfectly seized this mind,

with the thought never to turn away

from totally liberating

the infinite forms of life,

from that time hence,

even while asleep or unconcerned,

a force of merit equal to the sky

will perpetually ensue.

Kedrup, one of Tsongkhapa’s foremost disciples, once praised Tsongkhapa, saying, “Your simple act of breathing accumulates enormous virtue.” I don’t think this means that Tsongkhapa has bodhicitta manifest in his mind each time he breathes, thinking, “I inhale to become a buddha for the benefit of sentient beings.” Rather, all of his actions — including eating, sleeping, and so on — are motivated by or associated with powerful bodhicitta. Nāgārjuna says (RA 483):

Like the earth, water, wind, and fire,

medicinal herbs, and the trees in the wilderness,

may I always freely be an object of enjoyment

by all beings as they wish.

If someone conjoins bodhicitta with the wisdom directly realizing reality, he or she is on the path to fulfilling the collections of merit and wisdom and becoming a buddha.

A Deeper Perspective on Causality

Karma and its effects is sometimes taught in simple terms to new audiences in order to communicate the importance of ethical conduct. As a result, some people may think about karma and its effects in a very simplistic way, as in “I hit you this life and you will hit me in the next life.” As we’ve seen, the effect of an action is dependent on many conditions and factors. In this light, it is important to view karma and its effects within the broader perspective of dependent arising and emptiness.

Dependent arising is the innermost treasure of the Buddha’s teaching. By understanding it, practitioners are able to gradually accomplish their temporary and ultimate aims. Happiness in saṃsāra — including higher rebirth — comes about by understanding the dependent arising of karma and its effects. This understanding forms the basis for adopting the ethical conduct of restraining from destructive actions and engaging in constructive ones.

However, understanding dependent arising in terms of karma and its effects — or causal dependence in general — is not the complete understanding of dependent arising. Animals also understand cause and effect to some extent. If we investigate the meaning of causal dependence further, how do we account for the fact that a cause produces an effect? Why is one event dependent on certain other specific events and not on others? This points to a deeper way to understand cause and effect. If cause and effect existed inherently, they would have a fixed essence; they would be self-enclosed entities that could not interact with other things. For cause and effect to function, things must be interrelated, and thus the very nature of things must be dependent. Having the nature of dependence, one thing can produce another, and a cause and its effect are related.

Causes do not depend on their effects in a temporal sense — we know that causes precede the effects that depend on them — but they do depend on effects in terms of their identity. Without there being a potential effect, something cannot be identified as a cause. The very identity of something as a cause depends on its effect; cause and effect are defined in terms of each other. Because they are mutually dependent, they do not possess an inherent essence. They exist in dependence on term and concept; they exist by dependent designation. If they had any findable nature, they could not be related as cause and effect. Nor could their identity be mutually defined in terms of each other.

In this way, understanding dependent arising in terms of cause and effect leads to the deeper understanding of phenomena as empty of inherent existence and to the understanding that phenomena are mutually dependent and exist by dependent designation. Comprehending this will enable us to counteract ignorance and attain liberation.

The Path of the Initial-Level Practitioner: A Conclusion

This completes the topics of the path in common with the initial-level practitioner. As a preliminary to the path in common with the middle-level practitioner and the path of the advanced practitioner, it cannot be omitted or ignored. This practice is said to be “in common with” the initial-level practitioner in that we do not seek good rebirths as an end in themselves. Our final aim is full awakening; we keep this bodhicitta motivation in mind from the first step on the path until the last.

Cherish your precious human life and the possibilities it grants you, and be aware that it is hard to obtain and does not last long. Train yourself to catch your proclivities for the eight worldly concerns and use awareness of your mortality to make wise choices about how to use your time and resources. Contemplate karmic causality to encourage yourself to create the causes for happiness and abandon the causes for suffering. By properly meditating on these topics and integrating them into your life, you will create a strong foundation for the practices to come and make your life meaningful.