CHAPTER SEVEN

MEN, ORGANIZATION, AND STRATEGIC VISIONS, 1931–41

         1.      Albion, 69, 179.

         2.      Yoshii, 32–43; Itō Masanori, Dai kaigun, 500–502; Ikeda, Kaigun to Nihon, 171.

         3.      The ethos of the Naval Academy is captured in lively contrast to Dartmouth (Royal Naval College) in Marder, 1:265–84.

         4.      Inoue Shigeyoshi, 31–2; Mainichi gurafu: Ā Etajima, 92, 94, 133.

         5.      Tomioka, Kaisen, 26–29, 151–52; Takagi, Taiheiyō, 276.

         6.      “Kaisen yōmurei,” various versions at JDA.

         7.      Quoted in Inoue Shigeyoshi, 95.

         8.      Takagi, Taiheiyō sensō, 112–13; Chihaya, Nihon kaigun, 244; Senshibu, Kaigun kaisen keii, 1:9; Nakazawa, 238.

         9.      Akiyama Saneyuki, at the time of the Battle of the Sea of Japan, was 37, and Chief of Staff Katō Tomosaburō was 44. In December 1941, Chief of Staff Ugaki Matome was 52 and Head of the Operations Division Rear Admiral Fukudome Shigeru was 52. The ideal age for a rear admiral was said to be 40; that for an admiral, 50.

       10.      Chihaya, Nihon kaigun, 244; Takagi, Taiheiyō sensō, 112.

       11.      Hata Ikuhiko, “Kantaiha to Jōyakuha,” 193–231.

       12.      Toyoda, 55–56; Nakamura Kikuo, 309; Senshibu, Kaigun kaisen keii, 1:8–9; Nakazawa, 238.

       13.      Captain R. M. Colvin’s report, No. 22, 1 November 1922, in Ambassador Charles Eliot’s report, 9 November 1922, F3795/25/3; Captain Marriott’s report on “Administration of Imperial Japanese Navy,” British Foreign Office Archives, PRO.

       14.      Itō Kinjirō, 168; Toyoda, 25; Nakamura Kikuo, 219; Ikeda, Nihon no kaigun, 2:127.

       15.      Katō Kanji taishō den, 714–18.

       16.      Nagai Kanseii, 87–95.

       17.      Krug et al., 88, 98, 103.

       18.      The leader of pro-German officers was Nomura Naokuni (stationed in Berlin 1929–31, 1940–43). Others were Endō Yoshikazu (1931–32, 1938), Yokoi Tadao (1932–36, 1940–43), Kami Shigenori (1935–36), Kojima Hideo (1936–37), and Shiba Katsuo (1935–37). Kojima, chief of the Seventh Section of the Intelligence Division, in charge of information about European affairs (1939–41), was especially intimate with German naval attaché Paul Wenneker. Yokoi was the war guidance officer of the Operations Division (1936–39), Kami was a member of the First Section of the Naval Affairs Bureau (1939) and the Operations Division (1939—42), and Shiba was a member of the Operations Division (1938–39) and the Naval Affairs Bureau (1939–40).

       19.      Chapman, Price of Admiralty, 1:128.

       20.      Quoted in Marder, 1:121.

       21.      Ogata, 73, 178, 256–57.

       22.      Inoue Shigeyoshi, 225.

       23.      Ishikawa, Shinjuwan, 113–22; Yoshida, Kaigun sanbō, 196–97.

       24.      Nomura Minoru, Tennō, Fushimino miya, 26–82.

       25.      Takagi, Taiheiyō sensō, 200; Andō, 269–70.

       26.      Okada, Kaikoroku, 143.

       27.      Kido nikki, 2:913.

       28.      Nomura Minoru, Rekishi no naka no Nihon kaigun, 74.

       29.      Terashima Ken den, 124–25.

       30.      Honjō nikki, 163.

       31.      Nomura Minoru, Rekishi no naka no Nihon kaigun, 66–67.

       32.      “Gunreibu kaisei no keii” [Circumstances Surrounding the Revision of the Naval General Staff Regulations], record of Commander Takagi Soōkichi’s interviews with Takahashi and Inoue in January and February 1935, respectively, JDA; Harada-Saionji, 3:114–15.

       33.      Inoue Shigeyoshi, 138–44; Inoue Shigeyoshi-S, 8–12; Inoue, “Omoide no ki.”

       34.      Senshishitsu, Kaigun gunsenbi, 1:8–10; Inoue Shigeyoshi, 139–49.

       35.      Inoue Shigeyoshi, 139.

       36.      Terashima Ken den, 148. The text of the revised Naval Staff Regulations appears in Senshishitsu, Kaigun gunsenbi, 1:8–10.

       37.      Terashima Ken den, 146, 147–48.

       38.      Nomura in ibid., 146.

       39.      Hori graduated from the Naval Academy, the Gunnery School, and Naval Staff College at the top of his class.

       40.      Agawa, Reluctant Admiral, 45.

       41.      Quoted in Takagi, Yamamoto to Yonai, 49.

       42.      Senshishitsu, Rengō kantai, 1:246; record of interview with Inoue.

       43.      GS, Nitchū sensō, 1:351–53; Nihon kaigunshi, 3:393–94; JMFA, Nihon gaikō nenpyō, 2:344–45.

       44.      GS, Nitchū sensō, 1:351–53.

       45.      Kaigunshō shiryō, 11:146–51; Senshishitsu, Rikugun kaisen keii, 3:309–10.

       46.      Ōya, quoted in Hata Ikuhiko, Shōwashi, 199.

       47.      Ishikawa Shingo, Shinjuwan, 113, 114, 121–22; Takagi, Shikan, 181.

       48.      “Shimada Shigetarō nikki,” 360.

       49.      Yoshida, Kaigun sanbō, 244.

       50.      The authors of the official war history deny the importance of the First Committee. Nomura Minoru writes that it was “the arena for Ishikawa’s one-man show.” Senshishitsu, Rengō kantai, 1:496. See also Kaigun kaisen keii, 2:325.

       51.      Considerable importance is attached to the First Committee by Tsunoda Jun, author of Vol. 7 of the TSM series: 84–85, 95, 204–5, 95. Inoue Shigeyoshi has testified that the First Committee was extremely important. TSM (new ed., 1987), 7:495.

       52.      The file of “Various Views and Agreements: War Guidance,” Takagi papers, JDA; Takagi, Nikki to jōhō, 1:490–91; Senshishitsu, Rikugun kaisen keii, 3:309–10.

       53.      Inoue Shigeyoshi-S, 286, 289.

       54.      The record of interview with Takada Toshitane, JMJ, cited in Senshishitsu, Rikugun kaisen keii, 3:310.

       55.      Katō Kanji taishō den, 824–34.

       56.      Suetsugu, passim; Katō Kanji nikki, 534–36.

       57.      Suetsugu’s draft speech for the Supreme Military Council, 8 June 1934, Katō Kanji Papers.

       58.      Katō Kanji nikki, 490.

       59.      Evans and Peattie, 214.

       60.      Senshibu, Shiryōshū: Kaigun nendo sakusen keikaku, 24.

       61.      Senshishitsu, Kaigun gunsenbi, 1:160–62, 174–77; Senshishitsu, Sensuikanshi, 27–54; Fukudome, Shikan, 124; Nakayama, 22.

       62.      Toyoda, 88; Yamamoto Eisuke’s memo, 1930, Saitō Papers.

       63.      Goldstein and Dillon, 324.

       64.      Senshishitsu, Rengō kantai, 1:322–23.

       65.      Senshibu, Shiryōshū: Kaigun nendo sakusen keikaku, 22–25, 775; Senshishitsu, Rengō kantai, 1:322, 328–29; Nagai, “Kokubō hōshin,” Part 13:3327–28, JDA; Nakazawa, 9.

       66.      Senshibu, Shiryōshū: Kaigun nendo sakusen keikaku, 795–800.

       67.      Sorimachi, 450–51; Agawa, Yamamoto, 131 (italics added).

       68.      Peattie, Sunburst, 129ff.; Takagi, Yamamoto to Yonai, passim.

       69.      Senshishitsu, Hawai sakusen, 7, 73–74, 82–86.

       70.      Inoue Shigeyoshi, 287–91; Inoue Shigeyoshi-S, 34–38.

       71.      Inoue Shigeyoshi-S, 126–32.

       72.      Inoue Shigeyoshi, 300.

       73.      Ibid., 301.

       74.      Genda, Pāru Hāba, 105–10; Goldstein and Dillon, 6–7.

       75.      Staff study, “Strategy and Tactics against Enemy ‘A,’” November 1936, JDA.

       76.      Senshishitsu, Hawai sakusen, 39–44, 512–33.

CHAPTER EIGHT

ABROGATION OF THE WASHINGTON TREATY AND AFTER

         1.      TSM-S, 64–65; Kaigunshō shiryō, 1:378–79.

         2.      Study by the investigating committee on arms limitation, 1935 (strictly confidential), Enomoto Papers; Kaigunshō shiryō, 1:160–63.

         3.      Kaigunshō shiryō, 1:160–63.

         4.      TSM-S, 55–56; Okada Keisuke, 147, 154–65, 187–88.

         5.      Ibid., 167–68.

         6.      The first supplemental building program provided for building each category of ship to treaty limits, construction of ships not covered by the treaty, and expansion of naval aviation. Senshishitsu, Kaigun gunsenbi, 1:396–413; Kaigunshi, 3:219.

         7.      By March 1933 Japan had built up to 95 percent of the treaty strength, while the United States had built up to merely 65 percent. Hull, 1:287.

         8.      Levine, 43–44.

         9.      Love, History of the United States Navy, 1:581.

       10.      Katō Kanji nikki, 167.

       11.      Naval attaché (in Washington) to navy vice minister, 10 June 1932 (No. 57, confidential); naval attaché to adjunct, Navy Ministry, 14 July 1932 (No. 67, confidential); naval attaché to vice chief of NGS, August 1932, JDA; Kido nikki, 1:198; Senshishitsu, Kaigun gunsenbi, 1:4.

       12.      Quoted in Higuchi, Nihon kaigun, 162–63; Ishikawa Shingo, Shinjuwan, 1.

       13.      Shinmyō, 178–79.

       14.      Higuchi, Nihon kaigun, 173.

       15.      Kaigunshō shiryō, 1:100, 102, 160.

       16.      Chief of NGS to navy minister, “Consultations Regarding Arms Replenishment to Be Carried Out after 1934” (No. 154, confidential), 6 May 1933, JDA; Navy Ministry memo, “A View on the International Situation from the Standpoint of National Defense,” 3 October 1933, Saitō Papers, navy minister’s oral statement at the Five Ministers Conference, 21 September 1933; navy minister’s draft statement at the cabinet meeting, “Policy Regarding the 1935 Naval Conference,” 6 October 1933, Saitō Papers and JMFA; GS: Nitchū sensō, 4:35.

       17.      Grew, Ten Years in Japan, 116.

       18.      Quoted in Senshishitsu, Rengō kantai, 1:279.

       19.      Ishikawa to Katō, “Memo on policy for the forthcoming naval conference,” Katō Kanji nikki, 480–83.

       20.      Ibid., 535–36.

       21.      Ibid., 481.

       22.      Ibid., 480.

       23.      Tōgō Shigenori, Jidai no ichi men, 2–93; Tōgō Shigehiko, 138–39.

       24.      Navy minister’s statement at the Five Ministers Conference, “My View on the Empire’s Foreign Policy to Cope with the International Situation in the Future,” 16 October 1933; “Navy’s Revised Draft Policy toward the United States,” n.d., JMFA.

       25.      Kaigunshō shiryō, 1:26.

       26.      Katō Kanji nikki, 540–41.

       27.      Harada-Saionji, 3:155, 198–99; Shigemitsu, Shōwa no dōran, 1:81.

       28.      Sakai, 103, 106.

       29.      GS: Nitchū sensō, 4:16–18, 25–26, 28–36; Harada-Saionji, 4:24; Tōgō Shigenori, Jidai no ichi men, 92–93.

       30.      Memo of the first section of the Naval Affairs Bureau, July 1934, JDA; GS, Nitchū sensō, 4:16–18, 25–26, 28–29, 30–36; Harada-Saionji, 4:24; Tōgō Shigenori, 92–93.

       31.      Senshishitsu, Rengō kantai, 1:280; Nakazawa, 20.

       32.      Okada, Kaikoroku, 88.

       33.      Kido nikki, 1:346; Saionji-Harada, 4:16–171; Okada, Kaikoroku, 88.

       34.      Kido nikki, 1:346; Saionji-Harada, 4:16–17 (italics added).

       35.      Kido nikki, 1:350.

       36.      Honjō nikki, 1:191–92, 328, 330, 346; Harada-Saionji, 4:16–19, 22–23; Makino nikki, 581; Kido nikki, 1:347.

       37.      Harada-Saionji, 3:322.

       38.      Harada-Saionji, 4:24, 27–28; Minutes of the Five Ministers Conference, 24 July 1934, JMFA.

       39.      Harada-Saionji, 4:34–35; Kido nikki, 1:350; 196; Pelz, Race, 60.

       40.      Okada Keisuke, 180; Pelz, “Rondon gunshuku kaigi,” 64; record of Yoshida Zengo’s statement, December 1956, Suikō Kai, Tokyo.

       41.      Makino nikki, 580–82; Harada Saionji, 3:321–22; Kido nikki, 1:350; Katō Kanji taishō den, 903–4; Katō Kanji nikki, 536.

       42.      Harada-Saionji, 4:45; Shōda, 1:277; Makino nikki, 580–83.

       43.      Senshishitsu, Rengō kantai, 1:281–82.

       44.      Kaigunshō shiryō, 1:125; Okada Keisuke, 260; GS, Vol 12, Nitchū sensō, 4:40; Harada-Saionji, 4:44–48.

       45.      Makino nikki, 582.

       46.      Ibid., 583; Honjō nikki, 194 (italics added).

       47.      Suetsugu, “Gunshuku taisalku shiken,” 8 June 1934, Katō Kanji Papers; Harada-Saionji, 3:211–12, 4:46–47, 53.

       48.      Finance ministry memo, “Policy Toward the Naval Limitation Conference,” n.d. (strictly confidential), Saitō Papers.

       49.      Harada-Saionji, 4:20–22; Honjō nikki, 193–94, 198.

       50.      Sakai, 23.

       51.      TSM, 1:159.

       52.      Honjō nikki, 193, 196; GS: Nitchū sensō, 4:60–61, 63.

       53.      Katō Kanji nikki, 270.

       54.      The instructions appear in NGB: 1935-nen Rondon kaigun kaigi, 109–12.

       55.      Inoue Shigeyoshi, 126.

       56.      Inoue Shigeyoshi-S, 281.

       57.      NGB: 1935-nen Rondon kaigun kaigi, 8–9.

       58.      Kaigunshō shiryō, 1:160–62.

       59.      NGB: 1935-nen Rondon kaigun kaigi, 344–53.

       60.      Ibid., 281.

       61.      Kaigunshō shiryō, 1:160–62; GS: Nitchō sensō, 4:41.

       62.      Heinrichs, Threshold, 36.

       63.      Kaufman, 168; Heinrichs, Threshold, 36.

       64.      DBFP, Second Series, Vol. 13, 54–55.

       65.      Quoted in Pelz, Race, 127.

       66.      Roskill, 2:315; Pelz, Race, 52.

       67.      FRUS, 1934,1:315; NGB: 1935-nen Rondon kaigun kaigi, 136, 156, 161.

       68.      DBFP, Second Series, Vol. 13, 52, 371.

       69.      Julius Pratt, Hull, 1:102.

       70.      DBFP, Second Series, Vol. 13, 134, 141, 143.

       71.      Quoted in Nomura Minoru, Yamamoto, 176.

       72.      Quoted in Pelz, Race, 149.

       73.      FRUS, 1935, 65.

       74.      GS: Nitchū sensō, 4:85.

       75.      Agawa, Yamamoto, 131.

       76.      FRUS, 1935, 1:68.

       77.      Kaigunshō shiryō, 4:85.

       78.      The instructions to Nagano appear in NGB: 1935-nen Rondon kaigun kaigi keika hōkokusho, 211–13.

       79.      DBFP, Second Series, Vol. 13, 736.

       80.      Ibid., 740; FRUS, Japan: l931–1941, 1:287; JMFA, Nihon gaikō nenpyō, 2:319; NGB: 1935-nen Rondon kaigun kaigi keika hōkokusho, 266–67.

       81.      Richardson, 80.

       82.      Takamatsu no miya nikki, 2:361.

       83.      Shigemitsu, Gaikō kaikoroku, 156; Shigemitsu, Shōwa no dōran, 1:82–83.

       84.      Nihon kaigunshi, 3:381, 365–66.

       85.      Suetsugu, 82.

       86.      Inoue Shigeyoshi, 258.

       87.      Ishikawa Shingo’s memo to Katō Kanji, “My private view on policy toward the next arms limitation,” strictly confidential, Katō Kanji Papers; Katō Kanji nikki, 483–84.

       88.      Ishikawa Shingo, 78–81.

       89.      Quoted in Agawa, Reluctant Admiral, 93.

       90.      Toyama, 21.

       91.      Kaigunshō shiryō, 1:282–92.

       92.      Hatano, “Nihon kaigun to nanshin,” 218–22.

       93.      Senshishitsu, Daihon’ei rikugunbu, 1:381; GS: Nitchū sensō, 1:351–53.

       94.      GS: Nitchū sensō, 1:354–355, 359–61.

       95.      Yokoyama, 47–49, GS: Nitchū sensō, 1:361–65; Crowley, 278–300, 351–52; Hatano, “Nihon kaigun to nanshin,” 217–2.

       96.      GS: Nitchū sensō, 1:358–60; JMFA, Nihon gaikō nenpyō, 2:344–47; Senshishitsu, Rengō kantai, 1:299.

       97.      Senshishitsu, Rengō kantai, 1:315–318.

       98.      Senshishitsu, Rengō kantai, 1:322–324.

       99.      Kaigunshō shiryō, 2:286–89, 4:274–75; Ishikawa Shingo, 113, 122.

     100.      Kaigunshō shiryō, 2:286–89; Ishikawa Shingo, Shinjuwan, 113, 112.

     101.      GS: Nitchū sensō, 1:9, 217–19, 221–26, 231–33; Shimada Toshihiko, 55–68, 84; Akagi, 133–45.

     102.      GS: Nitchū sensō, 4:375–92; Senshishitsu, Kaigun gunsenbi, 1:778, 783; Tomioka, “Taiheiyō sensō zenshi,” 1:778, 783.

     103.      GS: Nitchū sensō, 4:375–92; Senshishitsu, Kaigun gunsenbi, 1:778, 783.

     104.      Senshibu, Kaigun kaisen keii, 1:343–45.

     105.      Aizawa, Kaigun no sentaku, 139.

     106.      Ibid., 139, 179–88.

     107.      Inoue Shigeyoshi-S, 24.

CHAPTER NINE

THE JAPANESE NAVY AND THE TRIPARTITE PACT

         1.      Takada, Yonai Mitsumasa no tegami, 63–65, 92; Takagi, Nikki to jōhō, 1:308.

         2.      Ogata, 37; Takada, Shizuka naru tate, 348–49. In January 1937 there was talk of appointing Suetsugu navy minister, but Yamamoto squashed the idea, saying that the emperor and Prince Fushimi distrusted him. Harada-Saionji, 5:228–29.

         3.      Harada-Saionji, 7:39.

         4.      Okada, Kaikoroku, 131.

         5.      Ogata, 59–60.

         6.      Record of interview with Yokoi Tadao, JDA.

         7.      Inoue Shigeyoshi, 238. “Miraculously” is Admiral Takagi Sōkichi’s word quoted in Agawa, Yonai, 1:77.

         8.      Chapman, The Price, l:xxi.

         9.      Ibid., 161.

       10.      DGFP, Series D, 6:623–24, 737, 858; Harada-Saionji, 8:37–38, 189, 198.

       11.      Harada-Saionji, 7:34, 35, 189, 198.

       12.      Takagi, Nikki to jōhō;, 1:162–64, 237.

       13.      Inoue Shigeyoshi, 239.

       14.      GS: Nitchū sensō, 3:153–54, 156, 160, 177, 183–84.

       15.      Ibid., 339–42.

       16.      Ibid., 343, 174–76.

       17.      Ibid., 156 (italics added).

       18.      Harada-Saionji, 7:267–69; Captain Takagi, “My view on a Japanese-German-Italian pact,” 17 December 1938; Takagi’s memo on a Japanese-German-Italian agreement, April 1939, Takagi Papers; Takagi nikki, 197.

       19.      GS: Nitchū sensō, 3:153–65; Takada, Yonai Mitsumasa no tegami, 138–39.

       20.      Ogata, 41.

       21.      Ibid., 40–42, 54, 58.

       22.      GS: Nitchū sensō, 3:161–65 and passim.

       23.      Quoted in Takada, Shizuka naru tate, 1:338–39.

       24.      Inoue Shigeyoshi, 228–30; Inoue Shigeyoshi-S, 27.

       25.      Inoue Shigeyoshi, 225.

       26.      Ibid., 225–29.

       27.      Height.

       28.      Grew, Ten Years in Japan, 280–81.

       29.      Takada, Shizuka naru tate, 1:346–47.

       30.      GS: China, 3:164, 169.

       31.      Harada-Saionji, 7:249, 8:30.

       32.      Sanematsu Yuzuru, Saigo no toride is a favorable but well-documented biography of Yoshida.

       33.      Chapman, 1:168.

       34.      Ogata, 61.

       35.      “Outline of Policy toward the United States,” 22 October 1940, JDA; TSM-S, 318–19; Meeting of the prospective cabinet members.

       36.      TSM, 5:182–86; Morley, Deterrent Diplomacy, 216–19, 220–21.

       37.      Chapman, 1:168.

       38.      TSM, 5:182–85; Sanematsu, Saigo no toride, 76–77.

       39.      Sanematsu, Saigo no toride, 79.

       40.      Imperial Headquarters-Government Liaison Conferences (Daihon’ei seifu renraku kaigi) were established to coordinate the action of the cabinet and the high command. The chiefs of staff and ministers of two services met with the prime minister and civilian members of the cabinet twice a week to thrash out major questions of grand strategy. This conference series became the highest decision making body. When especially important matters were discussed the emperor attended, thus creating Imperial Conferences (Gozen kaigi).

       41.      TSM, 5:185–86, 196 (italics added); Kimitsu sensō nisshi, 1, 18.

       42.      TSM, 5:184.

       43.      Sanematsu, Saigo no toride, 78–79.

       44.      Senshibu, Kaigun kaisen keii, 2:70–71.

       45.      Ishikawa Shingo, 229–30.

       46.      Inoue Shigeyoshi, 276–77.

       47.      The text of the Tripartite Pact appears in JMFA, Nihon gaikō nenpyō, 2:459–62.

       48.      TSM-S, 333.

       49.      Ibid., 338–41.

       50.      Konoe, 30–31; Yabe, 2:161–62; Shinmyō, 79.

       51.      TSM-S, 338–41.

       52.      Shinmyō, 178–79

       53.      TSM-S, 333.

       54.      Ugaki, 2; Senshishitsu, Rengō kantai, 1:485.

       55.      Record of interview with Toyoda Teijirō, JDA.

       56.      Senshishitsu, Rikugun kaisen keii, 2:214.

       57.      Ibid.; Fukudome, Shikan, 139.

       58.      Harada-Saionji, 8:365–66.

       59.      Senshibu, Kaigun kaisen keii, 2:108–9.

       60.      Kaigunshō shiryō, 11:270–73.

       61.      Third (Intelligence) Division, “Estimate of the Situation,” 7 September 1940; “Attitude of the United States toward the Tripartite Pact and Our Policy,” 29 September 1940, JDA.

       62.      Third Division, “Estimate of the Situation,” 7 September 1940.

       63.      Genda, Kaigun kōkūtai, 23.

       64.      Langer and Gleason, Undeclared War, 35–38.

       65.      Quoted in Utley, Going to War, 110.

       66.      Grew, Ten Years in Japan, 333–34; Grew, Turbulent Era, 2:1231, 1254–55.

       67.      Roosevelt to Grew, 21 January 1941; FRUS, 1941, 1:68.

       68.      Quoted in Utley, Going to War, 68, 109.

       69.      Roosevelt to Grew, 21 January 1941.

       70.      Pratt to Nomura, as told to Captain Takagi Sōkichi, 18 February 1939, Takagi, Nikki to jōhō, 1:241.

       71.      Quoted in Utley, Going to War, 110.

       72.      Intelligence Division, “Estimate of the Situation,” 7 September 1940, JDA.

       73.      Intelligence Division, “American Reaction to the Tripartite Pact and Policies to Cope with It,” 28 September 1940; Kaigunshō shiryō, 11:270–73; Senshishitsu, Rengō kantai, 1:494.

CHAPTER TEN

THE SOUTHWARD ADVANCE AND THE AMERICAN EMBARGO

         1.      Nakahara Diary, 3, 29 September 1939, 15 January 1940, JDA.

         2.      Morley, Fateful Choice, 242.

         3.      Hatano and Asada, 386.

         4.      Utley, Going to War, 79.

         5.      Quoted in Feis, 23.

         6.      Senshibu, Kaigun kaisen keii, 1:357.

         7.      Quoted in Utley, “Franklin Roosevelt and Naval Strategy,” 54.

         8.      Anderson, “1941 De Facto Embargo,” 3.

         9.      Kaigunshō shiryō, 2:555–57.

       10.      Hatano, “Nihon kaigun to ‘Nanshin,’” 230.

       11.      Pearl Harbor Attack, Part 12, 932; Richardson, 330–33.

       12.      Quoted in Pearl Harbor, 112. For the Japanese response, see Fukudome, Shikan, 158.

       13.      TSM, 7:19; Nakazawa, 19, 42–47.

       14.      It was only in October 1942 that an expert in convoy escort was appointed by the naval high command (Ōi Atsushi, 26, 59–60, 64; Senshishitsu, Kaijō goeisen, 74–75, 76). In slighting a convoy escort the Japanese navy was influenced by Mahan. For the United States, a largely self-sufficient nation, protection of sea communications and merchant shipping was not as important as it was for Britain or Japan. Mahan, with his obsession with the decisive battle encounter, considered a convoy escort of secondary importance.

       15.      TSM, 7:20.

       16.      Nakazawa, 43–47.

       17.      Senshishitsu, Daihon’ei rikugunbu, 2:71; Sanematsu, Saigo no toride, 6–77.

       18.      Senshibu, Kaigun kaisen keii, 2:63.

       19.      TSM, 6:159.

       20.      TSM-S, 315–16.

       21.      Ibid.; JMFA, Nihon gaikō nenpyō, 2:437–38.

       22.      TSM-S, 323.

       23.      Senshishitsu, Rikugun kaisen keii, 1:440–42.

       24.      Ibid., 446.

       25.      Ibid., 1:390, 441.

       26.      Senshishitsu, Rikugun kaisen keii, 3:79.

       27.      Senshishitsu, Rikugun kaisen keii, 1:464–65.

       28.      Inoue Shigeyoshi, 285; Senshitsu, Rengō kantai, 1:320.

       29.      Ibid., 285–87.

       30.      Senshishitsu, Kaigun gunsenbi, 1:594–98; Navy Ministry paper on “The Present Status of Armaments,” 1941, JDA; Ōmae, 60.

       31.      Senshishitsu, Kaigun gunsenbi, 1:594; Pelz, Race, 217.

       32.      Langer and Gleason, Undeclared War, 35.

       33.      GS: Nitchū sensō, 3:369–71; TSM-S, 325.

       34.      TSM-S, 325; GS: Nitchū sensō, 3:497–500.

       35.      Utley, Going to War, 105, 107.

       36.      Senshishitsu, Rengō kantai, 1:480–81.

       37.      Inoue Shigeyoshi, 269; Senshibu, Rigun kaisen keii, 3:304.

       38.      (Italics added.) Naval planners had estimated that by mid-April 1941, with the progress of wartime mobilization, the Japanese navy would attain operational strength of 75 percent compared to the United States, a 5 percent increase over the navy’s traditional 70 percent target. Senshibu, Rikugun kaisen keii, 3:304; TSM, 6:216–17.

       39.      TSM-S, 333.

       40.      Yamamoto to Shimada, 10 December 1949, “Gohōroku,” JDA.

       41.      Fujii Diary, 11 February 1941.

       42.      Kido nikki, 2:851.

       43.      Kimitsu sensō nisshi, 1:66–75; Fujii Diary, 11 February 1941.

       44.      TSM, 7:86–87.

       45.      JMFA, Nihon gaikō nenpyō, 2:495.

       46.      Kimitsu sensō nisshi, 1:75.

       47.      Fujii Diary, n.d.

       48.      Kobayashi Seizō, “Kaisōroku,” JDA; Hoshina et al., Taiheiyō sensō hishi, 237.

       49.      TSM, 7:202.

       50.      Record of interview with Shiba Katsuo, JDA.

       51.      Senshibu, Rikugun kaisen keii, 4:122–23; recollections of Vice Admiral Maeda Minoru, JDA (italics added).

       52.      TSM-S, 427–39.

       53.      Captain Ōno of the Operations Division testified that there was a general fear that the United States was building a military base in southern Indochina to forestall Japan.

       54.      Quoted in Spector, Eagle, 75; Prange, At Dawn, 292–93.

       55.      Nakahara Diary, 19 June 1941. The report was presented to Navy Minister Oikawa and Vice Minister Sawamoto and the chief of the Naval General Staff and its leaders.

       56.      Fujii Diary, 2 July 1941.

       57.      TSM-S, 442; Kimitsu sensō nisshi, 1:115–16; Fujii Diary, 11 June 1941.

       58.      Ishikawa Diary, 19 June 1941.

       59.      Ickes, 567.

       60.      Kimitsu sensō nisshi, 1:121.

       61.      Heinrichs, Threshold, 145.

       62.      TSM-S, 467–69; Shinmyō, 133–34.

       63.      Senshishitsu, Rikugun kaisen keii, 4:124; record of interview with Oka Takazumi, JMJ; staff studies, JDA.

       64.      “Sawamoto Yorio nikki,” 438–40; “Ishikawa nikki,” 287–88; Shinmyō, 131, 133–34; Hatano, Bakuryō.

       65.      Senshishitsu, Rikugun kaisen keii, 4:167.

       66.      Yoshizawa, 211.

       67.      Inoue Shigeyoshi, 441; TSM-S, 481.

       68.      TSM-S, 481; “Sawamoto nikki,” 442, 444; Fujii Diary, 21 July 1941.

       69.      “Sawamoto nikki,” 442; TSM-S, 481.

       70.      TSM-S, 481; record of interview with Oka Takazumi, JMJ (italics added).

       71.      Tomioke, Kaisen, 59; Shiryō Chōsa Kai, 268; Senshishitsu, Rengō kantai, 1:528; Kimitsu sensō nisshi, 1:138; quoted in Prange, At Dawn, 166; record of interview with Oka Takazumi, JMJ; Senshishitsu Rikugun kaisen keii, 4:124.

       72.      Record of interview with Maeda Minoru, JDA; Senshibu, Kaigun kaisen keii, 2:331; Nihon kaigunshi, 4:298.

       73.      Record of interview with Oka Takazumi, JDA.

       74.      “Kobayashi kaisōroku,” JDA; Nihon kaigunshi, 4:294; Inoue Shigeyoshi, 308–9.

       75.      Kobayashi Seizō oboegaki, 90–93.

       76.      Kido nikki, 2:895–96; Sugiyama memo, 286. For example, Herbert Bix maintains: “From late 1940 ... [Hirohito] made important contributions during each stage of policy review, culminating in the opening of hostilities against the United States and Great Britain in December 1941.” Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan (New York: HarperCollins, 2000), 12, 23. This thesis is not supported by documentary evidence.

       77.      See Mauch.

       78.      ONI, “Memorandum for CNO,” 11 October 1921 (confidential) NA.

       79.      William Pratt, “Autobiography.”

       80.      Quoted in Agawa, Yonai, 1:237.

       81.      Takagi, Nikki to jōhō, 1:241.

       82.      Quoted in Senshibu, Kaigun kaisen keii, 2:278–79.

       83.      Nomura Kichisaburō, 15–17; Takagi’s memo on Admiral Nomura’s appointment, Seikai jōhō, S12 2/2, Takagi Sōkichi Papers, JDA; Senshishitsu, Rikugun kaisen keii, 3:452–53.

       84.      Hull, 2:987.

       85.      Inoue Shigeyoshi, 304–5; NGB: Nichi-Bei kōshō, 1:24–28; Nihon kaigunshi, 4:248–50. Hoshina; et al., 229; Senshishitsu, Rikugun kaisen keii, 3:548–49.

       86.      Nomura Kichisaburō, 548, 848; Nomura, 184–85, 186–87; NGB: Nichi-Bei kōshō, 1:30–31, 167; Mauch, 369; Kobayashi Seizō, “Kaisōroku,” JDA.

       87.      NGB: Nichi-Bei kōshō, 1:166.

       88.      Miwa Munehiro, ed., “Nomura chū-Bei taishi nikki” [The Diary of Nomura, Ambassador to the United States, 3 June–30 August], Kyūshū Kyōritsu daigaku keizai gakubu kiyō 66 (December 1996), 97.

       89.      Ibid., 130; Pearl Harbor Attack, Exhibit No. 1, 1–2.

       90.      Japanese Consul General Takashi Tomio cabled false information to Tokyo: “What comes next to an advance into French Indochina will be an ultimatum to the Dutch East Indies.” The limit of Japan’s southward advance at this time was southern Indochina. Senshishitsu, Rikugun kaisen keii, 4:346–48.

       91.      Langer and Gleason, Undeclared War, 649–55.

       92.      Ickes, 588.

       93.      Albion, “1941 De Facto Embargo”; Anderson, Standard Vacuum Oil Company.

       94.      Kobayashi Seizō oboegaki, 93.

       95.      For Hornbeck’s mentality, see Thomson, 103–04.

       96.      Record of interview with Takada Toshitane, JMJ; Tomioka, “Zenshi,” 3:37.

       97.      Senshibu, Rikugun kaisen keii, 5:31–32.

       98.      Butow, 223.

CHAPTER ELEVEN

DECISION FOR WAR

         1.      Senshishitsu, Kaigun gunsenbi, 1:730–31.

         2.      The fish metaphor appears in Butow, 245.

         3.      Ibid., 223, 225; Heinrichs, Threshold, 182.

         4.      Kimitsu sensō nisshi, 1:145.

         5.      Kido nikki, 2:895–96; Sawada, 116–18.

         6.      For example, Bix, 23.

         7.      Senshishitsu, Rikugun kaisen keii, 4:468; Nomura Minoru, Yamamoto, 222–23.

         8.      Senshibu, Kaigun kaisen keii, 2:402; Senshishitsu, Rikugun kaisen keii, 4:464; Nihon kaigunshi, 4:3–21.

         9.      Hatano Sumio, “Daitōa sensō,” 207–8.

       10.      Senshishitsu, Rengō kantai, 1:485.

       11.      Senshishitsu, Rikugun kaisen keii, 1:450.

       12.      Kimitsu sensō nisshi, 1:147.

       13.      Ibid., 148.

       14.      Senshishitsu, Daihon’ei rikugunbu, 2:410–11, 414; Senshishitsu, Rikugun kaisen keii, 1:450.

       15.      TSM-S, 507.

       16.      Record of Fukudome’s talks, 3:101–3, JDA.

       17.      TSM-S, 507, 510 (italics added).

       18.      Kimitsu sensō nisshi, 1:153.

       19.      TSM-S, 508–13; Sugiyama memo, 1:303–4, 310; “Takagi hiroku bassui,” 8 September 1941, Takagi Papers.

       20.      Sugiyama memo, 1:314–15; Ike, 138–49, 512–13.

       21.      Okada, Kaikoroku, 136.

       22.      “Sawamoto nikki,” 444.

       23.      TSM-S, 512; record of Fukudome’s talks, 3:91. According to Fukudome’s recollection, Nagano anticipated that a chance for interceptive operations would occur within one year of the opening of hostilities.

       24.      Record of interview with Miyo Kazunari, JDA.

       25.      There is no written record of this statement by Nagano, but Fukudome Shigeru writes that he heard something to this effect. Fukudome, Kaigun no hansei, 90–91; record of interview with Fukudome, JDA; TSM-S, 12; Shinmyō, 28; Fujii Diary 6 September 1941.

       26.      Fukudome, Kaigun seikatsu, 202–03.

       27.      Sugiyama memo, 1:311.

       28.      For a theoretical formulation, see Snyder and Diesing, 393, 397; Ole R. Holsti, “Crisis Management,” in Betty Glad, 125–27, 175.

       29.      Senshibu, Kaigun kaisen keii, 2:484–85.

       30.      Nihon kaigunshi, 3:234; Senshishitsu, Hawai sakusen, 6–7.

       31.      Senshibu, Kaigun kaisen keii, 2:491–92; “Sawamoto nikki,” 460; Senshishitsu, Rikugun kaisen keii, 5:109.

       32.      Sugiyama memo, 1:116–17.

       33.      Senshibu, Kaigun kaisen keii, 2:498–99.

       34.      Shinmyō, 168–69; Konoe, 92.

       35.      Senshibu, Rikugun kaisen keii, 5:114–15; Kido nikki, 1:913.

       36.      Senshishitsu, Rikugun kaisen keii, 5:120–21; Yabe, 2:379.

       37.      Senshishitsu, Rikugun kaisen keii, 5:128–29: Yabe, 2:387–88; Kido nikki, 2:913.

       38.      Senshishitsu, Rikugun kaisen keii, 5:129–31.

       39.      Shinmyō, 178–79.

       40.      “Sawamoto nikki,” 474; Senshibu, Kaigun kaisen keii, 2:506.

       41.      Toyoda, 62.

       42.      Chihaya, quoted in Goldstein and Dillon, Pearl Harbor Papers, 330.

       43.      Yamamoto to Shimada, 24 October 1941, in “Ghōroku,” JDA; Shimada’s talk, Suikō Kai; Shimada Diary, 17 October 1941.

       44.      “Shimada nikki,” 360.

       45.      Shimada Diary, 1 November 1941; “Shimada nikki,” 360, 362, 474; record of Admiral Shimada Shigetarō’s talks, Suikō Kai; Kaigun kaisen keii, 2:531–32; Hoshina et al., 266; Hoshina, Daitōa sensō hishi, 45; 1; Nomura Minoru, Yamamoto, 113; Kimitsu sensō nisshi, 1:178–80; Sugiyama memo, 1, 370–72.

       46.      Quoted in Langer and Gleason, Undeclared War, 845.

       47.      Shimada Diary, 1 November 1941.

       48.      Sugiyama memo, 1:370–71; TSM-S, 550, 560–61, 568.

       49.      Kimitsu sensō nisshi, 180.

       50.      TSM-S, 554.

       51.      Ibid., 550.

       52.      Ibid., 568.

       53.      Ibid., 571.

       54.      Quoted in Prange, At Dawn, 291.

       55.      Ibid., 344.

       56.      Yamamoto to Shimada, 10 December 1940, “Gohōroku,” JDA.

       57.      TSM, 7:207.

       58.      Agawa, Reluctant Admiral, 186.

       59.      Yamamoto to Shimada, 24 October 1941, “Gohōroku,” JDA.

       60.      Harada-Saionji, 8:365–66.

       61.      Konoe, 32; Inoue Shigeyoshi, 241; Nomura Minoru, Yamamoto, 257.

       62.      Yamamoto to Hori, 11 November 1941, “Gohōroku,” JDA; Nomura, Yamamoto, 257, 260; TSM, 7:202.

       63.      Morley, Final Confrontation, 287.

       64.      Takagi, Yamamoto, 76.

       65.      Senshishitsu, Hawai sakusen, 78, 230–31.

       66.      Senshishitsu, Hawai sakusen, 1, 73–75, 230–31.

       67.      Yamamoto to Hori, 11 October 1941, “Gohōroku,” JDA; Senshishitsu, Hawai Sakusen, 73–74, 78.

       68.      Senshishitsu, Hawai Sakusen, 74, 76–77; Fukudome, Shikan, 151.

       69.      Ibid., 80.

       70.      Yamamoto to Oikawa, 24 November 1940, printed in Senshishitsu, Hawai Sakusen, 534–35.

       71.      Yamamoto’s memo on armaments, 7 January 1941, sent to Oikawa; cited in Senshishitsu, Kaigun kaisen keii, 2:144–47 (italics added).

       72.      Yamamoto to Shimada, 24 October 1941, “Gohōroku,” JDA (italics added).

       73.      Kobayashi Seizō, “Kaisōroku,” JDA. Yamamoto’s chief of staff, Rear Admiral Ōnishi Takijirō, believed that a Hawaiian attack, which would strongly provoke the United States, must be avoided. Such an attack would militate against a quick war of short duration. Yamamoto should have known of his chief of staff’s idea. Senshishitsu, Hawai sakusen, 109.

       74.      Senshishitsu, Hawai sakusen, 81; Senshibu, Kaigun kaisen keii, 2:458.

       75.      Senshishitsu, Hawai sakusen, 97–98.

       76.      Prange, At Dawn, 302.

       77.      Senshishitsu, Hawai sakusen, 113.

       78.      TSM-S, 585 (italics added).

       79.      Senshishitsu, Hawai sakusen, 115; Senshibu, Kaigun kaisen keii, 2:458.

       80.      Fukudome, Shikan, 267 (italics added).

       81.      Prange, At Dawn, 582.

       82.      Fukudome, Shikan, 356’57.

       83.      JMFA, Nihon gaikō nenpyō, 2:563–64.

       84.      Kimitsu sensō nisshi, 1:192; Senshibu, Rikugun kaisen keii, 5:488–90.

       85.      Okada Keisuke, 364–65; Kido nikki, 2:926–27; Senshibu, Kaigun kaisen keii, 2:546.

       86.      Kido nikki, 2:926–27.

       87.      Kido nikki, 2:928; Shimada shuki, 30 November 1941; Senshibu, Kaigun kaisen keii, 2:848–49.

       88.      Terasaki, 71–72, 75–76.

       89.      JMFA, Nihon gaikō nenpyō, 2:573; Senshibu, Rikugun kaisen keii, 5:341.

       90.      Senshishitsu, Hawai sakusen, 262.

       91.      Itō Kinjirō, 222, 261–62.

       92.      Asada in Borg and Okamoto, 259.

       93.      Ibid.

CONCLUSION

         1.      Tomioka, Kaisen, 42, 55–56; Shiryō Chōsa Kai, 169, 312; Tomioka quoted in Yoshida, Kaigun sanbō, 183.

         2.      Nomura Minoru, Taiheiyō sensō, 21.

         3.      Nakazawa, 42.

         4.      Senshishitsu, Hawai sakusen, 96; record of Fukudome’s talks, 3:23.

         5.      Morimatsu, 9, 42, 84; Kaigunshō shiryō, 12:33.

         6.      Kaigunshō shiryō, 11:474–77, 12:33; Shinmyō, 166.

         7.      Kaigunshō shiryō, 12:33; Tomioka, “Taiheiyō sensō zenshi,” 4:5, 93–94; Tomioka, Kaisen, 55, 58; Shiryō Chōsa Kai, 166, 466; Barnhart, “Japanese Intelligence,” 450; Okada, Kaikoroku, 135; Shinmyō, 66.

         8.      Tomioka, “Taiheiyō sensō zenshi,” 5, 93–94; “Sawamoto nikki,” 471; Bureau of Naval Ordnance to chief of NGS, 31 October 1941, JDA; Hoshina, 28, 46; Nakazawa, 44–45; record of interview with Hashimoto Shozō, JMJ.

         9.      Hoshina, Daitōa sensō hishi, 21–22; Andō, 2:287–88; Ishikawa, 338–41; Okada, Kaikoroku, 135; Okada Keisuke, 365; Shinmyō, 166.

       10.      Yokoyamo, 99–100.

       11.      Ibid., 82–83; Yokoyama in Nakamura Kikuo, 143–45.

       12.      Yokoyama, 82–83, 91, 94, 97–98; record of interviews with Yokoyama, JMJ; Yokoyama, in Nakamura Kikuo, 151–52.

       13.      Prados, 64–65, 70, 100.

       14.      Ishikawa, Shinjuwan, 114; records of interview with Ishikawa.

       15.      Toyoda, 57; Hoshina, 2; Hoshina, et al, 4.

       16.      Fudome, Shikan, 112; Nakazawa, 209.

       17.      Fukudome, Shikan, 97–98; Kaigun seikatsu, 204; record of interview with Shimada, Suikō Kai; Shinmyō, 26.

       18.      Janis, 37, 39.

       19.      Butow, 315–16.

       20.      Senshishitsu, Rikugun kaisen keii, 3:77, 4:494; Hatano, “Yokushi senryak,” 95–96.

       21.      Kimitsu sensō nisshi, I:8, 75, 77, 86, 121, 147, 170, 179.

       22.      Record of interview with Inoue Shigeyoshi, JMJ.

       23.      Hara Shirō, 64, 66.

       24.      “Sawamoto nikki,” 21 July 1941, 442; Fujii Diary, 21 July 10.

       25.      Quoted in Takagi, Yamamoto to Yonai, 247; Harada-Saionji, 5:96; taped interview with Miyo Kazunari, JDA.

       26.      Record of interview with Miyo Kazurari, JDA.

       27.      Quoted in Senshishitsu, Rengō kantai, 1:246.

       28.      Quoted in Yoshida, Kaigun sanbō, 312–13.

       29.      Letter from Inoue Shigeyoshi, quoted in TSM (new ed.), 7:494.