Entries correspond to the print edition of this book. You can use your device’s search function to locate particular terms in the text.
Page numbers from 413 to 540 refer to endnotes.
Acheson, Dean, 51, 326
Adams, John Quincy, 498
Adelman, Jonathan, 72, 74, 442
ADE (armored division equivalent) score, 134
Afghanistan, Soviet invasion of, xv, 98, 103, 153, 155, 259, 349
Afghanistan war, xii, 361
Africa:
China’s interests in, 379, 380
German colonial empire in, 183
Italian expansion aims in, 203, 204, 206, 208
aggression, cost/benefit calculation of, 37–40, 148–50
aircraft carriers, 117, 444
airlift, 97
airpower, 84
amphibious landings attacked with, 119, 455–56
armies supported by, 86–87, 96–97, 113, 135
civilian populations as targets of, 92, 95–96, 97, 101, 102, 105, 106, 108, 448
defensive use of, 443
development of, 117
interdiction provided by, 97, 448, 450
land-based vs. seaborne, 117
strategic-bombing limits of, 97–110; see also bombing, strategic
strength assessments of, 135
superiority in, 96, 119, 123, 124–25
three power-projection missions of, 97
Albania, Italian annexation of, 207–8
Albright, Madeleine, 9
alliances, defensive, 53, 156–57, 159–60, 212, 345–46
against Napoleonic France, 156, 212, 273, 277–81, 286–88, 332, 350, 487–88
against Nazi Germany, 160, 161, 212, 216, 217, 254–56, 263–64, 488, 505
against Soviet Union, 7, 75, 179, 192, 193, 260–61, 354, 460, 524
against Wilhelmine Germany, 7, 10, 53, 68, 111, 188, 205, 213–16, 253–54, 258, 262–63, 298–301, 304, 440–41, 488, 516
see also balancing vs. buck-passing
amphibious operations, 88, 114–17, 118–25, 135, 443–44, 453, 454, 456–58
anarchy, international, 3, 19–20, 22, 30, 32, 36, 54, 363, 364, 368, 420, 423–24, 425
as cause of great-power war, 334
Angell, Norman, 147, 149
Anglo-Russian Convention (1907), 300
annexation, 151
Anschluss (union of Germany and Austria), 190, 306, 308
Anzio, Allied invasion at, 123, 124, 458
appeasement, 139, 162, 163–64, 473
Arab-Israeli wars, xv, 132, 151, 463, 468
armies, see land power; military strength
armored division equivalent (ADE) score, 134
Asia:
American naval support in, 374
Cold War containment strategies in, 260–61, 266, 325–26, 524
Japanese expansionism in, 172–81, 264–65
multipolar system in, 398
water supply in, 376–77
Asia, Northeast, U.S. presence in, 257–61, 266, 496
atomic bomb, see nuclear weapons
Auerstadt, Battle of (1806), 111, 279
Austerlitz, Battle of (1805), 111, 510
Australia, amphibious operations conducted by, 458
Austria, Republic of:
Cold War neutrality of, 485
in Third Reich, 190, 306, 308
Austria-Hungary:
army of, 187, 303, 350, 352, 438
Balkan interests of, 188, 203, 215, 470, 479
Bosnia annexed by, 152, 188
composite ethnicity of, 297
disintegration of, 182, 203, 207, 354
and expansion of Bismarckian Prussia, 296, 297
German relations with, 182, 188, 297, 298
great-power status of, 297, 347, 350, 414
in Triple Alliance, 206, 297, 298
wealth share of, 71, 220
in World War I, 90, 91, 205, 298, 438, 479
Austrian Empire:
in coalitions against Napoleonic France, 120, 273, 274–81, 287, 288, 332, 349, 350, 510, 513
and expansion of Bismarckian Prussia, 116, 136, 289–94, 330, 351, 515
Napoleonic battles against, 111, 273–74, 276, 277, 278, 279–80
in Neapolitan War, 350
population levels of, 282, 288
troop strength of, 283, 284, 285, 293, 294, 295, 352
Austro-Prussian War (1866), 113, 136, 262, 342, 351, 474
Austro-Sardinian War (1848), 353
bait-and-bleed strategy, 139, 153–54, 162, 314
balance of power:
in Cold War Europe, 49, 51, 75, 431, 433–34
as distribution of military assets, 2, 341–42, 413
inequality in, 338, 341–42
as irrelevant, xi
military victory not predicted by, 56, 57–58, 59–60
miscalculations and, 57–58, 432
in multipolar systems, 44–45, 270–71, 336, 337, 344–47, 527–28
nuclear weapons and, 128–33
symmetry of bipolar systems in, 337, 341–42, 528
see also power; power, distribution of
balancing:
bandwagoning vs., 139, 465, 473
defined, 13, 139
external vs. internal, 156–57, 471, 527
group-equilibrium theory of, 470–71
as preservation of power balance, 139, 140
three actions of, 156–57
balancing vs. buck-passing, 139, 140, 155, 160, 266–69, 272–333
in Cold War, 268, 322–29, 525
geographical factors in, 271–72, 287–88, 296–97, 304, 319–21, 330, 332–33, 342–43
polarity configurations in, 268, 342, 527, 528
power distribution in, 269–71, 272, 281–87, 293–96, 297, 301–4, 316–22, 327–29, 330–32
among rivals of Napoleonic France, 268–69, 272–88, 332, 333, 510–13
among rivals of Nazi Germany, 305–22, 331–32, 465, 518–20
among rivals of Prussia, 268, 288–97, 330
among rivals of Wilhelmine Germany, 268, 269, 297–304, 330–31, 332
Balkan conflicts:
of 1990s, 50, 105–7, 451, 452
before World War I, 152, 188, 203, 215, 470, 479
Ball, Desmond, 494
bandwagoning:
balancing vs., 139, 465, 473
defined, 139, 162–63, 472–73
disadvantages of, 139–40, 163–64
as war strategy, 472–73
Bangladesh, 377
Barbieri, Katherine, 410
Berlin crises, 51, 325, 524
Best, Geoffrey, 286, 509
Bethmann-Hollweg, Theobald von, 478
Bhutan, 375
bipolarity, 272
in ancient history, 358–59
in Cold War, 268, 329, 339–41, 348, 355–56
in modern European war history, 357
power symmetry in, 45, 269–70, 329, 337, 341–42, 346, 527
stability propensity within, 336, 338–41, 344, 346, 356
Bismarck, Otto von:
chancellorship of, 183
conquest limits recognized by, 184, 210
European rival alliances discouraged by, 161, 214
on Italian military deficiency, 205, 206
military victories of, 39, 182, 183, 335
on potential British invasion, 119
Prussia transformed into unified Germany by, 68, 159, 181–82, 183, 268, 288–89, 330, 351
realist war calculations of, 181–82, 184, 335
on suppression of smaller powers, 3
see also Germany, Bismarckian
blackmail, 13, 138–39
coercion vs., 469
historical examples of, 152–53
Blainey, Geoffrey, 57, 59, 433
blockades, 86–87, 89–96, 101, 111, 114, 444, 446
strategic bombing vs., 97, 448
bloodletting strategies, 139, 154–55, 277
Boemeke, Manfred F., 430
Bolingbroke, Henry St. John, Lord, 261
bombing, strategic:
blockades vs., 97, 448
defined, 97
of enemy leadership, 97–98, 104, 108–10, 451, 452
failure of, 108–10
of great powers, 98, 99–103
industrial targets of, 97, 102
interdiction operations vs., 448
of Japan, 92, 93, 95–96, 100–101, 102–3, 450
of Nazi Germany, 96, 100, 101–2, 103, 112, 449
nuclear threat as deterrent to, 98, 107–8, 113–14
primacy of land power vs., 86–87
of small powers, 98–99, 103–8, 451
Bormann, Martin, 109
Borodino, Battle of (1812), 59
Bosnia:
Austrian annexation of, 152, 188
1990s conflicts in, 53, 451
Bosnia war (1995), xii, 361
Bosworth, Richard, 203
Bourne, Kenneth, 499
Brahmaputra River, 377
Brazil, 377
Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of (1918), 151–52, 193, 194
Bretton Woods system, 418
British Empire, see United Kingdom
Brooks, Stephen, 467
Brzezinski, Zbigniew, xiii
buck-passing:
allure of, 159–62, 314
bait-and-bleed strategy vs., 162
British history of, 159–60, 237, 261, 263, 292, 296–97, 299, 300, 301, 304, 308, 309–10, 321, 330, 331
defined, 13, 139, 157–58
four types of, 158–59
geographical factors in, 271–72, 287–88
by offshore balancers, 237, 253, 254, 259, 261, 263, 266, 299
power-system polarities and, 269–71, 272, 329–33, 527, 528
as preservation strategy in power balance, 140
Soviet strategies of, 196–97, 306–7, 308–9, 310, 311–16, 319–22, 331–32, 470, 518, 519–20
threat priorities in, 164–65
see also balancing vs. buck-passing
Bush, George H. W., 367, 474, 494
Bush, George W., 368
Butterfield, Herbert, 424
California, U.S. acquisition of, 243, 244, 252
Calleo, David, 182, 478
capitalism, 400, 403
Carr, E. H., xvi, 14, 15, 17, 18, 26, 234, 422
Carter, Jimmy, xiii, 494
Carthage, Roman annihilation of, 151
Casablanca Conference (1943), 100
Catherine II (the Great), Empress of Russia, 154
Central Front, 395, 396, 397, 399
central wars, 349, 528–29
Chamberlain, Joseph, 497
Chandler, David, 287
Chaumont, Treaty of (1814), 511
chauvinism, 400
Chechnyan rebellion, 108–9
Cheonan, 372
Chiang Kai-shek, 201, 326, 429
China:
civil war of, 260–61, 326, 327
Japanese war against, 92, 103, 112–13, 174–76, 177, 178–80, 196, 221, 222, 223, 258, 259, 266, 490, 491
U.S. troops in, 257
China, People’s Republic of:
Africa and, 379, 380
Asian domination and, 361, 368, 375, 380, 388
Asian geography and, 395–98
Asian multipolarity and, 398–99
Asian water supply and, 376–77
blue-water navy and, 379, 532
Brazil and, 377
coercion and, 376
Cold War alliances of, 193, 201, 326, 524
communism and nationalism and, 399–403
Confucian culture and, 403–7, 538
containment of, xiii, 362, 383–85, 388, 534
and control of seas, 379
economic-coercion argument and, 391, 536
economic growth of, 4, 56, 144, 368, 379
economic interdependence and, 381, 403, 407–9, 535–36, 539
economy and, 361, 368, 379, 386–87, 407–10, 535
foreign policy of, 380–83
great-power status of, 62, 360, 414
hostility of, toward Japan and U.S., 403
industry vs. agriculture of, 65
in Korean conflict, 132–33
maritime transport of oil and, 379
military power and, 362, 370, 380, 384, 532
military strength developed by, 4, 56
nationalism in, 400, 402
as non-peaceful, xiii, xiv, 361, 362, 403
nuclear capability of, 132, 133
nuclear power and, 394–95, 396, 398, 410
offensive realism and, 361, 363–65, 377
oil imports to, 531
polarity and, 398–99
policies to slow economic growth and, 385, 386
population of, 56, 61–62, 144, 388, 535
as potential threat to U.S., 4
potential war and, 362, 385–86, 394–95
realpolitik and, 370–80, 405, 406, 407, 539
regional hegemony and, 361
rise of, xii–xiv, 360–411
Soviet conflicts with, 132, 193
size of territory and, 370
South China Sea and, 371, 374, 375, 379, 381, 383, 384, 397, 402, 409, 410
Taiwan independence opposed by, 2
territorial disputes and, 375, 381, 382–83, 402–3, 531–32
travel restrictions and, 394
and U.S. presence in Asia, 371, 374, 378, 392
U.S. security competition and, 393–94, 396, 403
weak neighbors and, 374, 385, 388–93
wealth of, 61–62
Ch’ing Dynasty, 212
Christensen, Thomas, 407
Churchill, Winston, 197–98, 429, 472
Civil War, U.S. (1861–65), 116, 118, 496, 499, 529–30
blockades in, 90, 91
French presence in Mexico during, 143, 249
in U.S. consolidation process, 244, 245
classical (human nature) realism, 18, 19, 21, 22, 336, 417–18
Clausewitz, Carl von, 18, 24, 133, 510, 512
Clemenceau, Georges, 50
Clinton, William Jefferson, 9, 23, 48–49, 106
close air support, 97
coercion:
blackmail vs., 469
conquest vs., 85–87, 93–95, 101–5
Cohen, Warren, 406
Cold War:
alliance patterns in, 75, 84–85, 377
Asian containment strategies in, 260–61, 266, 325–26, 524
balancing vs. buck-passing in, 268, 322–29, 525
as bipolar system, 268, 329, 339–41, 348, 355–56
British troop commitment in, 264
containment policy developed in, 201, 265–66, 323, 522
control of wealth-generating areas in, 144–45, 149–50
Cuban missile crisis in, 153, 249, 370, 377–78
decapitation threat in, 110
defense-spending levels in, 78, 441, 443
defensive strategy of NATO in, 11, 136, 193, 256, 325, 415, 443
divided Germany in, 324–25
economic power in, 35, 65, 75, 144–45, 198, 325, 437, 526
end of, xi, xvi, 1, 49, 201–2, 360; see also Cold War, aftermath of
European balance of power in, 49, 51, 132, 136, 145, 192–93, 256–57, 264, 265–66, 323–25, 431, 433–34, 443, 524
European peace maintained in, 6, 50, 265–66
great-power vs. minor-power conflict in, 355–56
ideological opposition of, 46, 47, 324, 417, 524
land-power superiority in, 85, 120, 134
major conventional conflict and, 113–14, 433–34
moralist views vs. realism on, 24–25, 26–27, 192, 422
nuclear power in, 44, 51, 53, 114, 128, 130, 132, 151, 171–72, 224–32, 395, 398, 454, 461–62
onset of, 198–99, 322–26
rollback strategy employed by U.S. in, 387
security competition diminished in latter half of, 11, 50
Soviet Eastern European expansionism in, 192, 199–202, 323–24, 367, 485, 486, 524
Third World actions of, xv, 153, 192, 193, 201, 326
threat of superpower annihilation in, 151
U.S. instigation of, 321–22, 523
U.S. support of anti-democratic regimes in, 47
Cold War, aftermath of (post-Cold War era):
European security competition in, 1, 49–50
German reunification in, 32, 46
great-power peace in, xi, 1
NATO expansion in, 9, 23, 50, 133
unipolar world in, 360
wars fought by U.S. in, xii, 360–61
command of sea, 87–88, 443, 456
see also naval power
communism, 46, 47, 199, 323, 400, 401–2, 403, 429, 524
economic aid in defense against, 324, 325
Soviet political realism vs., 191–92, 195
world revolution as goal of, 191
Confucianism, 403–7, 538
Confucian pacifism, 403–7, 538
Congress of Berlin (1878), 206
conquest:
coercion vs., 85–87, 93–95, 101–5
defensive-realist critiques of, 209–11
success rates of, 39–40, 147, 166, 233, 428
value of, 147–55, 467
see also war
continental states, 126, 127–28, 135–36
Continental System, 90, 91, 94
cooperation, 51–53
in defensive alliances, 53, 156–57, 159–60, 212, 345–46
Copeland, Dale, 528
Corbett, Julian, 86, 89, 119, 452–53, 454
Corwin, Edward, 256
coups, instigation of, 109
Cremona, Paul, 203, 486
Crimean War (1853–56), 113, 288, 292, 351
amphibious landing in, 121–22, 127
duration of, 356
Russian expansion checked by power alliance in, 136, 342, 508
Russian military weakness in, 529
troop manpower in, 352
Crowe, Sir Eyre, 261
Cuba, U.S.-Soviet missile crisis in, 153, 249, 370, 377–78
Cui Tiankai, 382
“cultural realism,” 405
Czechoslovakia:
Nazi annexation of Sudetenland in, 153, 165, 190, 308
as Soviet satellite, 325, 524
Dahl, Robert, 57
Debo, Richard, 191, 481
decapitation, enemy tactics of, 97–98, 104, 108–10, 451, 452
decisive weight, strategy of, 205
“Defense Guidance” (1992), 367
defense spending:
buck-passing strategies and, 158–59, 160
domestic economic needs vs., 37, 149
internal balancing with, 157
limits on, 76–79
on nuclear weapons, 78, 145, 231
varieties of, 145
wealth levels vs., 76–82, 149, 170, 235, 237, 328–29, 350–51, 436, 440–41, 442
defensive (structural) realism, 18, 19–20, 419, 420
expansion vs. overexpansion in, 210–11
offense-defense balance in, 20–21, 39
other realist theories vs., 22
security dilemma in, 427
self-defeating aggressive behavior in, 171, 209
Dehio, Ludwig, 271, 441
Deist, Wilhelm, 308
Delbruck, Hans, 440–41, 510
democracy:
ideological promotion of, 46, 47
warmongering and, 4, 9, 16, 416
Deng Xiaoping, 380, 381, 382
Denmark:
German duchies taken from, 289–91, 353
Swedish war with, 350
deterrence theory, 11
Deutsch, Harold, 510
Deutsch, Karl, 336
Dickinson, G. Lowes, 22, 334, 426
Douhet, Giulio, 84, 86
Dudayev, Dzhokhar, 108–9
Eastwood, Clint, 37
economic issues:
of defense spending, 37, 76–82, 145, 149, 157–60, 170, 231, 235, 237, 328–29, 350–51, 436, 440–41, 442
of international interdependence, 15, 16, 467
military coercive strategies and, 86–87, 89–90
as state goals, 46, 48, 429–30
of war cost/benefit, 61, 148–50, 435, 467
see also wealth
Economics of the Wartime Shortage, The (Olson), 95
Economist, 382
Egypt:
British presence in, 121, 153, 154, 206
Israel attacked by, 132
Eisenhower, Dwight D., 51, 78, 105, 326–27
Elman, Colin, 432
Energy Information Administration, U.S. (EIA), 531
England, see United Kingdom
English Channel, as barrier to Napoleonic France, 454, 455
Enlightenment, 15
Entente Cordiale, 299
Ethiopia, Italian conquest of, 103, 107, 206, 208
ethnic civil wars, 464
euro crisis, 409
Europe:
Cold War order in, 49, 51, 132, 136, 145, 192–93, 256–57, 264, 323–25, 431, 433–34
divergent stability strategies of, 50–51
great-power system structure vs. war history of, 347–58
long periods of peace in, 6, 50, 265–66, 288
NATO expansion and, 9, 23, 50, 133
security competition in (1990s), 1
U.S. as offshore balancer of, 237, 238, 252–57, 264, 265–66, 347, 496–97
wealth distribution in, 63–74
European Anarchy, The (Dickinson), 22
external balancing, 156–57, 471, 527
Fairbank, John F., 538
Falls, Cyril, 489
Fashoda, European conflicts over, 153, 299
fear, great powers and, 32, 42–46, 345–46
Feldman, Gerald, 430
Feldman, Shai, 463
Fest, Joachim, 490
Finland, 350
Soviet invasion of, 104, 107, 151, 196, 201, 219, 355
First Opium War (1839–42), 374, 402
Fischer, Markus, 424
Florida, U.S. acquisition of, 242, 243
Ford, Gerald, 494
Founding Fathers, 366
France:
in alliances against Wilhelmine German threat, 53, 263, 297, 298–301, 304, 330–31, 488
Asian presence of, 257–58, 259
in buck-passing responses to Nazi power, 153, 306–7, 308–15, 319–22, 331, 332, 518–20
as continental state, 126, 127, 128, 136
economy of, 66, 68, 293, 324, 327
in Franco-Prussian War, 90, 91, 113, 116, 127, 136, 183, 186, 205–6, 291, 296, 351, 474
German rivalry with, 182, 183, 184–86, 188, 213–16, 263, 299, 488
great-power status of, 40, 349, 350, 355, 414
and invasions from sea, 127
military manpower of, 186, 187, 254, 282–86, 293, 294–96, 301–2, 303, 305, 309, 313, 317, 318, 319, 320, 352, 354, 511, 512–13, 514, 517, 521
Nazi control of, 161, 181, 197, 208, 218, 221, 254, 255, 259, 306, 309, 310, 315, 354, 457, 460
population levels of, 66, 68, 281–82, 288, 318, 511
Prussian-German unification and, 116, 289, 291, 292–96, 297, 330, 351
Revolutionary Wars of, 110–11, 153–54, 273, 274–76, 282–86, 332, 350, 456, 509
in Roman Republic War, 353
wealth of, 66, 67–69, 71, 186, 220, 281, 293, 301, 316, 318
Western Hemisphere interests of, 143, 242, 249, 250, 251
in World War I, 216, 254
France, Napoleonic, 365
amphibious operations directed against, 120–21
army of, 58–59, 150, 282–86, 332, 349, 351, 437, 512–13
balancing vs. buck-passing among rivals of, 268–69, 272–88, 332, 333, 510–13
blockade efforts and, 90, 91, 94, 95, 111, 445
conquest targets of, 274, 276, 277–79, 454, 511
defensive alliances formed against, 156, 212, 273, 277–81, 286–88, 332, 350, 487–88
English Channel as barrier to, 454, 455
European hegemony sought by, 6, 41, 68, 143, 212, 213, 253, 261–62, 273, 278, 332, 349, 350, 508
foreigners incorporated into army of, 150, 286
latent power of, 67, 70, 281–83, 511
Louisiana Territory and, 242, 243, 251
military modernization of, 286
naval actions vs. land battles of, 110–11, 510
Russia invaded by, 58–59, 60, 68, 69, 70, 150, 273, 274, 280, 286, 332, 434, 437, 454
wealth of, 67, 70, 281
Franco, Francisco, 208
Franco-Prussian War (1870–71), 127, 186, 474
blockades in, 90, 91
in German-Prussian unification, 116, 183, 291, 351
Italian gains as by-product of, 205–6
land-power primacy in, 113
relative military potential in, 296
start of, 136
Franco-Spanish War (1823), 353
Fravel, Taylor, 375
Friedland, Battle of (1807), 111
Friedman, Milton, 30
Gadsden Purchase (1853), 243, 244, 366
Gallipoli campaign, 122–23
Geiss, Imanuel, 214
Geneva Disarmament Conference, 308
geography, balancing vs. buck-passing patterns affected by, 271–72, 287–88, 296–97, 304, 319–21, 330, 332–33, 342–43
George Washington, USS, 372
Germany:
as continental power, 136
expansionist goals of, 169–70, 181–90, 219, 232
French wealth vs., 66, 67–69
geographical position of, 181
great-power status of, 347, 350, 354, 355, 414
latent power of, 66, 71, 220
population levels of, 66, 68–69
post-World War II division of, 51, 151, 152, 324–25, 523, 524; see also Germany, Federal Republic of (West Germany)
reunification of, 32, 46
shifts in U.S. view of, 26, 422–23
Germany, Bismarckian:
aggressive periods vs. peaceful periods of, 6–7, 181, 183–88
in European power balance, 161, 162, 184–86, 214, 293
industrial power of, 293
military success of, 39, 183
population of, 66, 69
Russian alliance with, 214
troop strength of, 186, 187, 351
unification process of, 46, 116, 159, 182, 183, 262, 288–97, 330, 351; see also Prussia
wealth of, 71, 220, 351
Germany, Federal Republic of (after unification):
army of, 443
wealth of, 71, 73
Germany, Federal Republic of (West Germany):
creation of, 324–25
economy of, 327
in reunification at end of Cold War, 32, 46
U.S. nuclear deterrent in, 51, 431, 524
in Western bloc, 325
Germany, Nazi:
aggressive foreign policy of, 182, 189–90, 306
air attacks on, 96, 100, 101–2, 103, 107, 112, 449
Allied coalition against, 160, 161, 212, 216, 217, 254–56, 263–64, 488, 505
amphibious assaults against, 123–24
balancing vs. buck-passing among rivals of, 268–69, 305–22, 331–32, 465, 518–20
blitzkrieg strategy used by, 58, 218, 219
blockades and, 90, 91, 95, 112
buck-passing measures of enemies of, 153, 158, 159, 160, 161, 306–7, 308–15
conquests of, 39–40, 79, 149, 151, 153, 161, 165, 190, 197, 217, 218, 254, 259, 306, 308, 457
diplomatic strategy of, 38, 217–18, 308
on eastern front, 69, 72, 79, 112, 123, 151, 155, 218–19, 221, 222, 223, 255, 260, 310–11, 316, 438, 439, 453, 488, 491
economic conquest gains of, 79, 95, 149, 150, 281, 317, 521
ideological aims vs. realist goals of, 46
innovative strategies vs. imitative behavior of, 167
military capability of, 43, 80, 112, 150, 218, 255, 307–8, 316–22, 438, 439, 442, 518, 521–22
population level of, 318
rearmament of, 307–8, 316–17, 354, 518, 521
as regional hegemon, 6, 41, 143, 151, 182, 213, 254, 255, 297, 321–22, 331, 355, 360, 365, 367, 388, 508
rise of, 313
Stalin’s alliance with, 27, 47–48, 53, 191, 196–97, 315
war economy of, 79, 80, 112, 439
war strategy of, 136, 216–19
wealth share of, 220
wealth vs. military production of, 72, 79–81, 318, 439, 442
Germany, Weimar, 188–89, 305–6, 354, 480
peace settlement imposed on, 50, 151, 188–89, 254, 480
Germany, West, see Germany, Federal Republic of (West Germany)
Germany, Wilhelmine:
Allied bombing campaign against, 111, 448
army of, 69, 72, 91, 111, 301–4, 321, 330–31, 353, 436, 441, 517
balancing vs. buck-passing among rivals of, 268, 269, 297–304, 321–22, 330–31, 332, 503
blackmail strategies of, 152
blockade imposed on, 90, 91, 111
coalitions against, 7, 10, 53, 68, 111, 188, 205, 213–16, 253–54, 258, 262–63, 298–301, 304, 440–41, 488, 516
industrial strength of, 68, 70, 72, 188, 301, 302, 436
1905 hegemonic potential of, 10, 11, 216, 489
peace settlement imposed on, 50, 151, 188–89, 254, 480
population levels of, 66, 68, 144
as regional hegemon, 6, 41, 68, 143, 183, 188, 212–13, 253–54, 297, 299, 301, 302, 322, 335, 353, 360, 365, 367, 385, 388, 479, 508
Russia defeated by, 69, 188
Schlieffen Plan of, 58, 136, 215–16, 263, 433
submarine campaign of, 91, 117–18, 254, 503
in Triple Alliance, 206, 297, 298
in two-front war, 69, 184, 213, 215
UK naval competition with, 188, 215, 299
UK opposition miscalculated by, 38, 216
war aims of, 118, 215, 479
wealth of, 68, 71, 144, 186, 220, 301, 353, 517
world-power ambitions of, 183, 188, 478
see also Kaiserreich era
Gholz, Eugene, 540
Gilpin, Robert, 336
Glantz, David, 318
Glaser, Charles, 427
Glaser, Elisabeth, 430
global economy, 467
global hegemony, improbability of, 41, 138, 140–41, 236
GNP (gross national product), 62–65, 67, 435, 437
Goering, Hermann, 109
Goldstein, Avery, 407
Gorbachev, Mikhail, 202, 229
Graebner, Norman, 234
Graham, Gerald, 445
Great Britain, see United Kingdom
Great Illusion, The (Angell), 147
great powers:
aggressive behavior of, 37–40, 148–50, 487
continental vs. insular, 126–28, 135–36
continual power expansion sought by, 168–72, 232–33
cooperation among, 51–53
defense spending vs. wealth of, 76–82, 149, 170, 235, 237, 328–29, 350–51, 436, 440–41, 442
elimination of, 151–52, 468
fear engendered among, 32, 42–46, 345–46
military-power qualifications of, 5, 414
perpetuity of competition among, 2–4
population size of, 43, 45–46, 60–64, 241, 248, 281–83, 435, 511
as regional hegemons, see hegemony; regional hegemony
self-defeating behavior attributed to, 171, 209–24
survival vs. non-security goals of, 46–48, 363–64, 375, 391, 429, 529
three categories of war involvements of, 349
great-power wars, causes of, 334–59
anarchic international system and, 334–35, 363, 364, 365, 368
and configurations of polarity, 336–47, 356–59
European historical examples of, 347–58
nuclear weapons and, 358–59
predictions and, 335, 526
Greece:
civil unrest in, 323–24
in Ottoman Empire, 353
Gries, Peter, 401–2
gross national product (GNP), 62–65, 67, 435, 437
Gulick, Edward Vose, 470
Haffner, Sebastian, 218, 219
Handel, Michael, 468
Hay, John, 257
hegemony:
American pursuit of, 365–68
defined, 40
global vs. regional, 40–42, 138, 140–41, 236–37
as ideal of state survival, 34, 35, 364, 375, 530
limits of, 40–42, 236
in nuclear power, 5, 128, 129–30, 145–46
potential, 44–45, 344–47
as ultimate goal of great powers, 2, 3, 12, 168–70, 345, 364–65
see also regional hegemony
Heinrichs, Waldo, 491
Herrmann, David, 301, 302
Herz, John H., 36, 427
Hintze, Otto, 440–41
Hirohito, Emperor of Japan, 93
Hiroshima, atomic bombing of, 93, 113, 450
Hitler, Adolf, 366
diplomatic strategies of, 38, 217–18
imitation vs. innovation of, 167, 182
on invasion of Soviet Union, 217–18, 489
military rebuilt under, 190, 307–8
military strength hidden by, 38
popular support of, 109, 189
rise of, 305
two-front war as downfall of, 39–40, 216, 217, 218, 488
see also Germany, Nazi
Hobbes, Thomas, 361
Hochman, Jiri, 519
Holland:
Anglo-Russian amphibious assault on, 115, 120
English protectionism against, 48, 429–30
Holstein, Prussian-German acquisition of, 289–91, 353
Howard, Michael, 454, 514
Hui, Victoria Tin-bor, 406
Hu Jintao, 404
human nature (classical) realism, 18, 19, 21, 22, 336, 417–18
human rights, 46, 47
Hungary, Soviet suppression of anticommunist revolt in, 356
Huntington, Samuel, 415
Hussein, Saddam, 38, 104, 109, 166
Hutson, James, 251
hypernationalism, 400–401, 403
IAF (Israeli Air Force), 96
imitation, of successful great powers, 140, 166–67, 182
India, 377
Chinese territory disputes with, 375–76
Pakistan as enemy of, 133
wealth vs. population of, 61–62
Indonesia, 391–92
industrial development:
efficient military application of, 80–81
in information technology, 148
latent power of, 62–65, 67, 436
naval conflict and, 89, 116
of railroads, 70
Soviet aggressive program of, 195, 306
wealth derived from conquest of, 149, 317
information technologies, 148, 149, 231, 467
innovation, great-power imitation vs., 140, 166–67, 182
institutions, international, 17, 416
insular states, 126–27, 128, 136, 459
interdiction operations, airborne, 97, 448, 450
internal balancing, 157, 471
international system:
absence of central authority in, 3, 19–20, 22, 30, 32, 36, 54, 334–35, 420, 423–24, 425
fear between powers in, 42–46, 345–46, 364
five realist assumptions about, 29–32, 424
institutions of, 17, 416
optimism for future of, xi
perpetuity of great-power competition in, 2–4
predictions about future of, 7–8
rise of China and, see China, People’s Republic of, rise of
smaller powers within, 5, 413–15
states’ intentions and, 363, 364, 381, 530
unipolar world in, 360
wealth distribution changes in, 57; see also wealth
world peace efforts in, 48–51
interwar years (1919–38), system structure vs. great-power wars of, 348, 354–55
Iran, Cold War interests in, 150, 193, 199, 323
Iran-Iraq War (1980–88), xv
Iraq:
in Gulf War, 38, 98, 118, 166, 451, 474
invasion of Kuwait (1990), 409
Iran’s war with, xv
strategic bombing of, 98, 103–4, 107, 108, 109, 451
Iraq war (1991), xii, 361
Iraq war (2003–11), xii, 361
Israel, xv
bait-and-bleed strategy used by, 154
as nuclear power, 132, 463
population of, 61
territorial gains of, 151
threat of enemies’ annihilation of, 151, 468
Israeli Air Force (IAF), 96
Italo-Turkish War (1911–12), 354
Italy:
African expansion goals of, 203–5
army of, 187, 203–5, 295, 298, 303, 305, 306, 317, 320, 327, 450, 458
Austrian conflicts with, 289, 291, 351, 353, 515
Bismarck on military weakness of, 205, 206
Ethiopian conquest by, 103, 107, 206, 208
great-power status of, 202, 298, 347, 354, 355, 414, 458
Marshall Plan aid to, 324
Napoleonic French forces in, 276
national unification of, 46, 113, 288, 292, 351, 353
power gains sought by, 171, 202–9, 351, 354
in Triple Alliance, 297, 298
wealth of, 71, 73, 220, 258, 324
in World War I, 182, 205, 206–7, 298
in World War II, 90, 91, 100, 102, 103, 107, 123, 124, 208–9, 355, 450, 458
Japan:
amphibious operations of, 124
atomic weapons used against, 93, 113, 450
blockade of, 90, 92, 94, 95, 101
economy of, 125, 223
expansionist goals of, 41, 169–70, 172–81, 221–23, 232, 258–59, 264–65, 266, 348, 491
great-power status of, 6, 55–56, 125, 181, 223, 347, 414, 475
as insular power, 136–37, 264–65
Meiji Restoration of, 172, 173, 475
postwar military weakness of, 55–56, 79, 327, 459
resources imported by, 223
rise of China and, 403, 407
Russian conflicts with, xv, 10, 70, 93, 113, 152, 174, 176, 177–78, 179, 180–81, 193, 195–96, 197–98, 219–21, 222, 258, 259, 260, 263, 266, 299, 300, 302, 314, 331, 348, 483
surrender of (1945), 92–93, 100–101, 102, 103, 113, 322, 447
U.S. bombing of, 92, 95–96, 100–101, 102–3, 107, 113, 450
in war on Chinese, 92, 103, 112–13, 174–76, 177, 178–80, 196, 221, 222, 223, 258, 259, 266, 490, 491
war with U.S. undertaken by, 212, 219–24, 491
wealth of, 55–56, 79, 145, 220, 258, 441
in World War I, 178, 179, 347–48
in World War II, 90, 92–93, 94, 95–96, 100–101, 102–3, 107, 114, 124–25, 136–37, 174, 181, 197–98, 212, 219–24, 259–60, 266, 322, 367, 429, 447, 450, 455–56, 458, 459, 490
Japan, imperial, 360, 365, 367, 371, 388, 402
Jefferson, Thomas, 500
Jena, Battle of (1806), 111, 279, 510
Jervis, Robert, 20, 420, 462–63
Johnston, Alastair Iain, 405, 533
“Joint Declaration on Security Cooperation,” 391
Juarez, Benito, 249
Kahn, Herman, 461
Kaiserreich era, 367
system structure vs. history of great-power wars in, 348, 353–54
see also Germany, Wilhelmine
Kanji, Ishiwara, 173–74
Kant, Immanuel, 34, 413
Kaufman, Robert, 465
Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928), 189
Kennan, George F., 18, 25, 51, 184–86, 234, 323, 417
Kennedy, John F., 228, 370
Kennedy, Paul M., 282, 285, 511
Khrushchev, Nikita S., 73, 197, 429, 440, 484
Kissinger, Henry, 538
Korbel, Josef, 480
Korea, 374, 397
China and, 132–33
Japanese ambitions toward, 172, 174–78, 180
U.S.-Soviet joint administration of, 198
Korean Peninsula, 397
Korean War, 104–5, 107, 133, 193, 201, 326, 474, 484
Kosovo conflict, xii, 105–7, 361, 402, 451
Kuomintang, 401
Kupchan, Charles, 488
Kuwait:
Iraqi invasion of, 104, 166, 451, 474
naval mines off coast of, 118
Kwantung Army, 93, 180–81, 197
Labs, Eric, 420, 474–75, 483
land power, 43, 83–137
air and naval support of, 85–87, 88, 94, 96–97, 113–14, 135
conquered populations used in, 150, 286
French Revolutionary ideology and, 282–86
measurement of, 133–35, 464
nuclear weapons vs., 84, 114, 132–33, 135, 137, 145–46
in potential Cold War confrontation, 113
power-projection capability of, 135
primacy of, 56, 83, 84–85, 86, 110–14, 135, 138, 145
railroad transport and, 116
water limitation on projection of, 44, 77, 83–84, 114–28, 135, 141, 264–65, 428
see also military strength
latent power, 60–67, 341–42, 436, 437
see also population size; wealth
Lausanne, Treaty of (1923), 207
Lavon, Pinhas, 154
League of Nations, 22, 189, 308, 430
Lee, Robert E., 91
Lee Kuan Yew, 399
Leffler, Melvyn, 325
Lehman, John, 444
LeMay, Curtis, 225–26
Lend-Lease Act (1941), 80, 256, 442
Lenin, V. I., 155, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 481–82
Levy, Jack, 410
Levy, Jack S., 348–49, 357, 414, 528
Liaodong Peninsula, 177, 178
liberalism, 14–17, 23, 24, 25, 27, 423
Liberman, Peter, 149, 467
Libya war (2011), xii, 361
Liddell Hart, B. H., 507
Linebacker bombing campaigns, 105
Line of Actual Control, 376
Lippmann, Walter, 234
Lipset, Seymour Martin, 24
Lloyd George, David, 50
Locarno Pact (1925), 189
Lodge, Henry Cabot, 238, 497
London, Treaty of, 207
Louisiana Territory, 242, 243, 251, 500
Luftwaffe, 307–8
Macartney, Maxwell, 203
Macdonald, Douglas, 484
Machiavelli, Niccolo, 203
Mackesy, Piers, 455
MAD (mutual assured destruction), 130–33, 146, 172, 224–25, 226, 229–31, 461, 494–95
Mahan, Alfred Thayer, 84, 86, 89, 443–44, 445
Maisky, Ivan, 472
Manchuria:
Japanese presence in, 174, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180–81, 222, 258, 260, 266, 491
Soviet troops in, 325–26
Manifest Destiny, 239, 242–47, 252, 366, 497
Mao Zedong, 193, 201, 326, 401
Marshall Plan, 324
Marx, Karl, 191
Mazzini, Giuseppe, 353
Medlicott, W. N., 214, 479
Mekong River, 377
Mencius, 405
Merk, Frederick, 252
Mexico:
French troops in, 143, 249
nineteenth-century population of, 239, 241
U.S. lands acquired from, 242, 243, 244, 252
Midway, Battle of (1942), 113, 125
military strength:
in conquest vs. coercive strategies, 85–87
deceptive representations of, 38
economic efficiency and, 79–81
of European troops, 186, 187, 282–86, 293–96, 301–4, 305, 315, 316–19, 320, 327–29, 352, 517, 525
foreign personnel incorporated in, 150, 286
industrial-technological development and, 63–67, 70–73, 80–81, 231–32, 315, 436
innovative strategies as, 140, 166–67, 527
of land forces, 56, 133–35, 464
latent power vs., 75–82, 341–42
miscalculations of, 338, 343–44
of Nazi rearmament, 307–8, 316–17, 518
power-projection capability of, 81–82
as prime component of power, 56
relative assessments of, 133–35
strategy vs., 58–59
unpredictability of, 38, 527
wealth requirements of, 56, 61, 63–65, 67–75, 138, 143–44
see also airpower; land power; naval power
Mills, C. Wright, xvii
Milosevic, Slobodan, 105, 106, 107, 452
mines, naval, 118
missile defense systems, 50, 228
MNCs (multinational corporations), 418
mobilizable wealth, 62
Moe, Terry, 423
Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact (1939), 47–48, 196, 315, 431
Moltke, Helmuth von, 122
Monroe, James, 247–48, 252, 367, 372
Monroe Doctrine, 239, 247–49, 252, 367, 371, 374, 392, 500
Moore, Barrington, 191–92
Morgenthau, Hans, xi, xvi, 14, 15, 18–19, 21, 53, 336, 417, 418–19, 426
Morgenthau Plan, 151
Moroccan crises, 152, 188, 263, 488
Moul, William, 437
Mughal Dynasty, 212
Mukden incident (1931), 180
multinational corporations (MNCs), 418
multipolar systems:
bipolar systems vs., 338–44, 357
buck-passing strategies of, 268, 270–71, 272, 329–33, 527, 528
military miscalculations in, 338, 343–44
more potential opponents in, 338, 339–40
of seventeenth-century Europe, 440
unbalanced vs. balanced, 44–45, 270–71, 336, 337–38, 344–47, 356–58, 359, 528
war probability factors of, 338–47, 356–58, 359
Munich crisis (1938), 153, 165, 308, 310, 311, 317, 518, 519
Murray, Williamson, 521
Mussolini, Benito, 203, 207–9, 306
mutual assured destruction (MAD), 130–33, 146, 172, 224–25, 226, 229–31, 407, 461, 494–95
Myths of Empire (Snyder), 209
Nagasaki, atomic bombing of, 93, 113, 450
Napoleon I, Emperor of France:
abdication and exile of, 280–81
army built by, 278, 286, 512–13
diplomatic tactics of, 278
enemy alliances and, 471, 510
final defeat of, 68
see also France, Napoleonic
Napoleonic era, central wars of great powers in, 348, 349–50
nationalism, 109, 148, 202, 249, 297, 498
German unification and, 335; see also Germany, Bismarckian, unification process of
National Security Strategy (2002), 368
Native Americans, 366
NATO, see North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NATO-Warsaw Pact conflict, 397, 398
naval power, 84
air bombardment of, 117, 455–56
of aircraft carriers, 117, 444
in amphibious operations, 88, 114–17, 118–25, 135, 443–44, 453, 454
Anglo-German competition in, 188, 215, 299
as army transport, 85–86, 88, 453, 454, 455–56
in blockades, 86–87, 89–96, 101, 114, 445
in command of sea, 87–88, 456
defensive use of, 443
enemy ports bombarded by, 88–89, 444
limits of, 87–96, 111–12, 452–53
mines and, 118
of North American colonial powers, 242
in sailing ships, 115
of submarines, 90, 91, 114, 117–18, 231, 232, 444, 503
Navarino Bay (1827), 353
Navigation Act (1651), 48, 429–30
Nazi era:
system structure vs. war in, 348, 355
see also Germany, Nazi
Neapolitan War (1815), 350
Nelson, Horatio, Lord, 89
New York Times, 391
Niebuhr, Reinhold, 417, 418
nineteenth century, system structure vs. history of great-power wars in, 348, 350–53
Nitze, Paul, 8, 51
Nixon, Richard, 370
Norman, E. H., 173
Normandy invasion, 117, 120, 123, 160, 264, 438, 456
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO):
in Balkan conflicts, 50, 105–7, 451, 452
defensive Cold War strategy of, 11, 136, 193, 256, 325, 415, 443
in European power balance, 256, 433–34, 443, 485
formation of, 75, 325, 326, 524, 525
Greek and Turkish entry into, 324
post-Cold War expansion of, 9, 23, 50, 133
proposed replacement of, 49
Triple Entente vs., 300
U.S. troop commitments to, 326, 525
North Korea, 372, 381
North Vietnam:
bombing campaigns against, 103, 105
see also Vietnam War
Norway, Nazi conquest of, 457
nuclear weapons, 394–95, 410
absence of great-power European war in
accuracy of, 227–28
in balance of power, 128–33
Cold War affected by, 44, 51, 53, 114, 128, 130, 132, 151, 171–72, 224–32, 453, 461–62
conventional war in era of, 114, 130–33, 135, 137, 147–48, 462, 463–64
counterforce capability in, 227–28, 229, 494
defenses against, 50, 129, 147, 228, 231
in defense spending, 78, 231
era of, 358
fear factor and, 43–44
first-strike advantage sought in, 7, 129, 151, 225–26, 230, 231, 460, 492
German acquisition of, 431
hegemony in, 5, 128, 129–30, 145–46
land power vs., 84, 114, 132–33, 135, 137, 145–46
limited war in, 228, 230, 461–62, 494
massive retaliation of, 225, 230, 494
mutual assured destruction from, 130–33, 146, 172, 224–25, 226, 229–31, 461, 494–95
relative advantage in, 129–30, 138, 145–47, 224–32, 495
rise of China and, 394–95, 396, 398
strategic bombing replaced by, 98, 107–8, 113–14
as threat of annihilation, 128, 151
World War II development of, 93, 98, 447, 450
Obama, Barack, 372, 390, 391
offense-defense balance, 20–21, 39, 420, 427, 428
offensive realism, xiv, xvi–xvii, 4–8, 366, 420–21
aggressive behavior expected in, 168–72, 474–75, 480, 483
China’s rise and, 361, 363–65, 377
other realist theories vs., 13, 21–22, 336–37
and structural theory of war causation, 336–47, 356–59
virtues and limits of, 8–12, 335
offshore balancers, 141, 234–66
buck-passing vs. active engagement of, 237, 253–54, 261, 263, 299
defined, 42
military buildups of, 157
regional hegemons as, 141
UK as, 237–38, 261–64, 266, 287, 299, 497, 508
U.S. as, 42, 157, 237, 238, 252–57, 264, 265–66, 347, 496–97
Ogarkov, Nikolai, 75
oil resources, 79, 145, 150, 193, 222, 379
Okinawa, amphibious invasion of, 124, 125
Olney, Richard, 239, 249, 250, 500
Olson, Mancur, 95
OPEC oil production, 409
Operation Barbarossa, 218–19, 331
Operation Desert Fox, 109
Oregon Territories, 242–44, 252
Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, 49
Organski, A.F.K., 336, 436
Ottoman Empire, 203, 206, 207, 350, 351, 353, 354
Overy, Richard J., 449
Pacific Islands in World War II, 112, 124–25
Pakistan, Indian conflicts with, 133
Palmerston, Henry John Temple, Lord, 116
Pan Am flight 103, terrorist bombing of, 108
Pape, Robert, 108, 231, 447
“parabellum paradigm,” 405
Paris Peace Conference (1919), 50, 487
Pax Brittanica, 65
peace:
of Cold War era in Europe, 6, 50, 265–66
democratic governments and, 4, 9, 16, 416
economic interdependence and, 15, 16, 467
international cooperative efforts on, 48–51
in 1990s, 1
U.S. overseas troop commitments and, 265–66
Peattie, Mark, 173
Perry, Matthew, 173–74
Pershing, John, 253
Persian Gulf, oil resources of, 145, 193, 379, 380, 531
Persian Gulf War (1991):
decapitation strategy tried in, 104, 108
ground operations of, 104, 107, 118, 451
miscalculation of military strength in, 38
motivations of, 166, 474
naval mines in, 118
strategic bombing of, 98, 103–4, 107, 451
Pew Research Global Attitudes Project, xii
Pierce, Franklin, 250
“pivot to Asia,” 390
Poland:
Nazi conquest of, 151, 196
partition history of, 151, 196, 468
Prussian suppression of, 3
Soviet conflict with (1920–21), xv, 69, 127, 189, 194, 306, 354–55, 480
under Soviet control, 196, 199
political leadership, enemy strategies for removal of, 97–98, 104, 108–10, 451, 452
Politics among Nations (Morgenthau), 14, 18
Polk, James K., 252
population size, 60–62
in Napoleonic era, 281–83, 511
power potential of, 43, 45–46, 435
productivity levels vs., 63, 64, 435
wealth vs., 61–62, 64, 248, 281, 511
in Western Hemisphere, 241, 248
Portugal, British invasion of, 115, 120–21, 262, 456
Posen, Barry, 134, 271, 508
Powell, Robert, 465
power:
latent vs. military, 55–56, 341–42, 436
measure of, 56, 57–60
as military strength, 56; see also airpower; land power; military strength; naval power
potential vs. actual, 43, 45–46
pursuit of, 12–13
relative vs. absolute, 34–36, 425–26
security as motivation for pursuit of, 29–40, 54, 363, 391
see also balance of power
power, distribution of:
balancing vs. buck-passing influenced by, 269–71, 272, 281–87, 293–96, 297, 301–4, 316–22, 327–29, 330–32
system polarity and, 44–45, 269–71, 336–47, 356–59
power competition, strategies of, 138–67
four basic objectives of, 138, 140–47
gaining power in, 138–39, 140, 147–55
imitation vs. innovation of, 140, 166–67
realist concessions in, 164–65
for restraint of aggressors, 139, 155–62
ten varieties of, 138–40
unsuccessful types of, 139–40, 162–64
power politics:
ideological considerations vs., 25–27, 234, 250, 422, 509, 524
U.S. liberal denial of, 22–27
power projection, water as barrier to, 44, 77, 83–84, 114–28, 135, 141, 264–65, 428, 454
Press, Daryl, 540
proxy wars, 393
Prussia:
army manpower of, 283, 284, 286, 293, 294–96, 351, 352, 514
Austrian war with, 113, 136, 342, 351, 474, 515
balancing and buck-passing responses to expansion of, 268, 288–97, 330, 515
as continental power, 136
economic benefits from aggression of, 148–49
economy of, 66, 293
in Franco-Prussian War, 90, 91, 113, 116, 127, 136, 183, 186, 205–6, 291, 296, 351, 474
in French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, 68, 111, 273, 274–80, 287, 288, 332, 349, 350, 510, 513
in German-unification process, 46, 159, 182, 183, 288–97, 330, 335, 353
great-power status of, 287, 347, 349, 414
population of, 66, 69, 71, 282, 288
wealth share of, 66, 68, 71
Prussia, Bismarckian:
balancing vs. buck-passing among rivals of, 268, 288–97, 330
see also Germany, Bismarckian
Qaddafi, Muammar, 108
raids, 444, 454
railroad systems, 70, 116, 122
Rapallo, Treaty of (1922), 195, 480
Reagan, Ronald, 227, 327, 444, 453, 494
realism, xi, 1, 17–22, 400, 404, 407
defensive, 18, 19–21, 22, 39, 171, 209, 210–11
human nature (classical) school of, 18, 19, 21, 22, 336, 417–18
liberalism vs., 14–15, 17, 23
three core beliefs of, 17–18
U.S. moralistic optimism vs., 22–27
see also offensive realism
realpolitik, 370–80, 405, 406, 407, 538
regional hegemony:
continual great-power pursuit of, 168–69, 363–65
dismantling of aspiring, 367
distant power rivals and, 141–43, 170
examples of failed efforts at, 211–24
global hegemony vs., 40–42, 138, 140–41, 236–37
offshore balancing interests of, 141, 236–37
polarity configurations and, 337–38, 344–47
rarity of, 143
of status quo powers, 168
United States as, 365–68
Reinsurance Treaty (1887), 184
repression, information technology and, 148, 149
Rhineland, 151, 305
Rich, Norman, 217–18
Richmond, Herbert, 454
rollback strategy, 387
Rolling Thunder bombing campaign, 103, 105
Roman Empire, 212
Roman Republic War (1849), 353
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 23, 47, 197–98, 256, 322, 367, 491, 505
Ross, Robert S., 532
Ross, Steven, 456
Rowen, Henry, 495
Russia:
as continental state, 126, 127, 128
great-power status of, 347, 349, 350, 360, 414
see also Soviet Union
Russia, Imperial:
Alaska sold by, 244
Asian power gains sought by, 176, 177–78, 292, 300
bait-and-bleed strategy tried by, 153–54
in balancing coalitions against Wilhelmine Germany, 53, 188, 263, 298–301, 330–31, 479, 488
Bismarckian Prussian expansion and, 289, 291, 292, 293, 294, 297, 330, 514–15
Bolshevik Revolution in, 179, 254
buck-passing strategy of, 279
in coalitions against Napoleonic France, 111, 120, 273, 274, 276–79, 281, 287–88, 332, 350, 510, 513
in Crimean War, 121–22, 136, 351, 352, 508, 529
in European balance of power, 69, 70, 152, 213–16, 297, 479
expansionist behavior of, 136, 190–91, 297, 508
French invasion of, 58–59, 60, 68, 69, 70, 111, 150, 273, 274, 280, 286, 332, 434, 437, 454
German relations with, 152, 182, 183, 184–86, 188, 214
industrial development of, 65, 70, 258, 436
Japanese conflicts with, xv, 10, 70, 93, 113, 152, 174, 176, 177–78, 179, 180–81, 193, 195–96, 197–98, 215, 219–21, 222, 258, 259, 260, 263, 266, 299, 300, 302, 314, 331, 348, 483
latent power deficiency of, 63–65, 70, 258, 301, 436
military manpower of, 187, 254, 263, 283, 284, 285, 293–94, 295, 300, 302–4, 351, 352, 436, 529
Ottoman conflicts with, 350, 351, 353
population levels of, 64, 282, 288
railroad construction in, 70
wealth share of, 64, 71, 186, 220, 258, 301
in World War I, 69, 70–72, 111, 152, 182, 216, 254, 436, 479
Russia, post-Soviet:
in Balkan conflicts, 50, 106
Chechnya rebellion of, 108–9
in European power balance, 85
military weakness of, 85
nuclear weapons of, 133
population of, 61
U.S. relations with, 49–50, 133
wealth share of, 144
Russia, Soviet, see Soviet Union
Russian Civil War (1918–21), 113, 179, 193, 258, 349, 354, 460
Russo-Japanese War (1904–05), 349
motivation of, 178
naval conflicts of, 113
Russian military devastation in, 152, 176, 215, 258, 263, 299, 300, 302, 331
U.S. nonintervention in, 266
Russo-Swedish War (1808–09), 350
Russo-Turkish Wars, 350
Rwanda, genocidal war in, 47, 429
Saddam Hussein, 38, 104, 109, 166
Sagan, Scott, 216, 224
sailing ships, 115
Sakhalin Island, 178, 179, 198, 483
Saudi Arabia, oil resources of, 150
Scarborough Shoal, 383
Schleswig-Holstein Wars, 289–91, 353
Schlieffen, Alfred von, 433, 489
Schlieffen Plan, 58, 136, 215–16, 263, 433
Schroeder, Paul, 221, 278
Schuman, Frederick, 425
Schweller, Randall, 20, 421, 424, 472–73, 474
Scobell, Andrew, 539
sea, command of, 87–88, 443, 456
see also naval power
security dilemma, 35–36, 382, 427
Seeckt, Hans von, 460
September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks of, 361, 390
Serbia, in onset of World War I, 479
Seven Years’ War (1756–63), 250, 454
Shimonoseki, Treaty of (1895), 177
Singapore, 392
Singer, J. David, 336
Single Integrated Operation Plans (SIOPs), 227, 228, 493, 494
Sino-American security competition, 393–95, 396, 399–400, 403
Six-Day War (1967), 151
slavery in U.S., 244–45
Smith, Adam, 48, 108, 429
Smith, Denis Mack, 206
Smith, Michael J., 417
Smolensk, Battle of (1812), 59
Snyder, Jack L., 20, 173, 209, 420, 427, 428, 471, 487
Somalia, U.S. intervention in, 47
South China Sea, 371, 374, 375, 379, 381, 383, 384, 397, 402, 409, 410
Soviet-Japanese War (1939), 113
Soviet Union, 534
Afghanistan campaign of, xv, 98, 103, 153, 155, 259, 349
amphibious operations launched by, 457–58
Brest-Litovsk division of, 151–52, 193, 194
in buck-passing strategies against Nazi threat, 196–97, 306–7, 308–9, 310, 311–16, 319–22, 331–32, 470, 518, 519–20
Chinese conflicts with, 132, 193
civil war in, xv, 113, 179, 193, 258, 349, 354, 460
communist ideology of, 191–92, 195, 315, 524
downfall of, xi, 25, 35, 70, 75, 149, 202, 360
Eastern European expansion of, 149–50, 192, 197, 199–202, 323–24, 325, 468, 485, 486, 524
economy of, 35, 56, 69–75, 79, 144, 195, 202, 258, 259, 306, 315, 328, 439–40, 441, 466–67
European hegemony sought by, 6, 170, 192–93, 198, 324, 506
expansionist goals of, 169–70, 190–202, 210–11, 232, 322, 323–26, 327, 484, 506
Finland attacked by, 104, 107, 151, 196, 201, 219, 355
great-power alliances against, 7, 75, 179, 192, 193, 260–61, 354, 460, 524
great-power status of, 41, 354, 355, 414
Hungarian anticommunist revolt suppressed by, 356
industrial power of, 72, 195, 258, 259, 306, 315, 316
Japanese conflicts with, xv, 10, 70, 93, 113, 152, 174, 176, 177–78, 179, 180–81, 193, 195–96, 197–98, 219–21, 222, 258, 259, 260, 263, 266, 299, 300, 302, 314, 331, 348, 483
latent power of, 56, 220, 258, 259, 316
military strength of, 69–75, 79–81, 85, 112, 120, 195, 198, 219, 255, 256–57, 258, 259, 305, 306, 309, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 320, 322, 327, 328, 439, 442, 443, 456, 484, 506, 522, 525
Nazi alliance with, 47–48, 53, 191, 196–97, 217, 315
Nazi warfare with, 39, 53, 69, 70, 72, 79, 112, 151, 155, 161, 181, 190, 209, 217, 218–19, 221, 222, 223, 255, 260, 306, 310, 316, 321, 453, 460, 488
in nuclear arms race, 7, 225, 229–30, 492, 495
Polish war with, xv, 69, 127, 189, 194, 306, 354–55, 480
as regional hegemon, 143, 198, 322, 360, 365, 367, 388, 508
UK wartime alliance with, 310, 518
U.S. wartime alliance with, 26–27, 53, 197–98, 322
wealth share of, 71, 73, 74, 75, 220, 259, 316, 328
in withdrawal from World War I, 155, 193–94, 348
see also Cold War
Spain:
conquered cultures destroyed by, 151
invasion of England planned by, 126
monarchy of, 353
Napoleonic French army in, 111, 121, 262, 278, 280
North American territories lost by, 242, 243
Spanish-American War (1898), 234
Spanish Armada, 126
Spanish Civil War, 208, 349
Spykman, Nicholas, 420, 496–97
Stalin, Joseph:
army purges of, 255, 318, 506
buck-passing strategies of, 196–97, 310, 311–15, 321, 331–32, 470, 518, 520–21
Chinese relations with, 326
in Cold War, 151, 199, 322, 324, 326, 484
economic development under, 72, 195, 306, 315
expansionist aims of, 190, 196–97, 198–99, 201, 323, 325, 468
on limits of aggression, 37
Marxist ideology of, 31, 521
as realist, 31, 47, 191
shift in U.S. views of, 26–27
and Soviet attack on Finland, 104, 196, 355
World War II alliances of, 27, 47–48, 160, 191, 196–98, 310, 322, 429, 518
state behavior:
norms of, 343
security motivation of, 32–36
status quo powers, 29, 35, 37, 40, 42, 423
regional hegemony pursued by, 168
steam navigation, 116
steel production, 64, 66, 67, 68, 437, 439–40
Stresemann, Gustav, 189
structural realism, see defensive realism
submarines, 90, 91, 114, 117–18, 231, 232, 444, 503
Sudetenland, Nazi acquisition of, 153, 165, 190, 308
Suez Canal, 153, 154, 208
Sullivan, Brian, 205, 207
Sweden:
population of, 61
Russian war with, 350
Syria, Israel attacked by, 132
Taiwan, 375, 376, 384, 392, 397, 408
U.S.-Chinese disputes over, 2
Talbott, Strobe, 9
Taylor, A.J.P., 514–15
technological development:
in information economy, 74, 148
latent power of, 62–67
military applications of, 75, 231–32
Soviet, 74–75, 202
of transport systems, 70
terrorism, 361
Texas, U.S. acquisition of, 242, 243
Thayer, Bradley, 430
theory:
underlying assumptions vs. explanatory power of, 30
virtues vs. limits of, 4–8, 355
Theory of International Politics (Waltz), 14, 18, 19, 414, 415, 419, 420, 425, 426, 432
Thompson, Kenneth W., 418
Thucydides, 163
Tiananmen Square, 401
Tibet, 387
Tibetan Plateau, 376–77
Tilsit, Treaty of (1807), 279, 280
Tocqueville, Alexis de, 24
Trachtenberg, Marc, 323, 431, 492, 524, 525
Trafalgar, Battle of (1805), 111, 452–53, 510
Treaty of Versailles (1919), 50, 188, 254, 305, 308, 430, 480
Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (1990), 133
Trilling, Lionel, xvii
Triple Alliance, 206, 297, 298
Triple Entente, 385
buck-passing strategies vs., 298, 299, 300, 330, 331
German war strategy against, 479
motives for formation of, 188, 213–15, 263, 299, 330–31, 488
Third Reich rivals vs., 196, 217, 308, 310, 314, 318, 319
U.S. buck-passing to, 253–54
Triple Intervention, 177, 178
troop transport, 70, 85–86, 88, 97, 116, 453, 454, 455–56
Trotsky, Leon, 191
Truman, Harry, 51, 155, 322, 324, 326
Truman Doctrine, 324, 328
Turkey:
Gallipoli amphibious operation in, 122
Imperial Russian wars with, 350, 353
Soviet territorial demands on, 199, 323–24
Turner, Stansfield, 444
Twenty Years’ Crisis, The (Carr), 14, 18, 234
UK, see United Kingdom
Ulm, Battle of (1805), 111, 279, 510
unbalanced multipolarity, 44–45, 270–71, 336, 337–38, 344–47, 356–58, 359
United Kingdom (UK):
African territories of, 121, 153
amphibious assaults made by, 120–21, 455, 456
anti-Dutch protectionism in, 48, 429–30
Asian presence of, 257–58, 259, 292, 300
Bismarckian Prussian expansion and, 289, 291, 292, 294, 296–97, 514–15
blockades of, 90, 91, 94–95, 111, 445
Bolsheviks attacked by, 354
buck-passing used by, 159–60, 237, 261, 263, 292, 296–97, 299, 300, 301, 304, 308, 309–10, 321, 330, 331
in coalitions against Napoleonic France, 274–81, 332, 350, 513
in Cold War, 264, 327–29
in Crimean War, 121–22, 136, 351, 352, 508
economy of, 64, 73, 293, 439–40
European dominance not pressed by, 6, 77, 237
European troop deployments of, 119–20, 261–64, 300, 304, 507
German economy vs., 186, 301, 316, 517
German naval rivalry with, 118, 215, 299
global empire of, 248, 257–58, 299, 508
great-power status of, 40, 126, 347, 349, 350, 354, 355, 414, 508, 526
industrial resources of, 63–65, 235, 246, 293, 316
as insular state, 126–27, 136, 237, 507
limited liability policy of, 263
in Napoleonic Wars, 120–21, 262, 273, 274, 276, 277, 278–81, 287, 350, 510, 512
naval power vs. ground forces of, 81–82, 111, 215, 299, 441, 507, 510
as offshore balancer, 237–38, 261–64, 266, 287, 299, 497, 508
opportunities for conquest foregone by, 6, 77, 234, 237, 238
political idealism vs. power interests of, 234, 422, 524
population levels of, 64, 246, 248, 281, 282, 511
Portugal invaded by, 115, 120–21, 456
in power balance against Nazi threat, 153, 165, 263, 264, 306–7, 308–10, 311, 313–15, 319, 321–22, 331–32
seaborne raids attempted by, 454
stopping power of water around, 44, 77, 81, 126–27, 136, 157, 170, 237, 247, 264, 321, 332, 442, 460
strategic bombing of, 99–100, 103
Swedish alliance with, 350
in Triple Entente, 188, 213, 214, 215, 216, 263, 298, 299–300, 330, 331, 488
troop strength of, 81–82, 187, 254, 283, 284, 295, 302, 303, 304, 305, 306, 310, 317, 320, 321, 327–28, 351, 352, 354, 441, 512, 525
U.S. expansion opposed by, 127, 251, 252
wealth share of, 64, 71, 73, 82, 220, 235, 246, 248, 281, 293, 301, 316, 354, 441
wealth vs. defense spending of, 76–77, 78, 149, 170, 235, 237, 328–29, 350–51, 436, 440–41, 442
Western Hemisphere power conceded by, 165, 242–44, 246–47, 250–51, 460, 499
Wilhelmine German power threat and, 53, 262–63, 297, 298–300, 301, 304, 330, 331, 516
in World War I, 91, 119–20, 159–60, 216, 254, 263, 300, 474
in World War II, 160, 217, 218, 221, 222, 254–55, 256, 259–60, 263–64, 309, 310, 315–16, 321, 327, 328, 331–32, 472, 518
United Nations, 48, 430
United States:
Asian presence of, 371, 374, 378
Balkan policy of, 50, 105, 451
China’s destiny as adversary of, 4, 221, 326
China security competition with, 393–94, 396, 403
Civil War of, 90, 91, 116, 118, 143, 244, 245, 249, 496, 498, 499
containment policy developed by, 201, 323, 329, 522
defense-spending levels of, 77–78, 149, 231, 236, 255, 441, 463–64
domination of world’s oceans of, 384–85
European power balance and, 252–57, 348, 355, 500, 506–7
foreign-policy realism vs. idealistic discourse in, 25–27, 234, 250, 422
French alliance in Revolutionary War of, 250–51
great-power status of, 6, 40, 41, 234–35, 347, 355, 414, 475
hegemony pursued by, 365–68
humanitarian intervention of, 47
immigration to, 244, 246
as insular power, 126, 127, 128, 136
isolationist foreign policy of, 170, 224, 247, 254, 497, 502
Japanese decision on 1941 attack of, 219–24
liberal political rhetoric in, 22–27
Manifest Destiny expansionism of, 239, 242–47, 251, 252, 497
military of, 85, 224, 255, 328, 441, 443, 496, 525
missile defense efforts of, 50, 228
Monroe Doctrine of, 239, 247–49, 500
native populations displaced in, 244, 245–46, 498–99, 500
Northeast Asian power balance and, 257–61, 266
in nuclear arms race, 7, 130, 225–29, 492
as offshore balancer, 42, 157, 237, 238, 252–57, 264, 265–66, 347, 496–97
opportunities for conquest foregone by, 234, 235, 236, 238, 496, 498
overseas troop commitments of, 2, 7, 235, 237, 247, 252–61, 265–66, 326–27, 348, 355, 463–64, 525
in Persian Gulf War, 38, 98, 103–4, 107, 118, 166, 451, 474
“pivot to Asia,” 390
population size of, 61, 239, 241, 245, 246, 248
as regional hegemon, 77, 141, 142–43, 165, 170, 212, 213, 235, 236–37, 238, 239, 247, 252–53, 264, 465, 497, 500
rise of China and, see China, People’s Republic of, rise of
rise of power of, 238–52
rollback strategy employed by, 387
slavery in, 242, 244–45
Soviet wartime alliance with, 26–27, 53, 197–98, 322
stopping power of ocean borders of, 44, 127, 136, 141, 170, 236, 264, 454, 460
successful conquests of, 39, 77, 148–49, 170, 234
territorial aggrandizement of, 366
terrorism and, 361
war on terror in, xii, 390
wars waged by, against minor powers, xii, 360–61
wealth of, 73, 74, 75, 77–78, 149, 219, 220, 235, 236, 246, 248, 250, 435, 441
in World War I, 7, 26, 216, 253–54, 503–4, 505
in World War II European front, 160, 218, 223, 254–56, 355, 472, 505
in World War II Pacific front, 90, 92–93, 94, 95–96, 100–101, 102–3, 107, 114, 124–25, 136–37, 174, 181, 197–98, 212, 219–24, 266, 322, 429, 447, 450, 455–56, 458, 459, 490
see also Cold War
USSR, see Soviet Union
Vandenberg, Arthur, 324
van de Ven, Hans J., 406
Van Evera, Stephen, 20, 420, 427, 428, 487
Versailles, Treaty of (1919), 50, 188, 254, 305, 308, 430, 480
Vietnam, 375
Vietnam War, 60, 259, 417
bombing campaigns of, 103, 105, 107
Viner, Jacob, 46
Wallop, Malcolm, 494
Walpole, Robert, 507
Walt, Stephen, 465, 473
Waltz, Kenneth, xi, xvi, 14, 15, 18–20, 21, 166, 336, 419, 420, 471, 539
on bandwagoning vs. balancing, 465
on hegemony vs. appropriate power, 425, 426
on individual states vs. international outcomes, 432
on interactions of smaller powers, 413–14
on Morgenthau, 426
Wang, Yuan-Kang, 406
war:
as acceptable instrument of statecraft, 18
bloodletting strategy in, 139, 154–55
causes of, 13, 20, 334–59
China’s powerful rise and, 362
deadliness of, xv, 112, 356–58, 453, 472
democracy as deterrent to, 4, 9, 16, 416
economic costs/benefits of, 61, 148–50, 409, 435
ethnic motivation of, 464
instigation of rivals’ involvement in, 139, 153–54, 162
among minor powers, 340–41
in multipolarity vs. bipolarity systems, 398–99
non-material factors in, 58–60
in nuclear era, 114, 130–33, 135, 137, 147–48, 462–64
predictions of, 38, 335, 434, 526
preemptive, 368
rise of China and, 394–95
states obliterated after, 151
stoicism of civilian populations in, 92, 95–96, 108
as strategy of power acquisition, 138, 140, 147–52
success of initiators of, 39–40, 147, 166, 233
territorial gains of, 150–51
three great-power categories of, 349, 528
see also conquest; great-power wars, causes of
War of 1812, 127, 244, 251, 349
war on terror, xii, 390
wars, proxy, 393
Warsaw Pact, 11, 75, 433–34
Washington, George, 247, 252
water:
naval mines in, 118
stopping power of, 44, 77, 83–84, 114–28, 135, 141, 264–65, 428, 454
Waterloo, Battle of (1815), 68, 276, 281
wealth:
changes in distribution of, 57, 68–75, 220, 281, 293, 301, 316
control of areas of potential generation of, 144–45
defense spending patterns and, 76–82, 149, 170, 235, 237, 328–29, 350–51, 436, 440–41, 442
economic efficiency and, 79–81, 441, 442
GNP as measurement of, 62–65, 67, 435
industrial development and, 62–67, 81–82, 144, 436
military strength built by, 56, 61, 75–82, 138, 143–44
mobilizable, 62
population size vs., 61–62, 64, 248, 281, 511
power potential of, 43, 45–46
security concerns vs., 48, 391
Wealth of Nations, The (Smith), 48
Weber, Max, 144
Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, Duke of, 456
Wen Jiabao, 404
West Germany, see Germany, Federal Republic of (West Germany)
White, Hugh, 534
Wight, Martin, 420
Wilhelm II, Emperor of Germany, 81–82, 183, 212, 218
Wilson, Woodrow, 23, 50
Wohlforth, William C., 432
Wolfers, Arnold, 310–11, 419
world peace, 48–51
see also peace
World Politics, 36
World War I, 367, 385, 386–87, 395, 408
blockades in, 90, 91, 111, 446
British troop commitments in, 119–20, 159–60, 263, 300
as central war, 354
deaths in, xv
Gallipoli operation in, 122–23
German decision process on, 213–16
German near-victory in, 216, 489, 503
Italian alliance in, 182, 205, 206–7, 298
Japanese participation in, 178, 179, 347–48
land power as determinant of victory in, 111
onset of, 152, 188, 215–16, 218, 334, 479
peace terms of, 50, 151, 188–89, 254, 305
root cause of, 22, 215
Russian withdrawal from, 69, 111, 155, 179, 193–94, 255
strategic bombing campaigns in, 99–100, 111, 448
submarines used in, 91, 117–18, 231, 254, 503
total cost of, 61, 435
troop strength in, 302, 303
U.S. entrance into, 7, 26, 216, 253–54, 503–4, 505
weapons production in, 70–72
World War II, 367, 374, 395, 402, 410
amphibious operations in, 123–25, 457–58
atomic bombs used in, 93, 98, 447
blockades employed in, 90, 91, 92–93, 95, 114
as central war, 355
deaths in, xv, 112, 453, 472
European balance of land power in, 111–12, 328
European eastern front in, 69, 72, 79, 112, 123, 151, 155, 218–19, 221, 222, 223, 255, 260, 310–11, 316, 438, 439, 453, 488, 491
ideology vs. power concerns of, 47–48
Japanese surrender in, 92–93, 100–101, 102, 103, 113, 322, 447
military production in, 72
Nazi-Soviet alliance in, 47–48, 53, 196–97
onset of, 165, 254, 263–64, 306, 331, 470
Pacific conflict of, 90, 92–93, 94, 95–96, 100–101, 102–3, 107, 114, 124–25, 136–37, 174, 181, 197–98, 212, 219–24, 259–60, 266, 322, 429, 447, 450, 455–56, 458, 459, 490
shifting allegiances in, 53, 163
strategic bombing in, 95, 96, 99–103, 107, 112, 449
total cost of, 61, 435
unbalanced multipolarity of, 355
U.S. entrance into, 7, 160, 254–56, 331, 355, 505
wealth vs. military capability in, 79–81
see also Germany, Nazi
Worm, Verner, 404
Xinjiang, 387
Xin Li, 404
Yan Xuetong, 404, 405
Yellow River, 377
Yellow Sea, 372, 374
Yom Kippur War (1973), 96
Yugoslavia:
in Cold War era, 201
1990s conflicts in, 50, 98, 105–7, 451
Zakaria, Fareed, 235, 496
Zhao, Suisheng, 383, 533