1. Maris A. Vinovskis, The Birth of Head Start: Preschool Education Policies in the Kennedy and Johnson Administrations (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005), 88; Edward Zigler and Sally Styfco, The Hidden History of Head Start (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 35.
2. Donald Hebb, “Donald O. Hebb,” in A History of Psychology in Autobiography, ed. Gardner Lindzey (San Francisco: Freeman, 1980), 7:273–303; Donald Hebb, Essay on Mind (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1980), 90–91; Peter M. Milner and Brenda Milner, “Donald Olding Hebb, 22 July 1904–20 August 1985,” Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 42 (November 1, 1996): 192–204; Richard E. Brown and Peter M. Milner, “The Legacy of Donald O. Hebb: More Than the Hebb Synapse,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 4, no. 12 (2003): 1013–19.
3. Duane M. Rumbaugh, “Austin H. Riesen (1913–1996): Obituary,” American Psychologist 53, no. 1 (1998): 60–61.
4. Donald O. Hebb, The Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theory (New York: Wiley, 1949).
5. Alfred McCoy, A Question of Torture: CIA Interrogation, from the Cold War to the War on Terror (New York: Metropolitan, 2006), 31–38; Richard E. Brown, “Alfred McCoy, Hebb, the CIA, and Torture,” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 43, no. 2 (2007): 205–13; Alfred McCoy, “Science in Dachau’s Shadow: Hebb, Beecher, and the Development of CIA Psychological Torture and Modern Medical Ethics,” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 43, no. 4 (2007): 401–17; Naomi Klein, The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism (New York: Metropolitan/Holt, 2007), 33–41.
6. McCoy, “Science in Dachau’s Shadow,” 404.
7. Donald O. Hebb, introduction to Sensory Deprivation: A Symposium Held at Harvard Medical School, ed. Philip Solomon, Philip E. Kubzansky, P. Herbert Leiderman Jr., Jack H. Mendelson, Richard Trumbull, and Donald Wexler (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1961), 6–7.
8. McCoy, Question of Torture, 31–38; Brown, “Alfred McCoy,” 205–7.
9. Donald O. Hebb, Woodburn Heron, and W. H. Bexton, “The Effect of Isolation upon Attitude, Motivation, and Thought,” in Fourth Symposium, Military Medicine I (Ottawa, Ont.: Defense Research Board, 1952).
10. Brown, “Alfred McCoy,” 207; McCoy, “Science in Dachau’s Shadow,” 405.
11. W. H. Bexton, Woodburn Heron, and T. H. Scott: “Effects of Decreased Variation in the Sensory Environment,” Canadian Journal of Psychology 8, no. 2 (1954): 70–76.
12. Mark Shainblum, “The King of (Understanding) Pain: Q&A with Ronald Melzack,” McGill University Headway 4, no. 1 (2009): 23–25.
13. McCoy, Question of Torture, 38, 40.
14. The 1958 conference proceedings were published as Solomon et al., Sensory Deprivation.
15. Ronald Melzack and William R. Thompson, “Effects of Early Experience on Social Behaviour,” Canadian Journal of Psychology 10, no. 2 (1956): 82–90; Eugene F. Gauron and Wesley C. Becker, “The Effects of Early Sensory Deprivation on Adult Rat Behavior under Competition Stress,” Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 52, no. 6 (1959): 689–93; James M. Sprague, William W. Chambers, and Eliot Stellar, “Attentive, Affective, and Adaptive Behavior in the Cat: Sensory Deprivation of the Forebrain by Lesions in the Brain Stem Results in Striking Behavioral Abnormalities,” Science 133, no. 3447 (1961): 165–73; Stephen S. Fox, “Self-Maintained Sensory Input and Sensory Deprivation in Monkeys,” Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 55, no. 4 (1962): 438–44; Richard Held and Alan Hein, “Movement-Produced Stimulation in the Development of Visually Guided Behavior,” Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 56, no. 5 (1963): 872–76; Torsten N. Wiesel and David H. Hubel, “Effects of Visual Deprivation on Morphology and Physiology of Cells in the Cat’s Lateral Geniculate Body,” Journal of Neurophysiology 26, no. 6 (1963): 978–93; Joseph McVicker Hunt, “Psychological Development: Early Experience,” Annual Review of Psychology 30, no. 1 (1979): 129–34.
16. Philip Solomon, Jack Mendelson, Herbert Leiderman, and Donald Wexler, “Sensory Deprivation: A Review,” American Journal of Psychiatry 114, no. 4 (1957): 357; Solomon et al., Sensory Deprivation, 1; Stuart C. Miller, “Ego-Autonomy in Sensory Deprivation, Isolation, and Stress,” International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 43 (January–February 1962): 1–20.
17. Eugene Ziskind, Harold Jones, William Filante, and Jack Goldberg, “Observations on Mental Symptoms in Eye Patched Patients: Hypnagogic Symptoms in Sensory Deprivation,” American Journal of Psychiatry 116, no. 10 (1960): 893–900; William Filante, Jack Goldberg, Harold Jones, and Eugene Ziskind, “Sensory Deprivation on an Eye Service—Its Significance and Management,” California Medicine 96, no. 3 (1960): 355–56; Reginald Lourie, interview, May 10, 1977, 8, Milton J. E. Senn, American Child Guidance Clinic and Child Psychiatry Movement Interview Collection, 1975–1978, Modern Manuscripts Collection, History of Medicine Division, National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md., OH 76.
18. C. Wesley Jackson, John Pollard, and E. W. Kansky, “The Application of Findings from Experimental Sensory Deprivation to Cases of Clinical Sensory Deprivation,” American Journal of Medical Science 243 (May 1962): 558–63.
19. Karl Menninger, Theory of Psychoanalytic Technique (New York: Basic Books, 1958), 52–53; David Rapaport, “The Theory of Ego Autonomy: A Generalization,” Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic 22, no. 1 (1958): 62; Miller, “Ego-Autonomy,” 6.
20. “Tank Test Linked to Brainwashing: U.S. and Canadian Scientists Report to Congress on Their Experiments,” New York Times, April 15, 1956; William R. Thompson and Ronald Melzack, “Early Environment,” Scientific American 194, no. 1 (1956): 38–42; Woodburn Heron, “The Pathology of Boredom,” Scientific American 196, no. 1 (1957): 52–56; John A. Osmundsen, “Psychosis Linked to Heart Surgery: Many Patients Subject to Post-Operative Delusions,” New York Times, August 6, 1965; Norman Rosenzweig, “Sensory Deprivation and Schizophrenia: Some Clinical and Theoretical Similarities,” American Journal of Psychiatry 116, no. 4 (1959): 326–29.
21. Eleanor Leacock, ed., The Culture of Poverty: A Critique (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1971), based on papers from the 1966 American Anthropological Association meeting; Stephen Baratz and Joan Baratz, “Early Childhood Intervention: The Social Science Base of Institutional Racism,” Harvard Educational Review 40, no. 1 (1970): 29–50; William Ryan, Blaming the Victim (London: Orbach and Chambers, 1971), 7.
22. Edward Zigler and Jeanette Valentine, eds. Project Head Start: A Legacy of the War on Poverty (New York: Free Press, 1979); Vinovskis, Birth of Head Start; Zigler and Styfco, Hidden History.
1. John Bowlby, “Forty-Four Juvenile Thieves: Their Characters and Home-Life,” International Journal of Psychoanalysis 25 (1944): 19–53, 107–28.
2. John Bowlby, Maternal Care and Mental Health: A Report Prepared on Behalf of the World Health Organization as a Contribution to the United Nations Programme for the Welfare of Homeless Children (Geneva: World Health Organization, 1951), 11–12.
3. Marga Vicedo, “The Social Nature of the Mother’s Tie to her Child: John Bowlby’s Theory of Attachment in Post-War America,” British Journal of the History of Science 44, no. 3 (2011): 401–26.
4. John Bowlby, Child Care and the Growth of Love, abridged and ed. M. Fry (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1953); Jeremy Holmes, John Bowlby and Attachment Theory (London: Routledge, 1993), 38–49; Vicedo, “Social Nature,” 406.
5. Holmes, John Bowlby, 45–48; Rose Cleary, “Bowlby’s Theory of Attachment and Loss: A Feminist Reconsideration,” Feminism and Psychology 9, no. 1 (1999): 32–42.
6. Juliet Mitchell, Psychoanalysis and Feminism (New York: Pantheon, 1974), 228–29.
7. One review of Robert L. Patton and Lytt I. Gardner, Growth Failure in Maternal Deprivation (Springfield: Thomas, 1963), argued that “maternal deprivation has now become one of the clichés of modern pediatrics, sociology and popular journalism” (“Review of Growth Failure in Maternal Deprivation,” Archives of Disease in Childhood 39, no. 204 [1964]: 208).
8. Patton and Gardner, Growth Failure, xi.
9. Mary D. S. Ainsworth, “Mary Salter Ainsworth,” in Models of Achievement: Reflections of Eminent Women in Psychology, ed. Agnes N. O’Connell and Nancy Felipe Russo (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983), 200–219; Mary Main, “Mary D. Salter Ainsworth: Tribute and Portrait,” Psychoanalytic Inquiry 19, no. 5 (1999): 682–776.
10. Frank A. Pederson, “Leon J. Yarrow (1921–1982),” American Psychologist 40, no. 10 (1985): 1137.
11. Leon Yarrow, “Maternal Deprivation: Toward an Empirical and Conceptual Re-Evaluation,” Psychological Bulletin 58, no. 6 (1961): 480.
12. Ibid., 486.
13. MA to John Bowlby, September 18, 1959, box M3168, folder 1, MA Papers.
14. Ibid.
15. MA to Leon Yarrow, October 12, 1963, box M3167, folder 4, MA Papers.
16. Lawrence Casler, “Maternal Deprivation: A Critical Review of the Literature,” Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 26, no. 2 (1961): 14–18.
17. Ibid., 49.
18. Ibid., 22–24, 34–42.
19. MA to James Robertson, November 18, 1961, box M3167, folder 3, MA Papers.
20. MA to William E. Martin, November 14, 1961, box M3167, folder 3, MA Papers; MA to James Robertson, November 18, 1961, box M3167, folder 3, MA Papers.
21. Mary Ainsworth, “The Effects of Maternal Deprivation: A Review of Findings and Controversy in the Context of a Research Strategy,” in Deprivation of Maternal Care: A Reassessment of its Effects (Geneva: World Health Organization, 1962), 156.
22. Peter Warren to MA, October 29, 1963, box M3168, folder 6, MA Papers.
23. MA to John Ware, May 11, 1973, box M3167, folder 7, MA Papers.
24. Mitchell Neiman to MA, January 22, 1962, box M 3169, folder 1, MA Papers. A former colleague of Zubek, Lois Brockman, described Ainsworth and Zubek’s collegial relations (interview by author, August 27, 2009, Winnipeg, Manitoba).
25. MA to Allen Robinson, November 4, 1965, box M3169, folder 4, MA Papers.
26. MA to JMH, April 12, 1966, box M3169, folder 5, MA Papers. Still, Ainsworth retained her primarily psychoanalytic worldview. When asked about allowing mothers to touch their premature newborn babies while they were in incubators, she speculated that the major benefit would be not in the babies’ reaction (whether they would be stimulated adequately) but rather in the mother’s bonding to the child through the use of touch (MA to Linda Booth Rapoport, February 7, 1966, box 3169, folder 5, MA Papers).
27. MA to John Bowlby, December 1, 1968, box M3170, folder 4, MA Papers.
28. René Spitz, “Hospitalism: An Inquiry into the Genesis of Psychiatric Conditions in Early Childhood,” Psychoanalytic Study of the Child 1 (1945): 53–74; René Spitz and Katharine Wolf, “Anaclitic Depression: An Inquiry into the Genesis of Psychiatric Conditions in Early Childhood,” Psychoanalytic Study of the Child 2 (1946): 313–42.
29. Conference program, Leo Kanner Papers, box 100697, folder 92, Melvin Sabshin Library and Archives, American Psychiatric Association, Alexandria, Va.
30. See box M2114, folder 16, RAS Papers.
31. René Spitz, “Some Measurements and Clinical Observations of the Effects of Social Starvation in Infants,” November 7, 1955, box M2114, folder 16, RAS Papers.
32. In a note to Spitz from his assistant and editor, W. Godfrey Coliner, concerning Spitz’s review of Bowlby’s Grief and Mourning in Infancy, Coliner wrote, “It seems to me that RAS [René A. Spitz] should state that in addition to locomotion and motility, the sensory deprivation should be taken into account. . . . In view of the advances in RAS thinking (in connection with Von Senden, Hebb etc) this will fit in.” Although these comments were not incorporated in the final version of the review, they are indicative of Spitz’s thought as perceived by one of his closest collaborators. See W. Godfrey Coliner to René A. Spitz, ca. July 1960, box M2115, folder 7, RAS Papers.
33. René Spitz, “Commentary,” September 9, 1964, box M2124, folder 11, RAS Papers.
34. Cited in Sidney Cohen, “Contact Deprivation in Infants,” Psychosomatics 7, no. 2 (1966): 86, 88.
35. Ibid., 88.
36. These three studies examined the influence of different kinds of sensory stimulation on institutionalized infants in New York. These infants had been placed in group care mainly because of their families’ inability to care for them; all were considered healthy. See Lawrence Casler, “Supplementary Auditory and Vestibular Stimulation: Effects on Institutionalized Infants,” Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 19, no. 3 (1975): 456–63; Lawrence Casler, “The Effects of Extra Tactile Stimulation on a Group of Institutionalized Infants,” Genetic Psychology Monographs 71, no. 1 (1965): 137–75; Lawrence Casler, “The Effects of Supplementary Verbal Stimulation on a Group of Institutionalized Infants,” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 6, no. 1 (1965): 19–27.
37. Casler, “Effects of Extra Tactile Stimulation,” 149.
38. Ibid., 151.
39. Ibid., 171.
40. Ibid., 170.
41. For a review of the history of day care in the United States, see Elly Singer, Child-Care and the Psychology of Development (New York: Routledge, 1992); Sonya Michel, Children’s Interests/Mother’s Rights (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999); Elizabeth Rose, A Mother’s Job: The History of Day Care, 1890–1960 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999). For an older but still pertinent analysis, see Margaret O’Brien Steinfels, Who’s Minding the Children?: The History and Politics of Day Care in America (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1973); Pamela Roby, ed., Child Care—Who Cares (New York: Basic Books, 1975).
42. Sheila M. Rothman, “Other People’s Children: The Day Care Experience in America,” Public Interest 30 (Winter 1973): 11–27; Michel, Children’s Interests, 133–36, 175–78.
43. Julia Wrigley, “Do Young Children Need Intellectual Stimulation?: Experts’ Advice to Parents, 1900–1985,” History of Education Quarterly 29, no. 1 (1989): 41–75; Maris A. Vinovskis, “Early Childhood Education: Then and Now,” Daedalus 122, no. 1 (1993): 160–61.
44. Michel, Children’s Interests, 155.
45. Denise Riley, War in the Nursery (London: Virago, 1983), 92–108.
46. Lois Wladis Hoffman, “The Decision to Work,” in The Employed Mother in America, ed. F. Ivan Nye and Lois Wladis Hoffman (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1963), 33; Lawrence J. Sharp and F. Ivan Nye, “Maternal Mental Health,” in Employed Mother, ed. Nye and Hoffman, 310.
47. See, for example, Florence A. Ruderman, “Family and Personal Characteristics of Working and Nonworking Mothers,” in Child Care and Working Mothers: A Study of Arrangements Made for Daytime Care of Children (New York: Child Welfare League of America, 1968), 163–206; Alberta E. Siegel and Miriam B. Haas, “The Working Mother: A Review of the Research,” Child Development 34 (1963): 523–27; Hoffman, “Decision to Work.”
48. Florence A. Ruderman, “Conceptualizing Needs for Day Care: Some Conclusions Drawn from the Child Welfare League Day Care Project,” Child Welfare 44, no. 3 (1965): 208–9.
49. Bettye M. Caldwell and Julius B. Richmond, “The Children’s Center in Syracuse, New York,” in Early Child Care: The New Perspectives, ed. Caroline A. Chandler, Reginald S. Lourie, and Anne DeHuff Peters (New York: Atherton, 1968), 341.
50. Singer, Child-Care, 122.
51. Julius B. Richmond, “Paediatric Aspects of Day Care and Institutional Care,” in Care of Children in Day Centres, ed. Francoise Davidson (Geneva: World Health Organization, 1963), 102–3.
52. Bettye M. Caldwell and Julius B. Richmond, “Programmed Day Care for the Very Young Child: A Preliminary Report,” Journal of Marriage and Family 26, no. 4 (1964): 486.
53. Ibid., 487–88.
54. Caldwell and Richmond, “Children’s Center,” 346.
55. Bettye M. Caldwell, Charlene Wright, Alice Honig, and Jordan Tannenbaum, “Infant Day Care and Attachment,” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 40, no. 3 (1970): 410.
56. Bettye M. Caldwell, “What Is the Optimal Learning Environment for the Young Child?,” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 37, no. 1 (1967): 10, 15, 18.
57. Milton Willner, “Day Care: A Reassessment,” Child Welfare 44, no. 3 (1965): 130.
58. John E. Hansan and Kathryn Pemberton, “Day Care: A Therapeutic Milieu,” Child Welfare 44, no. 3 (1965): 150, 153–54.
59. Phillip J. Obermiller, “Cincinnati’s ‘Second Minority’: The Emergence of Appalachian Advocacy, 1953–1973,” Appalachian Journal 24, no. 3 (1997): 274–95.
60. Eleanor Hosley, “Culturally Deprived Children in Day-Care Programs,” Children 10, no. 5 (1963): 176.
61. Hosley described the “children’s tragic expressions on how they feel about belonging to a discriminated against minority group,” as she cited a five-year-old African American child who said he would rather be a rhinoceros than be black (ibid., 179).
62. American Institute for Research in the Behavioral Sciences, The Day Nursery Association of Cleveland, Cleveland, Ohio: A Long History of Care for Children, Involvement of Parents, and Service to the Community (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970), 10.
63. Lois B. Murphy, “The Consultant in a Day Care Center for Deprived Children,” Children 15, no. 3 (1968): 99–100.
64. Ann D. Murray, “Maternal Employment Reconsidered: Effects on Infants,” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 45, no. 5 (1974): 780.
65. David Weikart and Dolores Lambie, “Preschool Intervention through a Home Teaching Program,” in Disadvantaged Child, vol. 2, Head Start and Early Intervention, ed. Jerome Hellmuth (New York: Brunner/Mazal, 1968), 445, 494, 495.
66. Lois B. Murphy, “The Assessment of Infants and Young Children,” in Early Child Care, ed. Chandler, Lourie, and Peters, 111.
67. Mary Ainsworth and Silvia Bell, “Mother-Infant Interaction and the Development of Competence,” in The Growth of Competence, ed. Kevin Connolly and Jerome Bruner (London: Academic, 1974), 116.
68. Singer, Child Care, 116–18; Ralph Scott, Research and Early Childhood: The Home Start Project (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Office of Education, 1972).
69. Greta G. Fein and Alison Clarke-Stewart, Day Care in Context (New York: Wiley, 1973), 189–90. Lois B. Murphy wrote that middle-class mothers are “intuitive ‘Skinnerians,’” as they “spontaneously reinforce the responses initiated by the infant which fit the picture of positive development” (Day Care Guidelines 1961–1966, Appendix—February 22, 1966, box 48, folder 3, Lois B. Murphy Papers, Modern Manuscripts Collection, History of Medicine Division, National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md., MS C 280c).
70. Lois B. Murphy, “Assessment of Infants,” 95.
71. Murphy referred directly to the “mothering” provided for deprived children at day care facilities that would compensate for the inadequacies of their home lives (Lois B. Murphy to Emma Peters, March 24, 1966, box 44, folder 1, Lois B. Murphy Papers).
72. Caldwell and Richmond, “Children’s Center,” 341.
73. Lyndon B. Johnson, “Statement by the President upon Signing the Social Security Amendments and upon Appointing a Commission to Study the Nation’s Welfare Programs,” January 2, 1968, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=28915.
74. Iris Rotberg to author, March 27, 2010; President’s Commission on Income Maintenance Programs, Poverty amid Plenty: The American Paradox (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969), 62–63.
75. MA to Iris Rotberg, July 1, 1968, box M3170, folder 3, MA Papers.
76. Iris Rotberg to MA, July 22, 1968, box M3170, folder 3, MA Papers.
77. President’s Commission on Income Maintenance Programs, Poverty amidst Plenty, 74–75.
78. Ibid.
79. Marisa Chappell, The War on Welfare: Family, Poverty, and Politics in Modern America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010), 60–63.
80. Jill Quadagno, The Color of Welfare: How Racism Undermined the War on Poverty (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 121–24; Chappell, War on Welfare, 65–105; David Courtwright, No Right Turn: Conservative Politics in a Liberal America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2010), 80–81.
81. Alice O’Connor, “The False Dawn of Poor-Law Reform: Nixon, Carter, and the Quest for a Guaranteed Income,” in Loss of Confidence: Politics and Policy in the 1970s, ed. David Robertson (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1998), 99–129; Martha Derthick, Policymaking for Social Security (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1979), 167–72.
82. Ron Hasking, Work over Welfare: The Inside Story of the 1996 Welfare Reform Law (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2006), 340–45; Frank Stricker, How America Lost the War on Poverty—And How to Win It (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007), 210–31; Kenneth Neubeck and Noel A. Cazenave, Welfare Racism: Playing the Race Card against America’s Poor (New York: Routledge, 2001), 145–76.
83. Richard Nixon, “Veto of the Economic Opportunity Amendments of 1971 December 9, 1971,” http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=3251.
84. Christopher Howard, The Hidden Welfare State: Expenditures and Social Policy in the United States (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997).
85. Michel, Children’s Interests, 281–90.
86. Ibid., 1.
87. David Rothman, Beginnings Count: The Technological Imperative in American Health Care (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 3–14.
88. Ibid., 87–110.
89. William Roth, “The Politics of Daycare,” Society 19, no. 2 (1982): 64–68; Kimberly Morgan, “A Child of the Sixties: The Great Society, the New Right, and the Politics of Federal Child Care,” Journal of Policy History 13, no. 2 (2001): 223–43; Edward Zigler and Sally Styfco, The Hidden History of Head Start (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 162–75.
90. For a thorough analysis, see Noel A. Cazenave, “Maximum Feasible Participation Meets ‘Black Power’ and the White Backlash: The Struggle over Community Action in Syracuse,” in The Urban Racial State: Managing Race Relations in American Cities (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2011), 85–102; Morgan, “Child of the Sixties,” 228–32.
91. Zigler and Styfco, Hidden History, 172–73.
92. Morgan, “Child of the Sixties,” 234; Carole Joffe, “Why the United States Has No Child-Care Policy,” in Families, Politics, and Public Policy, ed. Irene Diamond (New York: Longman, 1983), 172; Roth, “Politics of Daycare,” 62–69. Reginald Lourie, who had testified before Congress regarding the benefits of early education, recalled that Vice President Spiro Agnew vehemently opposed the bill, arguing that “Lourie wants to Sovietize American Children” (Reginald Lourie, interview, May 10, 1977, 17, Milton J. E. Senn, American Child Guidance Clinic and Child Psychiatry Movement Interview Collection, 1975–1978, Modern Manuscripts Collection, History of Medicine Division, National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md., OH 76).
93. Zigler and Styfco, Hidden History, 167–70; Morgan, “Child of the Sixties,” 224–27.
94. Cited in Dean J. Kotlowski, Nixon’s Civil Rights: Politics, Principle, and Policy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001), 249.
95. Ibid., 247–50.
96. Ibid., 250–56.
97. Richard Nixon, “Special Message to the Congress on the Nation’s Antipoverty Programs, February 19, 1969,” http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=2397; Urie Bronfenbrenner and Jerome Bruner, “The President and the Children,” New York Times, January 31, 1972.
98. Joseph Clark to Paul Gyorgy, August 8, 1968, box 27, folder 2, JBR Papers; Urie Bronfenbrenner to Carl Perkins, August 9, 1968, box 1, folder 78, Urie Bronfenbrenner Papers, 23-13-954, Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library, Ithaca, N.Y. See also Maris A. Vinovskis, The Birth of Head Start: Preschool Education Policies in the Kennedy and Johnson Administrations (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005), 126–28.
99. Nixon, “Special Message to the Congress on the Nation’s Antipoverty Programs, February 19, 1969.”
100. Nixon, “Veto of the Economic Opportunity Amendments.”
101. Michel, Children’s Interests, 154; Sheila M. Rothman, “Other People’s Children,” 22.
1. Michael B. Katz, The Undeserving Poor: From the War on Poverty to the War on Welfare (New York: Pantheon, 1989), 16–66.
2. Oscar Lewis, Five Families: Mexican Case Studies in the Culture of Poverty (New York: Basic Books, 1959), 2; Katz, Undeserving Poor, 18–23.
3. Lewis, Five Families, 2.
4. Oscar Lewis, The Children of Sánchez: Autobiography of a Mexican Family (New York: Random House, 1961); David Price, Threatening Anthropology: McCarthyism and the FBI’s Surveillance of Activist Anthropologists (Durham: Duke University Press, 2004), 246–48; Alden Whitman, “Oscar Lewis, Author and Anthropologist, Dead,” New York Times, December 18, 1970.
5. Michael Harrington, The Other America: Poverty in the United States (New York: Macmillan, 1962); Maurice Isserman, The Other American: The Life of Michael Harrington (New York: Public Affairs, 2000), 215–16.
6. James T. Patterson, Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945–1974 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 532–40; James T. Patterson, Freedom Is Not Enough: The Moynihan Report and America’s Struggle over Black Family Life from LBJ to Obama (New York: Basic Books, 2010), 30–33; Maurice Isserman, “Michael Harrington: Warrior on Poverty,” New York Times, June 19, 2009.
7. In fact, some observers refer to cultural deprivation theory as a derivative of the culture of poverty approach. See, for example, K. Ann Renninger and Irving E. Sigel, Handbook of Child Psychology, vol. 4, Child Psychology in Practice (Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley, 2006), 708. Others have used the terms interchangeably. See Diane Ravitch, The Troubled Crusade: American Education, 1945–1980 (New York: Basic Books, 1983), 157; Katz, Undeserving Poor, 37–38. Still others bundle the terms together. See Jerald Podair, The Strike That Changed New York: Blacks, Whites, and the Ocean-Brownsville Crisis (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), 59–65.
8. Frank Riessman, The Culturally Deprived Child (New York: Harper and Row, 1962), 1.
9. Rodger L. Hurley, Poverty and Mental Retardation: A Causal Relationship (New York: Vintage, 1969), 71–72; James E. Birren and Robert D. Hess, “Influences of Biological, Psychological, and Social Deprivations upon Learning and Performance,” in Perspectives on Human Deprivation: Biological, Psychological, and Sociological (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1968), 96.
10. Thomas Kiffmeyer, Reformers to Radicals: The Appalachian Volunteers and the War on Poverty (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2008); Katz, Undeserving Poor, 23.
11. Katz, Undeserving Poor, 24–25; Benjamin Bloom, Allison Davis, and Robert Hess, Compensatory Education for Cultural Deprivation (Chicago: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1965), 5; Daryl M. Scott, Contempt and Pity: Social Policy and the Image of the Damaged Black Psyche, 1880–1996 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), 143–44.
12. William F. Brazziel, “Two Years of Head Start,” Phi Delta Kappan, March 1967, 348.
13. Clark’s earliest critique of the cultural deprivation approach appears in Kenneth Clark, “Clash of Cultures in the Classroom,” Equity and Excellence in Education 1, no. 4 (1963): 7–14.
14. Kenneth Clark, Dark Ghetto: Dilemmas of Social Power (New York: Harper and Row, 1965), 129–33.
15. Eleanor Leacock, ed., The Culture of Poverty: A Critique (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1971), based on papers from the 1966 American Anthropological Association meeting.
16. Charles Valentine, “The ‘Culture of Poverty’: Its Scientific Significance and Its Implications for Action,” in Culture of Poverty, ed. Leacock, 218. See also Frank Stricker, Why America Lost the War on Poverty and How to Win It (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007), 117–56; Katz, Undeserving Poor, 185–235.
17. S. M. Miller and Frank Riessman, Social Class and Social Policy (New York: Basic Books, 1968), 99.
18. Stephen Baratz and Joan Baratz, “Early Childhood Intervention: The Social Science Base of Institutional Racism,” Harvard Educational Review 40, no. 1 (1970): 29–50.
19. William Ryan, Blaming the Victim (London: Orbach and Chambers, 1971), 7.
20. Richard Valencia, ed., The Evolution of Deficit Thinking (London: Falmer, 1997); Jeanne Ellsworth, “Inspiring Delusions: Reflections on Head Start’s Enduring Popularity,” in Critical Perspectives on Project Head Start, ed. Jeanne Ellsworth and Lynda J. Ames (Albany: SUNY Press, 1998), 322–24; Richard Valencia, Dismantling Contemporary Deficit Thinking: Educational Thought and Practice (New York: Routledge, 2010).
21. Lewis, Five Families, 14, 16–18.
22. Lewis, Children of Sanchez, xxxviii.
23. President Lyndon B. Johnson, “To Fulfill These Rights,” speech at Howard University, June 4, 1965, in The Moynihan Report and the Politics of Controversy, ed. Lee Rainwater and William Yancey (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1967); Scott, Contempt and Pity, 151.
24. Daniel P. Moynihan, “The Negro Family: The Case for National Action,” in Moynihan Report, ed. Rainwater and Yancey, 5.
25. For further analyses of the Moynihan report and its reception, see Katz, Undeserving Poor, 24–29, 44–52; Scott, Contempt and Pity, 150–56; Alice O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge: Social Science, Social Policy, and the Poor in Twentieth-Century U.S. History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), 203–10; Ruth Feldstein, Motherhood in Black and White (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2000), 142–52.
26. Moynihan, “Negro Family,” 25.
27. Ibid.
28. Moynihan quotes the studies of Thomas Pettigrew (ibid., 77–80). See Thomas Pettigrew, A Profile of the Negro American (Princeton: Van Nostrand, 1964), 16–17.
29. Feldstein, Motherhood in Black and White, 147.
30. Ibid., 166–69. For additional feminist criticism of the Moynihan report, see Leith Mullings, On Our Own Terms: Race, Class, and Gender in the Lives of African American Women (New York: Routledge, 1997), 116–18, 161–62.
31. Many of the early descriptions of maternal deprivation clearly referred to the lifestyles of middle-class women, as John Bowlby describes in a pamphlet dedicated to answering a question troubling many mothers at the time, “Can I leave my baby?” His answer: In some cases, leaving infants with neighbors or relatives is an “excellent” idea that will allow mothers to have “an afternoon’s shopping in peace, visits to the doctor or dentist, the cinema or tea with friends” (John Bowlby, Can I Leave My Baby? [London: National Association for Mental Health, 1958], 6).
32. See, for example, John Bracey, August Meier, and Elliott Rudwick, eds., Black Matriarchy: Myth or Reality? (Belmont, Calif.: Wasworth, 1971).
33. Pettigrew, Profile, 15–18; Joseph White, “Toward a Black Psychology,” Ebony 25, no. 11 (September 1970): 45.
34. Herbert Hyman and John Reed, “Black Matriarchy Reconsidered: Evidence from Secondary Analysis of Sample Surveys,” Public Opinion Quarterly 33, no. 3 (1969): 346–54; Katheryn Dietrich, “A Reexamination of the Myth of Black Matriarchy,” Journal of Marriage and Family 37, no. 2 (1975): 367–74; Steven Mintz and Susan Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions: A Social History of American Family Life (New York: Free Press, 1988), 210–12.
35. Oscar Lewis, La Vida: A Puerto Rican Family in the Culture of Poverty (New York: Random House, 1966), xlviii.
36. Celia Stendler-Lavatelli, “Environmental Intervention in Infancy and Early Childhood,” in Social Class, Race, and Psychological Development, ed. Martin Deutsch, Irwin Katz, and Arthur Jensen (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1968), 357.
37. Kermit Wiltse, “Orthopsychiatric Programs for Socially Deprived Groups,” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 33, no. 5 (1963): 809.
38. Rima Apple, Vitamania: Vitamins in American Culture (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1995); Kay Codell Carter, “The Germ Theory, Beriberi, and the Deficiency Theory of Disease,” Medical History 21, no. 2 (1977): 119–36.
39. Rima Apple, “Science Gendered: Nutrition in the United States, 1840–1940,” in The Science and Culture of Nutrition, 1840–1940, ed. Harmke Kamminga and Andrew Cunningham (Atlanta: Rodopi, 1995), 129–41; Rima Apple, “Constructing Mothers: Scientific Motherhood in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries,” Social History of Medicine 8, no. 2 (1995): 161–78.
40. Cited in Rima Apple, Perfect Motherhood: Science and Childrearing in America (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2006), 117.
41. Ibid., 79–81.
42. Alan M. Kraut, Goldberger’s War: The Life and Work of a Public Health Crusader (New York: Hill and Wang, 2003); Harry M. Marks, “Epidemiologists Explain Pellagra: Gender, Race, and Political Economy in the Work of Edgar Sydenstricker,” Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 58, no. 1 (2003): 34–55; Keith Wailoo, Drawing Blood: Technology and Disease Identity in Twentieth-Century America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 99–133.
43. Apple, Vitamania, 183.
44. Kenneth J. Carpenter, “A Short History of Nutritional Science: Part 4 (1945–1985),” Journal of Nutrition 133, no. 11 (2003): 3333–36.
45. Todd Tucker, Great Starvation Experiment: Ancel Keys and the Men Who Starved for Science (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2007), 201–13; “Men Starve in Minnesota,” Life, July 30, 1945, 43–46.
46. Tucker, Great Starvation Experiment, 206–7; Ancel Keys and Margaret Keys, Eat Well and Stay Well (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1959); Ancel Keys, ed., Coronary Heart Disease in Seven Countries (New York: American Heart Association, 1970).
47. Tucker, Great Starvation Experiment, 208.
48. A. Frederick North Jr., “Health Services in Head Start,” in Project Head Start: A Legacy of the War on Poverty, ed. Edward Zigler and Jeanette Valentine (New York: Free Press, 1979), 231–58; A. Frederick North Jr. to Gloria Bittman, May 24, 1967, box 26, folder 12, JBR Papers.
49. Alvin Schorr, “The Nonculture of Poverty,” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 34, no. 5 (1964): 908.
50. Ernest Austin, “Cultural Deprivation: A Few Questions,” Phi Delta Kappan 47, no. 2 (1965): 67.
51. Daniel P. Moynihan, ed., On Understanding Poverty (New York: Basic Books, 1969); Alice O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge, 196–97.
52. Moynihan, “The Professors and the Poor,” in On Understanding Poverty, ed. Moynihan, 21.
53. Ibid., 22.
54. Ibid., 22–26.
55. Jerome S. Bruner, “Poverty and Childhood,” in The Relevance of Education (New York: Norton, 1971), 150.
56. Jerome S. Bruner and Kevin Connolly, “Competence: The Growth of the Person,” in The Growth of Competence, ed. Kevin Connolly and Jerome S. Bruner (London, Academic, 1974), 310. In an oral history interview, Bruner referred to “cultural deprivation” as a “stupid idea.” In the mid-1960s, Bruner recalled, he and his colleagues still endorsed an “avitaminosis” theory of cultural deprivation (Jerome S. Bruner, interview by Ronald Grele, February 18, 1999, 21–23, Columbia University Center for Oral History, New York).
57. Oscar Stine, John Saratsiotis, and Orlando Furno, “Appraising the Health of Culturally Deprived Children,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 20, no. 10 (1967): 1091.
58. Sidney Werkman, Lydia Shifman, and Thomas Skelly, “Psychosocial Correlates of Iron Deficiency Anemia in Early Childhood,” Psychosomatic Medicine 26, no. 2 (1964): 125–34.
59. For a more complete discussion, see Eduardo Duniec and Mical Raz, “Vitamins for the Soul: John Bowlby’s Thesis of Maternal Deprivation, Biomedical Metaphors, and the Deficiency Model of Disease,” History of Psychiatry 22, no. 1 (2011): 93–107.
60. President’s Panel on Mental Retardation, A Proposed Program for National Action to Combat Mental Retardation (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1962), 8.
61. Lois B. Murphy, “Memorandum on First Six Months of Work under Grant MH 09236-01,” March 1, 1967, box M1808, folder 1, G&LBM Papers.
62. Bloom, Davis, and Hess, Compensatory Education, 8.
63. Ibid., 4, 22.
64. Ibid., 13–15.
65. Susan Gray and Rupert Klaus, “Brief Reflections on the Theory of Early Childhood Enrichment Programs,” in Early Education: Current Theory, Research, and Action, ed. Robert Hess and Roberta Bear (Chicago: Aldine, 1968), 65.
66. Vera John, “The Intellectual Development of Slum Children: Some Preliminary Findings,” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 33, no. 5 (1963): 814–15.
67. Edward Zigler and Karen Anderson, “An Idea Whose Time Had Come: The Intellectual and Political Climate,” in Project Head Start, ed. Zigler and Valentine, 9. Zigler was one of the few psychologists who repeatedly emphasized the problematic aspects of Head Start in the program’s attitude toward poor families and their child rearing abilities. In 1975, he argued that “viewed from one perspective, HS [Head Start] may be seen as part of the problem rather than part of the solution. I am thinking here of the fact that philosophically the HS program disparages the poor. What we are in effect saying is that poor people are inadequate parents and the only salvation for their children is to put these children into the hands of HS personnel so that we might compensate for the ill-effects suffered as a result of having an inadequate family” (Edward Zigler to Stanley Thomas, July 18, 1975, box 9, folder 11, JBR Papers).
68. JMH to Lois B. Murphy, February 2, 1967, box 50, folder 1, Lois B. Murphy Papers, Modern Manuscripts Collection, History of Medicine Division, National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md., MS C 280c.
69. Carl Haywood, “Joseph McVicker Hunt (1906–1991),” American Psychologist 47, no. 8 (1992): 1050–51.
70. Joseph McVicker Hunt, “The Psychological Basis for Using Preschool Enrichment as an Antidote for Cultural Deprivation,” Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 10, no. 3 (1964): 237.
71. Ibid., 242.
72. Urie Bronfenbrenner to JMH, January 8, 1965, box 51, folder Preschool Enrichment and Cultural Deprivation, JMH Papers.
73. JMH to Urie Bronfenbrenner, January 13, 1965, box 51, folder Preschool Enrichment and Cultural Deprivation, JMH Papers.
74. Jean Sweitzer to JMH, September 29, 1964, Hunt’s secretary to Sweitzer, November 2, 1964, Mrs. Thomas L. Spiegel to JMH, May 21, 1965, all in box 51, folder “Preschool Enrichment and Cultural Deprivation,” JMH Papers.
75. In a letter to Julius B. Richmond, Hunt wrote of his concern of rushing into a large-scale program and without being confident of its feasibility, thus endangering the possibility of future attempts to develop more advanced programs (JMH to JBR, May 25, 1965, box 58, folder “Head Start, 1965–66,” JMH Papers).
76. Basil Bernstein, “Linguistic Codes, Hesitation Phenomena, and Intelligence,” Language and Speech 5, no. 1 (1962): 31–48; Basil Bernstein, “Social Class, Linguistic Codes, and Grammatical Elements,” Language and Speech 5, no. 4 (1962): 221–40.
77. Basil Bernstein, “The Role of Speech in the Development and Transmission of Culture,” in Perspectives on Learning: Papers from the Bank Street Fiftieth Anniversary Invitational Symposium, ed. Gordon Klopf and William A. Hohman (New York: Mental Health Materials Center for the Bank Street College of Education, 1967), 25.
78. Basil Bernstein, Class, Codes, and Control: Theoretical Studies towards a Sociology of Language, 2nd ed. (New York: Schocken, 1974), 9–10.
79. Ibid., 9.
80. Robert D. Hess and Virginia C. Shipman, “Early Experience and the Socialization of Cognitive Modes in Children,” Child Development 36, no. 4 (1965): 870.
81. Ibid., 885.
82. For a discussion of the debate over Standard English, see Tony Bex and Richard J. Watts, Standard English: The Widening Debate (London: Routledge, 1999); Tony Crowley, Standard English and the Politics of Language (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003).
83. Carl Bereiter, Siegfried Engelmann, Jean Osborn, and Philip Reidford, “An Academically Oriented Pre-School for Culturally Deprived Children,” in Pre-School Education Today, ed. Fred Hechinger (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1966), 112.
84. Bereiter et al., “Academically Oriented Pre-School,” 113; Carl Bereiter and Siegfried Engelmann, Teaching Disadvantaged Children in the Preschool (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1966), 30–31.
85. Bereiter et al., “Academically Oriented Pre-School,” 114–15, 134; Bereiter and Engelmann, Teaching Disadvantaged Children, 30–31.
86. Bernstein, “Role of Speech,” 15.
87. Ibid., 26.
88. Ibid., 26, 31, 34.
89. Ibid., 31–32.
90. Ibid., 33.
91. Ibid., 40.
92. Ibid., 42.
93. Ibid., 35–37.
94. Ibid., 37.
95. Ibid., 35.
96. Matthew J. Gordon, “Interview with William Labov,” Journal of English Linguistics 34, no. 4 (2006): 343–45;William Labov, “How I Got into Linguistics and What I Got Out of It—Personal Reflections,” October 1, 1997, http://www.pbs.org/speak/speech/sociolinguistics/labov/.
97. William Labov and Clarence Robins, A Note on the Relation of Reading Failure to Peer Group Status in Urban Ghettos (New York: Columbia University, 1967).
98. Labov delivered a paper on negative forms at a 1968 conference of the Linguistic Society of America. It was later published as William Labov, “Negative Attraction and Negative Concord in English Grammar,” Language 48, no. 4 (1972): 773–818.
99. William Labov, “The Logic of Nonstandard English,” in The Myth of Cultural Deprivation, ed. Nell Keddie (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973), 21–66.
100. Ibid., 24–25.
101. Ibid., 28–31.
102. Ibid., 33–34.
103. William Labov, “Academic Ignorance and Black Intelligence,” Atlantic Monthly 229, no. 6 (1972): 59–67.
104. Aaron Cicourel and Hugh Mehan, “Remembering Basil Bernstein,” in A Tribute to Basil Bernstein, 1924–2000, ed. Sally Power, Julia Brannen, Peter Aggleton, Andrew Brown, and Lynne Chisholm (London: Institute of Education Publications, 2001), 96–100; Paul Atkinson, Language, Structure, and Reproduction: An Introduction to the Sociology of Basil Bernstein (London: Methuen, 1985), 100–107; Ronald Wardhaugh, An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 6th ed. (Malden, Mass.: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), 360–64.
105. Labov, “Logic of Nonstandard English,” 30–31.
106. Atkinson, Language, Structure, and Reproduction, 107–9.
107. Bernstein, Class, Codes, and Control, 193.
108. Ibid., 255.
109. Alan Sadovnick, “Basil Bernstein: 1924–2000,” Prospects: The Quarterly Review of Comparative Education 31, no. 4 (2001): 690.
110. Hess and Shipman, “Early Experience,” 869–86; Robert D. Hess and Virginia C. Shipman, “Early Blocks to Children’s Learning,” Children 12, no. 5 (1965): 189–94; Ellis G. Olim, Robert D. Hess, and Virginia C. Shipman, “Role of Mothers’ Language Styles in Mediating Their Preschool Children’s Cognitive Development,” School Review 75, no. 4 (1967): 414–24. See also Elly Singer, Child-Care and the Psychology of Development (New York: Routledge, 1992), 118–20.
111. JMH to JBR, May 25, 1965, box 58, folder “Head Start 1965–66,” JMH Papers. In a review article from 1975, Hunt admitted that his hypothesis that the “noise and the variety of experiences associated with the crowding of families of poverty might help to foster development in early infancy” had been proven to be “very wrong” (Joseph McVicker Hunt, “Reflections on a Decade of Early Education,” Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 3, no. 4 [1975]: 280).
112. Joseph McVicker Hunt, “How Children Develop Intellectually,” Children 11, no. 3 (1964): 88–89.
113. Herbert Ginsburg, The Myth of the Deprived Child (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1972), 14–15.
114. Kenneth Clark, “The Cult of Cultural Deprivation,” in Children with Reading Problems, ed. Gladys Natchez (New York: Basic Books, 1968), 180–82.
115. For a comprehensive analysis, see John P. Jackson, Science for Segregation: Race, Law, and the Case against Brown v. Board of Education (New York: New York University Press, 2005); Valencia, Dismantling Contemporary Deficit Thinking, 23–33.
116. Jackson, Science for Segregation, 69–92.
117. R. C. Lewontin, Steven Rose, and Leon J. Kamin, “IQ: The Rank Ordering of the World,” in The Racial Economy of Science: Toward a Democratic Future, ed. Sandra Harding (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993), 142–62.
118. For a history of intelligence testing, see Leila Zenderland, Measuring Minds: Henry Herbert Goddard and the Origins of American Intelligence Testing (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997). For an approach highlighting the role of white racism, see William Wright, Racism Matters (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1998), 133–66.
119. Barbara Beatty, “The Debate over the Young ‘Disadvantaged Child’: Preschool Intervention, Developmental Psychology, and Compensatory Education in the 1960s and Early 1970s,” Teachers College Record 114, no. 6 (2012): 1–21.
120. See, for example, Frank C. J. McGurk, “The Culture Hypothesis and Psychological Tests,” in Race and Modern Science: A Collection of Essays by Biologists, Anthropologists, Sociologists, and Psychologists, ed. Robert E. Kuttner (New York: Social Science Press, 1967), 367–81.
121. Jackson, Science for Segregation, 178–91. For an analysis written by a scholar who defines himself as “agnostic” regarding the biological basis of racial differences, see Raymond Wolters, Race and Education, 1954–2007 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2009), 124–54.
122. Robert L. Williams, “Black Pride, Academic Relevance, and Individual Achievement,” Counseling Psychologist 2, no. 1 (1970): 18–22; Robert L. Williams, “A History of the Association of Black Psychologists: Early Formation and Development,” Journal of Black Psychology 1, no. 1 (1974): 9–24; Robert L. Williams, William Dotson, Patricia Don, and Willie S. Williams, “The War against Testing: A Current Status Report,” Journal of Negro Education 49, no. 3 (1980): 263–73.
123. Joseph McVicker Hunt, Intelligence and Experience (New York: Ronald, 1961); Benjamin Bloom, Stability and Change in Human Characteristics (New York: Wiley, 1964).
124. Hunt, Intelligence and Experience, 28–34; Bloom, Stability and Change, 77–78.
125. Sandra Condry, “History and Background of Preschool Intervention Programs and the Consortium for Longitudinal Studies,” in As the Twig Is Bent: Lasting Effects of Preschool Programs, ed. Consortium for Longitudinal Studies (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1983), 1–33; Richard Valencia and Lisa Suzuki, Intelligence Testing and Minority Students (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2001), 84–85; Sheldon White and Deborah Phillips, “Designing Head Start: Roles Played by Developmental Psychologists,” in Social Science and Policy-Making: A Search for Relevance in the Twentieth Century, ed. David Featherman and Maris A. Vinovskis (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2001), 96–97; Maris A. Vinovskis, The Birth of Head Start: Preschool Education Policies in the Kennedy and Johnson Administrations (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005), 10–11; Timothy A. Hacsi, Children as Pawns: The Politics of Educational Reform (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2002), 24–25. Education researcher David Weikart describes the importance of Hunt’s book in shaping his perceptions of the environmental determinants of intelligence, recalling how he had been troubled when he realized that he could predict children’s IQ solely by knowing their address (David Weikart, interview by Sharon Zane and Mary Marshall Clark, February 18, 1999, 2–70, Columbia University Center for Oral History, New York).
126. Scott, Contempt and Pity, 80; Alice O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge, 199; Thomas Pettigrew, “Negro American Intelligence: A New Look at an Old Controversy,” Journal of Negro Education 33, no. 1 (1964): 6–25; Pettigrew, Profile.
127. Pettigrew, “Negro American Intelligence,” 6, 8.
128. Nancy K. Innis, “Tolman and Tryon: Early Research on the Inheritance of the Ability to Learn,” American Psychologist 47, no. 2 (1992): 190–97.
129. Pettigrew, “Negro American Intelligence,” 10.
130. Ibid., 11–12.
131. Ibid., 11–12, 13.
132. MA to John Bowlby, March 23, 1965, box M3168, folder 2, MA Papers.
133. James L. Fuller, “Experiential Deprivation and Later Behavior,” Science 158, no. 809 (1967): 1645.
134. Ibid., 1651–52.
135. Jackson, Science for Segregation, 60–62, 185–86; Robert Kuttner, “Why Aren’t Indians ‘Disadvantaged?,’” American Mercury, Fall 1969, 8–9.
136. Kuttner, “Why Aren’t Indians ‘Disadvantaged?,’” 8.
137. Kenneth Neubeck and Noel Cazenave, Welfare Racism: Playing the Race Card against America’s Poor (New York: Routledge, 2001), 115–45.
138. Ibid., 118–35; Roger Hewitt,White Backlash and the Politics of Multiculturalism (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 19–22.
139. Westinghouse Learning Corporation, The Impact of Head Start (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health Education and Welfare, 1969); Edward Zigler and Sally Styfco, The Hidden History of Head Start (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 179–84.
140. Eugene Garfield, “High Impact Science and the Case of Arthur Jensen,” Current Contents, October 9, 1978, 652–62; Mark Snyderman and Stanley Rothman, The IQ Controversy, the Media, and Public Policy (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1988), 1–4, 203–30.
141. See, for example, Frank Miele, Intelligence, Race, and Genetics: Conversations with Arthur R. Jensen (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 2002), 35, 147–65; J. Philippe Rushton and Arthur Jensen, “Thirty Years of Research on Race Differences in Cognitive Ability,” Psychology, Public Policy, and Law 11, no. 2 (2005): 280–81.
142. Jackson, Science for Segregation, 184–85.
143. Arthur Jensen, “The Culturally Disadvantaged and the Heredity-Environment Uncertainty,” in Disadvantaged Child, ed. Jerome Hellmuth (Seattle: Straub and Hellmuth, 1967), 42–43.
144. Arthur Jensen, “How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement?,” in Environment, Heredity, and Intelligence: Reprints from the Harvard Educational Review (Cambridge: Harvard Educational Review, 1969), 60–61.
145. Ibid., 73–74.
146. Joseph McVicker Hunt, “Has Compensatory Education Failed?: Has It Been Attempted?,” in Environment, Heredity, and Intelligence, 136–42.
147. Arthur Jensen, “Reducing the Heredity-Environment Uncertainty,” in Environment, Heredity, and Intelligence, 230–34.
148. Frank Riessman, whose book, The Culturally Deprived Child, had contributed to the widespread acceptance of the theory of cultural deprivation, later changed his views to emphasize the strengths rather than the deficiencies of low-income children. In his Social Class and Social Policy, coauthored with Seymour Miller, he criticized theories of compensatory education and argued that the “preschool strategy was based on a loose overgeneralization of various animal experiments and special human (or inhuman) experiments on sensory deprivation” (Miller and Riessman, Social Class and Social Policy, 116).
149. Jerome S. Kagan, “Inadequate Evidence and Illogical Conclusions,” in Environment, Heredity, and Intelligence, 127–28.
150. Kagan later published numerous influential works on early child development. Some results of this study appear in Jerome Kagan, Change and Continuity in Infancy (New York: Wiley, 1971). See also Jerome Kagan, “Jerome Kagan,” in A History of Psychology in Autobiography, ed. Gardner Lindzey and William M. Runyan (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 2007), 9:115–53.
151. Martin Deutsch, “Happenings on the Way Back to the Forum: Social Science, IQ, and Race Differences Revisited,” in Harvard Educational Review, Reprint Series No. 4,Science, Heritability, and IQ (Cambridge: Harvard Educational Review, 1969), 64–65.
152. Ibid., 84.
153. Ibid., 85.
154. William F. Brazziel, “A Letter from the South,” inEnvironment, Heredity, and Intelligence, 200–208.
155. Ibid., 202, 205.
156. Ibid., 207–8.
157. Arthur Jensen, Educability and Group Differences (New York: Harper and Row, 1973), 277–83.
158. Ibid., 285–87.
159. William Goldfarb, “Effects of Psychological Deprivation in Infancy and Subsequent Stimulation,” American Journal of Psychiatry 102, no. 1 (1945): 18–33.
160. William Goldfarb, interview, March 17, 1977, Milton J. E. Senn, American Child Guidance Clinic and Child Psychiatry Movement Interview Collection, 1975–1978, Modern Manuscripts Collection, History of Medicine Division, National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md., OH 76.
161. Scott, Contempt and Pity, 161–85.
162. Price, Threatening Anthropology, 237–54.
163. Mario Luis Small, David J. Harding, and Michèle Lamont, “Reconsidering Poverty and Culture,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 629 (2010): 6–27.
164. Richard Valencia and Daniel Solorzano, “Contemporary Deficit Thinking,” in Evolution of Deficit Thinking, ed. Valencia, 160–210; Valencia, Dismantling Contemporary Deficit Thinking, 23–33.
1. Fred Powledge, To Change a Child: A Report on the Institute for Developmental Studies (Chicago: Anti-Defamation League, 1967), 48.
2. Daniel P. Moynihan, Maximum Feasible Misunderstanding: Community Action in the War on Poverty (New York: Free Press, 1969), 56; Maris A. Vinovskis, The Birth of Head Start: Preschool Education Policies in the Kennedy and Johnson Administrations (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005), 29–30; Edward Zigler and Sally Styfco, The Hidden History of Head Start (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 6–11.
3. Susan Gray and Rupert Klaus, “An Experimental Preschool Program for Culturally Deprived Children,” Child Development 36, no. 4 (1965): 888.
4. Susan Gray, Rupert Klaus, James Miller, and Bettye Forrester, Before First Grade: The Early Training Project for Culturally Disadvantaged Children (New York: Teachers College Press, 1966), 1–2.
5. No mention was made of the home visitors’ race, but they were employed professionals, and it is reasonable to assume they were white since, particularly in Tennessee during the 1960s, employing African American professionals would have merited comment. Furthermore, Gray and her colleagues specifically mentioned that the classroom teaching staff was integrated. In the 1970s, Gray launched experimental programs in which the African American mothers who had participated in the intervention received training to serve as home visitors in future programs (Gray et al., Before First Grade, 2; Susan Gray, “Home Visiting Programs for Parents of Young Children,” in Emerging Strategies in Early Childhood Education, ed. J. Wesley Little and Arthur J. Brigham [New York: MSS Information, 1973], 214–15).
6. Gray et al., Before First Grade, 103.
7. Edward Zigler and Jeanette Valentine, eds., Project Head Start: A Legacy of the War on Poverty (New York: Free Press, 1979), 10.
8. Dale Harris, “Early Experimental Deprivation and Enrichment and Later Development: An Introduction to a Symposium,” Child Development 36, no. 4 (1965): 839–42.
9. “Study Emphasizes How Slums Retard Learning,” New York Times, December 30, 1964.
10. Gray and Klaus, “Experimental Preschool Program,” 888–89.
11. Susan Gray and Rupert Klaus, “Brief Reflections on the Theory of Early Childhood Enrichment Programs,” in Early Education: Current Theory, Research, and Action, ed. Robert Hess and Roberta Bear (Chicago: Aldine, 1968), 67–68.
12. Gray and Klaus, “Experimental Preschool Program,” 890.
13. Zigler and Styfco, Hidden History, 6–9.
14. Vinovskis, Birth of Head Start, 110–12.
15. Gray et al., Before First Grade, 22–23.
16. Ibid.
17. Ibid., 107–8.
18. Martin Deutsch, Memorandum on Facilities for Early Childhood Education: Institute for Developmental Studies (New York: Educational Facilities Laboratory, 1968), vi.
19. Ibid., 3–4.
20. Barbara Beatty, “The Debate over the Young ‘Disadvantaged Child’: Preschool Intervention, Developmental Psychology, and Compensatory Education in the 1960s and Early 1970s,” Teachers College Record 114, no. 6 (2012): 1–36; Anahad O’Connor, “Dr. Martin Deutsch, an Innovator in Education, Dies at 76,” New York Times, July 5, 2002.
21. For example, a 1968 report on the IDS preschool program makes no mention of race: The children are described as coming from “tenement homes that are economically, socially and culturally deprived.” Perhaps the only description hinting at race is a quote from a little boy who spoke in nonstandard English (Martin Deutsch and the IDS Staff, The Deutsch Model: Institute for Developmental Studies [New York: New York University Institute for Developmental Studies, 1968], 1, 11).
22. Powledge, To Change a Child, 7–20.
23. Ibid., 52.
24. Martin Deutsch, “The Disadvantaged Child and the Learning Process,” in Education in Depressed Areas, ed. Harry Passow (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1963), 170.
25. Ibid., 176.
26. Martin Deutsch, “Nursery Education: The Influence of Social Programming on Early Development,” in The Disadvantaged Child: Selected Papers of Martin Deutsch and Associates, ed. Martin Deutsch (New York: Basic Books, 1967), 68–69.
27. Cynthia Deutsch, “Environment and Perception,” in Social Class, Race, and Psychological Development, ed. Martin Deutsch, Irwin Katz, and Arthur Jensen (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1968), 59.
28. Ibid., 80–83.
29. Martin Deutsch, Memorandum on Facilities, 9–10.
30. Martin Deutsch, Deutsch Model, 6–7, 16.
31. Ibid., 8.
32. Ibid.; Powledge, To Change a Child, 50.
33. Martin Deutsch, Deutsch Model, 8.
34. Ibid., 11.
35. Silberman had corresponded and met with Hunt while preparing reports on “new developments” in education (Dorothy Ferenbaugh to JMH, January 23, 1964, box 51, folder “Preschool Enrichment and Cultural Deprivation,” JMH Papers).
36. Charles Silberman, Crisis in Black and White (New York: Vintage, 1964), 270–71. See also Margalit Fox, “Charles E. Silberman, Who Wrote about Racism in the U.S., Dies at 86,” New York Times, February 13, 2011.
37. Silberman, Crisis in Black and White, 277.
38. Silberman, “Give Slum Children a Chance: A Radical Proposal,” Harper’s Magazine, May 1964, 37–42; Vinovskis, Birth of Head Start, 50–52. See also Beatty, “Debate,” 9.
39. Powledge, To Change a Child, 74.
40. Fredric Wertham, Seduction of the Innocent (New York: Rinehart, 1954); David J. Pittman, “Mass Media and Juvenile Delinquency,” in Juvenile Delinquency, ed. Joseph Rouček (New York: Philosophical Library, 1958), 230–50; James Gilbert, Cycle of Outrage: America’s Reaction to the Juvenile Delinquent in the 1950s (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986), 91–108.
41. Arnold Binder and Susan L. Polan, “The Kennedy-Johnson Years, Social Theory, and Federal Policy in the Control of Juvenile Delinquency,” Crime and Delinquency 37, no. 2 (1991): 242–61; Gerald Markowitz and David Rosner, Children, Race, and Power: Kenneth and Mamie Clark’s Northside Center (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1996), 186–89.
42. Barry C. Feld, Bad Kids: Race and the Transformation of the Juvenile Court (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999); Barry C. Feld, “Race and the Jurisprudence of Juvenile Justice: A Tale in Two Parts, 1950–2000,” in Our Children, Their Children: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Differences in American Juvenile Justice, ed. Kimberly Kempf-Leonard and Darnell F. Hawkins (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010), 122–63; Everette B. Penn, Helen Taylor Greene, and Shaun L. Gabbidon, eds., Race and Juvenile Justice (Durham: Carolina Academic Press, 2005); Michelle Alexander, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness (New York: New Press, 2010).
43. Cited in Jason Barnosky, “The Violent Years: Responses to Juvenile Crime in the 1950s,” Polity 38, no. 3 (2006): 327.
44. Elizabeth A. Wells, West Side Story: Cultural Perspectives on an American Musical (Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow, 2011), 189–216, 263–65.
45. Barnosky, “Violent Years,” 316–17.
46. Ibid., 332–33.
47. Sociologist Noel Cazenave has examined the success of the War on Poverty community action programs, focusing specifically on the MFY. This work is the most comprehensive analysis of these community action programs published to date; many of the earlier accounts were written during the period of the programs’ activities, usually by persons involved in their inception. See Noel Cazenave, Impossible Democracy: The Unlikely Success of the War on Poverty Community Action Programs (Albany: SUNY Press, 2007). To illustrate, one edited volume on the educational and employment services at the MFY is dedicated to Winslow Carlton, chair of the MFY board. Sociologists Peter Marris and Martin Rein, who wrote an account of community action programs in the United States, were commissioned by the Ford Foundation and the President’s Committee on Juvenile Delinquency, respectively, to observe the projects. See Harold H. Weissman, ed., Employment and Educational Services in the Mobilization for Youth Experience (New York: Association, 1969); Peter Marris and Martin Rein, Dilemmas of Social Reform: Poverty and Community Action in the United States (London: Routledge, 1972), 2–3. Prior to Cazenave’s publication, the most authoritative account of the MFY experience was Joseph Helfgot, Professional Reforming: Mobilization for Youth and the Failure of Social Science (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1981).
48. Moynihan describes the similarities between the MFY program and Johnson’s War on Poverty, comparing the MFY’s educational programs to Project Head Start (Maximum Feasible Misunderstanding, 54–59).
49. Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin, Delinquency and Opportunity: A Theory of Delinquent Gangs (New York: Free Press, 1960); Alice O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge: Social Science, Social Policy, and the Poor in Twentieth-Century U.S. History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), 124–35; Gilbert, Cycle of Outrage, 139–42; Markowitz and Rosner, Children, Race, and Power, 186–87; Vinovskis, Birth of Head Start, 29–32.
50. Harold Silver and Pamela Silver, An Educational War on Poverty (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 46.
51. Marjorie Martus, “The Special Case of the Young Disadvantaged Child,” 1964, 4, Report 010351, Ford Foundation Records, Rockefeller Foundation Archives, Sleepy Hollow, N.Y.
52. Ibid., 11.
53. Marjorie Martus, “Early Childhood Education: A Background Paper,” May 1965, 9, 41–43, Report 012573, Ford Foundation Records.
54. George Brager, “Some Assumptions and Strategies of the MFY Program,” September 1962, box 24, folder “MFY Reports by MFY Members,” Mobilization for Youth Records, Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Columbia University, New York.
55. Mobilization for Youth, A Proposal for the Prevention and Control of Delinquency by Expanding Opportunities (New York: Mobilization for Youth, 1961).
56. Cazenave, Impossible Democracy, 27. Opportunity theory was used even at times when it seemed quite a stretch, such as an attempt to interpret delinquency in young women as resulting from a lack of appropriate opportunities for marriage and social development (Mobilization for Youth, Proposal, 52–54).
57. Cazenave, Impossible Democracy, 69–75; Alice O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge, 127–34.
58. Joseph Helfgot, “Professional Reform Organizations and the Symbolic Representation of the Poor,” American Sociological Review 39, no. 4 (1974): 475–91.
59. Ibid., 490.
60. Lillian B. Rubin, “Maximum Feasible Participation: The Origins, Implications, and Present Status,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 385, no. 1 (1969): 14–29; Moynihan, Maximum Feasible Misunderstanding, 54–59; Alice O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge, 171–82; Tara J. Melish, “Maximum Feasible Participation of the Poor: New Governance, New Accountability, and a 21st Century War on the Sources of Poverty,” Yale Human Rights and Development Law Journal 13, no. 1 (2010): 1–130.
61. Both major accounts of the MFY project address the coexistence of a “culture of poverty” approach alongside the opportunity theory, yet neither refers specifically to the use of deprivation theories (Helfgot, Professional Reforming, 44–48, 54–55; Cazenave, Impossible Democracy, 97).
62. Mobilization for Youth, Proposal, 73.
63. Ibid., 74.
64. Ibid., 111.
65. Ibid., 107–8.
66. Ibid., 115.
67. See also A. Harry Passow, “Urban Education: The New Challenge,” Educational Researcher 6, no. 9 (1977): 5–10; Cazenave, Impossible Democracy, 74–83.
68. Mobilization for Youth, Proposal, 306.
69. Ibid., 121, 307 (the same outline appears twice in the proposal).
70. Minutes of Board of Directors Meeting, April 10, 1963, 8, box 3, folder 2, Mobilization for Youth Records; Mobilization for Youth, Proposal, 108, 278; Mobilization for Youth, Action on the Lower East Side: Progress Report and Proposal (New York: Mobilization for Youth, 1966), 43.
71. “MFY World of Education Summary Report, September 1962–September 1964,” 16, box 7, folder “Committee on Educational Opportunity Orientation Materials,” Mobilization for Youth Records.
72. Sandra I. Kay, “An Interview with Abraham J. Tannenbaum: Innovative Programs for the Gifted and Talented,” Roeper Review 24, no. 4 (2002): 186.
73. “MFY World of Education—Plans for MFY Reading Program 1965–66,” March 15, 1965, 4, box 7, folder “Committee on Educational Opportunity Orientation Materials,” Mobilization for Youth Records.
74. Abraham J. Tannenbaum, “MFY in NYC,” May 1966, 6, box 16, folder “MFY Committee on Educational Opportunities Meetings and Reports, 1966,” John H. Niemeyer Papers, Bank Street College of Education, Record Group 2, Subgroup 2, Series H, New York.
75. Ibid.
76. Minutes of Meeting, Committee on Educational Opportunities, June 27, 1966, 1, box 16, folder “MFY Committee on Educational Opportunities Meetings and Reports, 1966,” Niemeyer Papers.
77. “Second Draft Proposal for a Laboratory Pre School in an Urban Depressed Area,” April 15, 1966, 3, 7, box 16, folder “MFY Committee on Educational Opportunities—Meetings and Reports, 1966,” Niemeyer Papers.
78. Abraham J. Tannenbaum, “An Evaluation of STAR, or the Effects of Training and Deputizing Indigenous Adults to Administer a Home-Based Tutoring Program to First Graders in an Urban Depressed Area,” Mobilization for Youth, 1967, ERIC ED013852.
79. George Brager, “The Low Income Nonprofessional,” in Community Action against Poverty: Readings from the Mobilization Experience, ed. George Brager and Francis Purcell (New Haven: College and University Press, 1967), 163–74; Helfgot, Professional Reforming, 158–69.
80. Tannenbaum, “Evaluation of STAR,” 28–29.
81. “Herbert Burton Goldsmith: Obituary,” New York Times, March 4, 2008.
82. Herbert Goldsmith to Jane Lee Eddy, April 5, 1967, box 16, folder “MFY Committee on Educational Opportunities: Meetings and Reports, 1967,” Niemeyer Papers.
83. A School Orientation Program for Parents, n.d., box 16, folder “MFY Committee on Educational Opportunities: Meetings and Reports, 1967,” Niemeyer Papers.
84. Abraham J. Tannenbaum, “Evaluating STAR: Non-Professional Tutoring,” Teachers College Record 69, no. 5 (1958): 446.
85. McCandish Philips, “Youths to Picket Job Center Today,” New York Times, May 8, 1963; Martin Tolchin, “Project’s Road Has Been Rocky,” New York Times, August 17, 1964; Powledge, “Mobilization for Youth.”
86. Albert Fried, “The Attack on Mobilization,” in Community Development in the Mobilization for Youth Experience, ed. Harold Weissman (New York: Association, 1969), 137–38.
87. Michael Reisch and Janice Andrews, The Road Not Taken: A History of Radical Social Work in the United States (New York: Brunner-Routledge, 2002), 142–44; William M. Epstein, Democracy without Decency: Good Citizenship and the War on Poverty (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2010), 31–34.
88. Helfgot, Professional Reforming, 88–102; Cazenave, Impossible Democracy, 118–23; Moynihan, Maximum Feasible Misunderstanding, 102–3.
89. Cazenave, Impossible Democracy, 116–36; Fried, “Attack on Mobilization,” 137–48.
90. Harlem Youth Opportunities Unlimited, Youth in the Ghetto: A Study of the Consequences of Powerlessness and a Blueprint for Change (New York: Harlem Youth Opportunities Unlimited, 1964), 22; Kenneth Clark, Interview by Ed Edwin, Session 4, April 7, 1976, 147, Columbia University Center for Oral History, New York; Markowitz and Rosner, Children, Race, and Power, 188–200; Cazenave, Impossible Democracy, 87–88.
91. Clark, Interview, 147–49. See also Ben Keppel, The Work of Democracy: Ralph Bunche, Kenneth B. Clark, Lorraine Hansberry, and the Cultural Politics of Race (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995), 133–77; Markowitz and Rosner, Children, Race, and Power, 79–82, 189; Cheryl Lynn Greenberg, Troubling the Waters: Black-Jewish Relations in the American Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006).
92. Cazenave, Impossible Democracy, 96–97.
93. Ibid., 85–104; Alice O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge, 201–2.
94. Harlem Youth Opportunities Unlimited, Youth in the Ghetto, 287–89; Cazenave, Impossible Democracy, 96–99.
95. Harlem Youth Opportunities Unlimited, Youth in the Ghetto, 199. The source for the description of this child is not cited.
96. Ibid., 206–17, 239.
97. For a comprehensive analysis of Project Head Start, see Vinovskis, Birth of Head Start. Primary material can be found in Zigler and Valentine, Project Head Start; Edward Zigler and Susan Muenchow, Head Start: The Inside Story of America’s Most Successful Educational Experiment (New York: Basic Books, 1992). For a historical analysis from an insider’s perspective, see Zigler and Styfco, Hidden History.
98. Diane Ravitch, The Troubled Crusade: American Education, 1945–1980 (New York: Basic Books, 1983), 159–60; Zigler and Styfco, Hidden History, 57.
99. Vinovskis, Birth of Head Start, 76–82; Zigler and Styfco, Hidden History, 59–62.
100. Vinovskis, Birth of Head Start, 149–52.
101. Zigler and Styfco, Hidden History, 56–60; OEO, “A Prospectus on Early Childhood Development for the Children of the Poor,” January 21, 1965, box 16, folder 21, Urie Bronfenbrenner Papers, 23-13-954, Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library, Ithaca, N.Y.
102. Sargent Shriver to Urie Bronfenbrenner, February 19, 1965, box 16, folder 21, Bronfenbrenner Papers.
103. In 1966, psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner described Project Head Start as the “first attack on a national scale against the devastating effects of cultural deprivation in infancy” (“Institutional Approaches to Cultural Deprivation—American and Soviet,” paper presented at the Third International Scientific Symposium on Mental Retardation, Boston, April 11, 1966, box 9, folder 40, Bronfenbrenner Papers).
104. JBR to Edward T. Wakemen, February 22, 1966, box 9, folder 23, JBR Papers. In June 1967, Richmond argued at an OEO meeting that the prevention of nutritional deficiencies was one of the most important contributions of Project Head Start (Minutes of OEO Meeting, June 1967, box 26, folder 13, JBR Papers). See, for example, David K. Silver to JBR, July 13, 1965, box 26, folder 7, JBR Papers (offering the National Vitamin Foundation’s assistance).
105. Zigler and Styfco, Hidden History, 3–87; Vinovskis, Birth of Head Start, 60–86. The relationship between certain nutritional deficiencies and learning ability was the focus of much research. See, for example, Nancy Munro, The Relationship between Hemoglobin Level and Intellectual Function (Missoula: Montana University Foundation, 1967).
106. Zigler and Styfco, Hidden History, 94–95.
107. For example, in 1967, senior Head Start pediatrician Frederick North wrote to psychiatrist Barbara Munk that he could “find no evidence that the mental health professions brought different perspectives or skills to the observations” (Frederick North to Barbara Munk, March 8, 1967, Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry Papers, box 14, folder 2, Oskar Diethelm Library, Weill Medical College Institute for the History of Psychiatry, Cornell University, New York).
108. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Project Head Start: Food Buying Guide and Recipes (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Office of Economic Opportunity, 1967); U.S. Department of Agriculture, Nutrition Programs Service Unit, Proceedings of Nutrition Education Conference, February 20–22, 1967 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1968).
109. Jean Murphy, “Learn to Eat: Children in Head Start on Nutrition,” Los Angeles Times, October 26, 1967; “Head Start to Sponsor Nutrition Conference,” Los Angeles Times, November 9, 1967; Rose Dosti, “Head Start Nutrition Project Teaching Children Diet Value,” Los Angeles Times, April 3, 1969.
110. Luise K. Addiss, Jenny Is a Good Thing (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1969); “Specialist Works with Head Start,” Los Angeles Times, August 15, 1968.
111. Jean Murphy, “Learn to Eat”; Eve Jensen, “Where Operation Head Start Begins Best—With the Tummy,” Los Angeles Times, August 11, 1966.
112. OEO, “Early Childhood Programs,” 11, March 18, 1965, box 18, JBR Papers.
113. OEO, “Improving the Opportunities and Achievements of the Children of the Poor,” February 1965, box 58, folder “Head Start, 1965–66,” JMH Papers.
114. Cited in Vinovskis, Birth of Head Start, 88; Zigler and Styfco, Hidden History, 35.
115. David McL. Greeley to JBR, April 22, 1965, box 26, folder 7, JBR Papers.
116. JBR to JMH, May 5, 1965, box 58, folder “Head Start, 1965–66,” JMH Papers.
117. JMH to JBR, May 23, 1965, box 58, folder “Head Start, 1965–66,” JMH Papers.
118. JBR to JMH, June 8, 1965, box 58, folder “Head Start, 1965–66,” JMH Papers.
119. Glendon P. Nimnicht, Oralie McAfee, and John H. Meier, The New Nursery School (New York: General Learning Corporation, 1969), 4; “Unlocking Early Learning Secrets,” Life, March 31, 1967.
120. John H. Meier, Glendon P. Nimnicht, and Oralie McAfee, “An Autotelic Responsive Environment Nursery School for Deprived Children,” in Disadvantaged Child, vol. 2, Head Start and Early Intervention, ed. Jerome Hellmuth (New York: Brunner/Mazal, 1968), 299–398. The article they cite is Mark Rosenzweig, “Environmental Complexity, Cerebral Change, and Behavior,” American Psychologist 21, no. 4 (1966): 321–32.
121. Meier, Nimnicht, and McAfee, “Autotelic Responsive Environment,” 308–9.
122. Ibid., 329.
123. “Glendon Nimnicht, Ed.D., Recipient, Kellogg’s Child Development Award,” http://www.worldofchildren.org/honorees/2002–honorees/82–glendon-nimnicht.
124. Eveline Omwake, “Head Start—Measurable and Immeasurable,” in Disadvantaged Child, ed. Hellmuth, 2:531–44; Vinovskis, Birth of Head Start, 87–118.
125. Edward Zigler and Penelope Trickett, “IQ, Social Competence, and Evaluation of Early Childhood Intervention Programs,” American Psychologist 33, no. 9 (1978): 789–98; Ravitch, Troubled Crusade, 159; Alice O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge, 185–90; Zigler and Styfco, Hidden History, 68–85, 179–201.
126. Powledge, To Change a Child, 6; Zigler and Styfco, Hidden History, 100–104.
127. James Samuel Coleman, Equality of Educational Opportunity (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1966); Racial Isolation in the Public Schools (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1967).
128. Although the findings of the Coleman Report were not clear-cut, and in certain conditions, children in all-black schools outperformed their peers in desegregated settings, the idea that racial integration was the magic bullet for improving African American achievement was rapidly disseminated. At the same time, Coleman confided in some colleagues that his findings suggested that school education was too late and that early intervention was in fact the key (Ravitch, Troubled Crusade, 170–72). In a 1967 letter to Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Coleman suggested replacing the environment of young African American children, proposing “things like daytime group homes, with plenty of middle-class white mothers around, for very young children,” demonstrating again the interrelations between theories of environmental deprivation and maternal deprivation (cited in James T. Patterson, Freedom Is Not Enough: The Moynihan Report and America’s Struggle over Black Family Life from LBJ to Obama [New York: Basic Books, 2010], 104).
129. Ravitch, Troubled Crusade, 168–75.
130. Kevin L. Yull, “The 1966 White House Conference on Civil Rights,” Historical Journal 41, no. 1 (1998): 275.
131. Edward Zigler and Winnie Berman, “Discerning the Future of Early Childhood Intervention,” American Psychologist 38, no. 8 (1983): 894; Edward Zigler, “Formal Schooling for Four-Year-Olds?: No,” American Psychologist 42, no. 3 (1987): 258; Edward Zigler and Sally Styfco, “Head Start: Criticisms in a Constructive Context,” American Psychologist 49, no. 2 (1994): 127–32.
132. Edward Zigler, “Reshaping Early Childhood Intervention to Be a More Effective Weapon against Poverty,” American Journal of Community Psychology 22, no. 1 (1994): 40–41; Charles Locurto, “Beyond IQ in Preschool Programs,” Intelligence 15, no. 3 (1991): 295–312; Charles Locurto, “Hands on the Elephant: IQ, Preschool Programs, and the Rhetoric of Inoculation: A Reply to Commentaries,” Intelligence 15, no. 3 (1991): 335–49. For a few examples of citations of Zigler, see Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, “Strategies for Altering the Outcomes of Poor Children and their Families,” in Escape from Poverty: What Makes a Difference for Children?, ed. P. Lindsay Chase-Lansdale and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 100; George S. Baroff and J. Gregory Olley, Mental Retardation: Nature, Cause, and Management (Philadelphia: Taylor and Francis, 1999), 228; Sheldon H. White and Deborah A. Phillips, “Designing Head Start: Roles Played by Developmental Psychologists,” in Social Science and Policy-Making: A Search for Relevance in the Twentieth Century, ed. David Featherman and Maris A. Vinovskis (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2001), 96–100. In an encyclopedia entry on Head Start, Sally Styfco referred to the “then-popular ‘inoculation model’” (“Head Start,” in The Concise Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology and Behavioral Science, 3rd ed., ed. W. Edward Craighead and Charles B. Nemeroff [Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley, 2004], 428).
133. James Colgrove, State of Immunity: The Politics of Vaccination in Twentieth Century America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006), 149–85.
134. Ibid., 161–62. For data concerning children’s access to health care prior to Head Start, see Zigler and Styfco, Hidden History, 123.
135. Richard Orton, national director of the Head Start program, was cited as saying, “Head Start never was intended as a one-shot inoculation that would save the child for the rest of his life” (John Herber, “Director Defends Head Start’s Work; Says It Aids Pupils,” New York Times, April 15, 1969).
136. Leon Eisenberg and C. Keith Conners, “The Effect of Head Start on Developmental Processes,” paper presented at the Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. Symposium on Mental Retardation, April 11, 1966, Boston, ERIC ED020026. This statement was also cited in a newspaper article, “Headstart Gains Lauded by Hopkins Psychologist,” Baltimore Sun, April 12, 1966.
137. Hilliard E. Chesteen Jr., “Effectiveness of the Head Start Program in Enhancing School Readiness of Culturally Deprived Children,” 47–50, 144–46, Community Advancement, Baton Rouge, 1966, ERIC ED020771.
138. Ibid., 150–51.
139. Ibid., 156–57.
140. Westinghouse Learning Corporation, The Impact of Head Start (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health Education and Welfare, 1969).
141. Robert B. Semple Jr., “White House and Advisers Stand by Report Critical of Head Start Program,” New York Times, April 27, 1969.
142. Fred M. Hechinger, “Dispute over Value of Head Start,” New York Times, April 20, 1969; M. A. Farber, “Head Start Report Held ‘Full of Holes’: Head Start Report Assailed as ‘Full of Holes’ and Potential Political Disaster,” New York Times, April 18, 1969.
143. William G. Madow to John W. Evans, March 18, 1969, box 27, folder 3, JBR Papers; Edward Zigler to Daniel P. Moynihan, March 25, 1969, box 27, folder 3, JBR Papers. Richmond termed the report a “disaster” and said that it would have been “funny” had it not been “malicious” (JBR to Urie Bronfenbrenner, April 16, 1969, box 7, folder 2, JBR Papers). See also Nancie Stewart and Marjorie Grosett, “Programs for Deprived Children—Letter to the Editor,” New York Times, May 3, 1969.
144. Zigler and Styfco, Hidden History, 179–84.
145. Sheldon White, “Comments on the Preliminary Draft of the ‘Impact of Headstart,’” enclosed with letter to Daniel P. Moynihan, March 26, 1969, box 27, folder 3, JBR Papers.
146. Zigler and Styfco, Hidden History, 83; Jeaneda H. Nolan, “A Report on the Evaluation of the State Preschool Program Contrasted with the Westinghouse Report on Head Start,” edited transcript of a speech to the State Board of Education, Sacramento, Calif., June 12, 1969, ERIC ED039920.
147. Zigler and Trickett, “IQ, Social Competence, and Evaluation.”
148. Sylvia L. M. Martinez and John L. Rury, “From ‘Culturally Deprived’ to ‘At Risk’: The Politics of Popular Expression and Educational Inequality in the United States, 1960–1985,” Teachers College Record 114, no. 6 (2012): 8–15.
149. Head Start Amendments of 1998, July 16, 1998, 105th Congress, H.R. 4241; Zigler and Styfco, Hidden History, 148–49, 282–84.
150. An analysis of data from 1965 found that African American children from metropolitan areas were 6.97 times more likely than their white counterparts to participate in Head Start; in nonmetropolitan areas, this ratio was 4.77 (Coleman, Equality of Educational Opportunity, 492). According to Zigler, the program faced accusations of discrimination because it served a disproportionately low number of white children (Zigler and Styfco, Hidden History, 95, 126–27).
151. David Carter, The Music Has Gone Out of the Movement: Civil Rights and the Johnson Administration, 1965–1968 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009), 31–50, 103–32; Kimberly Morgan, “A Child of the Sixties: The Great Society, the New Right, and the Politics of Federal Child Care,” Journal of Policy History 13, no. 2 (2001): 226–27; Erica Duncan, “Long after ’65, Still Fighting to Overcome,” New York Times, September 10, 1995; John Dittmer, The Good Doctors: The Medical Committee for Human Rights and the Struggle for Social Justice in Health Care (New York: Bloomsbury, 2009,) 125–27. For a history of Head Start and the Child Development Group of Mississippi written by a participant and activist, see Polly Greenberg, The Devil Has Slippery Shoes (New York: Macmillan, 1969). See also Zigler and Styfco, Hidden History, 126.
152. Kenneth Clark, “Alternative Public School Systems—A Response to America’s Educational Emergency,” 6–7, paper presented at the U.S. Conference on Civil Rights, November 16–17, 1967, Washington D.C., ERIC ED015981.
153. Ravitch, Troubled Crusade, 153.
1. Throughout this chapter I use in quotation marks the term common at the time, “mental retardation,” exclusively when referring to contemporary debates and publications. The currently accepted term, “intellectual disability,” will be used when providing historiographic background or analysis. While the concept of intellectual disability has replaced that of mental retardation, there is no clear continuity between the two categories. It is likely that many of the children referred to as “mildly mentally retarded” in the texts examined in this chapter would not be diagnosed today with intellectual disability. Thus, throughout the text, I use the term “mild mental retardation” in quotation marks. See Robert L. Schalock, Ruth A. Luckasson, and Karrie A. Shogren, “The Renaming of Mental Retardation: Understanding the Change to the Term ‘Intellectual Disability,’” Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities 45, no. 2 (2007): 116–24.
2. Beth Harry and Janette Klingner, Why Are So Many Minority Students in Special Education?: Understanding Race and Disability in Schools (New York: Teachers College Press, 2006), 2–6; Suzanne Donovan and Christopher T. Cross, eds., Minority Students in Special and Gifted Education (Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 2002), 36–38.
3. Beth Ferri and David Connor, “Tools of Exclusion: Race, Disability and (Re)segregated Education,” Teachers College Record 107, no. 3 (2005): 458; Wanda Blanchett, “Disproportionate Representation of African American Students in Special Education: Acknowledging the Role of White Privilege and Racism,” Educational Researcher 35, no. 6 (2006): 25–26.
4. Christine Sleeter, “Learning Disabilities: The Social Construction of a Special Education Category,” Exceptional Children 53, no. 1 (1986): 46–54; Wanda Blanchett, Vincent Mumford, and Floyd Beachum, “Urban School Failure and Disproportionality in a Post-Brown Era,” Remedial and Special Education 26, no. 2 (2005): 70–81; Beth Ferri and David Connor, “In the Shadow of Brown: Special Education and Overrepresentation of Students of Color,” Remedial and Special Educational 26, no. 2 (2005): 93–100.
5. Edward Zigler and Robert M. Hodapp, Understanding Mental Retardation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 3.
6. Arthur L. Benton, “Psychological Evaluation and Differential Diagnosis,” in Mental Retardation, ed. Harvey A. Stevens and Rick F. Heber (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964), 45.
7. Richard Heber, “Terminology and the Classification of Mental Retardation,” American Journal of Mental Deficiency, suppl. 64, no. 2 (1959): 1–111. Apart from the introduction of the concept of “adaptive behavior,” the classifications are nearly identical, and I refer to the earlier publication. For a further evaluation of the concept of adaptive behavior, see Stephen Greenspan and Harvey N. Switzky, “Forty-Four Years of AAMR Manuals,” in What Is Mental Retardation?: Ideas for an Evolving Disability in the 21st Century, ed. Harvey N. Switzky and Stephen Greenspan (Washington, D.C.: American Association on Mental Retardation, 2006), 3–28; George S. Baroff, “On the 2002 AAMR Definition of Mental Retardation,” in What Is Mental Retardation?, ed. Switzky and Greenspan, 29–38.
8. Herbert J. Grossman, ed., Manual on Terminology and Classification in Mental Retardation (Washington, D.C.: American Association on Mental Deficiency, 1973), 11.
9. Heber, “Terminology,” 8–9.
10. Ibid., 39–40.
11. Indeed, the glossary lists only one form of deprivation, “deprivation, environmental,” and defines it as “reductions or lacks in environmental stimulation and in opportunities for acquiring knowledge ordinarily provided young children” (Heber, “Terminology,” 90).
12. The DSM II classification was revised to follow and “incorporate AAMD concepts,” according to participants at the Committee on Nomenclature and Statistics meeting, December 19, 1966, American Psychiatric Association Board of Trustees Files, box 100223, folder 223, Melvin Sabshin Library and Archives, American Psychiatric Association, Alexandria, Va.
Although nearly a decade after the appearance of the 1959 AAMD Manual, the incorporation of the concept of deprivation into the ICD 8 was still the subject of controversy. It was ultimately resolved following the recommendations of two experts, American psychiatrist Henry Brill and A. V. Snezhnevsky, director of the Soviet Union’s Institute of Psychiatry of the Academy of Medical Sciences, who were asked to comment on three controversial diagnoses: antisocial personality, reactive psychosis, and mental retardation with psychosocial deprivation. While their recommendations are not noted in the text and no minutes of these discussions are available, the ultimate result was the acceptance of the diagnosis of psychosocial deprivation. See Iwao Milton Moriyama, “The Eighth Revision of the International Classification of Diseases,” American Journal of Public Health and the Nation’s Health 56, no. 8 (1966): 1279. This acceptance is not surprising in light of reports such as those of Harold Skeels, a psychologist and expert on intellectual disability who had participated more than a decade earlier in the World Health Organization’s Expert Committee on the Mentally Defective Child. Skeels described the members’ “willing acceptance” of deprivation alone, without any biological predisposition, as a sufficient cause of intellectual deficiency, thus forgoing previous heredity-based approaches (Harold Skeels, “Report on World Health Organization Expert Committee on the Mentally Defective Child and Visits in London,” report presented at the NIMH General Staff Meeting, March 1953, box M50, folder Harold Skeels, Archives of the History of American Psychology, Center for the History of Psychology, University of Akron, Akron, Ohio).
13. Robert Spitzer and Paul T. Wilson, “A Guide to the American Psychiatric Association’s New Diagnostic Nomenclature,” American Journal of Psychiatry 124, no. 12 (1968): 1625.
14. American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 2nd ed. (Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association, 1968), 21.
15. Ibid., 22.
16. Paul T. Wilson and Robert Spitzer, “A Comparison of Three Current Classification Systems for Mental Retardation,” American Journal of Mental Deficiency 74, no. 3 (1969): 435.
17. Howard Potter, “Mental Retardation: The Cinderella of Psychiatry,” Psychiatric Quarterly 39, no. 1 (1965): 537–48; Edward Davens, interview by John Stewart, March 29, 1968, 1–5, John F. Kennedy Library Oral History Program, Boston.
18. James Trent, Inventing the Feeble Mind: A History of Mental Retardation in the United States (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 230–34; Robert Osgood, The History of Inclusion in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet University Press, 2005), 56–59; Michael Grossberg, “From Feeble-Minded to Mentally Retarded: Child Protection and the Changing Place of Disabled Children in the Mid-Twentieth Century United States,” Paedagogica Historica 47, no. 6 (2011): 729–47.
19. See Edward Berkowitz, “The Politics of Mental Retardation during the Kennedy Administration,” Social Science Quarterly 61, no. 1 (1980): 130–33. Berkowitz describes how metaphors of the space race shaped the approach to “combating” intellectual disability.
20. Christine Sleeter, “Why Is There Learning Disabilities?: A Critical Analysis of the Birth of the Field in Its Social Context,” in The Formation of School Subjects: The Struggle for Creating an American Institution, ed. Thomas S. Popkewitz (London: Palmer, 1987), 216.
21. Edith Asbury, “Rose Kennedy Tells of Her Retarded Daughter,” New York Times, October 31, 1963.
22. For an in-depth analysis of the Kennedy family’s role in the struggle for better care and treatment of persons with intellectual disabilities, see Edward Shorter,The Kennedy Family and the Story of Mental Retardation (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2000); Berkowitz, “Politics of Mental Retardation.”
23. Shorter, Kennedy Family, 67–80.
24. John F. Kennedy, “Statement Regarding the Need for a National Plan in Mental Retardation,” October 11, 1961, 1, http://www.mnddc.org/parallels2/pdf/60s/62/62-sallinger-pr.pdf. Edward Davens, a pediatrician and member of the President’s Panel on Mental Retardation, specifically refers to the president’s awareness of the detrimental effects of economic deprivation (interview, 6–7).
25. Lloyd Dunn and Samuel Kirk, “Impressions of Soviet Psycho-Educational Service and Research in Mental Retardation,” Exceptional Children 29, no. 7 (1963): 301; “U.S. Scientists to Visit Red Mental Hospitals,” Washington Post, June 1, 1962.
26. President’s Panel on Mental Retardation, A Proposed Program for National Action to Combat Mental Retardation (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1962), 8.
27. Robert P. Goldman, “5,600,000 of Us Are Mentally Retarded,” New York Times, November 22, 1964.
28. President’s Panel on Mental Retardation, Proposed Program, 61–62.
29. Ibid., 66–67.
30. Ibid., 67.
31. Ibid.
32. John F. Kennedy, “Message from the President of the United States Relative to Mental Illness and Mental Retardation, February 5, 1963,” Pastoral Psychology, 15, no. 4 (1964): 15.
33. Comments by Interested Individuals and Organizations on H.R. 3386, the Maternal and Child Health and Mental Retardation Planning Amendments of 1963 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1963). In fact, no unfavorable comments on the bill were sent to the committee (Berkowitz, “Politics of Mental Retardation,” 139–40).
34. Lucy Ozarin and Steven Scharfstein, “The Aftermaths of Deinstitutionalization: Problems and Solutions,” Psychiatric Quarterly 50, no. 2 (1978): 128–32; H. Richard Lamb, “Deinstitutionalization at the Beginning of a New Millennium,” Harvard Review of Psychiatry 6, no. 1 (1998): 1–10; Gerald Grob, The Mad among Us: A History of the Care of America’s Mentally Ill (New York: Free Press, 1994), 290–91; Jonathan Metzl, The Protest Psychosis: How Schizophrenia Became a Black Disease (Boston: Beacon, 2010), 131–36; Michael Staub, Madness Is Civilization: When the Diagnosis Was Social, 1948–1980 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011), 183–88.
35. Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry, Committee on Mental Retardation, Report No. 43: Basic Considerations in Mental Retardation: A Preliminary Report (New York: GAP, 1959), 12.
36. Carl Scheckel to JMH, September 4, 1964, box 51, folder “Preschool Enrichment and Cultural Deprivation,” JMH Papers.
37. Joseph Wortis, “Prevention of Mental Retardation,” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 35, no. 5 (1965): 889.
38. Burton Blatt, “A Concept of Educability and the Correlates of Mental Illness, Mental Retardation, and Cultural Deprivation,” in Diminished People: Problems and Care of the Mentally Retarded, ed. Norman Bernstein (Boston: Little, Brown, 1970), 16.
39. Edward M. Kennedy, preface to Rodger L. Hurley, Poverty and Mental Retardation: A Causal Relationship (New York: Vintage, 1969), xi.
40. Herbert Goldstein, The Educable Mentally Retarded Child in the Elementary School (Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1962), 12.
41. Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry, Committee on Mental Retardation, Report No. 66, Mild Mental Retardation: A Growing Challenge to the Physician (New York: GAP, 1967), 592.
42. Ibid., 596.
43. See, for example, Eric Avila, Popular Culture in the Age of White Flight: Fear and Fantasy in Suburban Los Angeles (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), 1–19.
44. “Insufficient or discontinuous mothering with physical neglect” was the first on a list of five “sociocultural factors” that characterized Group A children, including “distorted patterns of children rearing,” disorganized families, social isolation, and conditions of poverty and crowding (Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry, Committee on Mental Retardation, Report No. 66, 614).
45. Ibid., 596.
46. Lois B. Murphy to Robert A. Haines, October 8, 1964, box M 1811, folder 10, G&LBM Papers.
47. Kansas Governor’s Committee on Preschool Mental Retardation, Minutes of Meeting, February 11, 1965, 1, box 60, folder 1, Lois B. Murphy Papers, Modern Manuscripts Collection, History of Medicine Division, National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md., MS C 280c. See also, for example, R. K. Davenport Jr., E. W. Menzel Jr., and C. M Rogers, “Maternal Care during Infancy: Its Effect on Weight Gain and Mortality in the Chimpanzee,”American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 31, no. 4 (1961): 803–9.
48. Lois B. Murphy, “Task Force I: Requirements of Infants for Normal Development in the First Year of Life,” ca. early 1965, 3, box M1811, folder 10, G&LBM Papers.
49. Kansas Governor’s Committee on Mental Retardation, “Task Force I, Preliminary Outline for a Program for Deprived Children,” ca. early 1965, box M1811, folder 10, G&LBM Papers.
50. René A. Spitz, remarks at a conference on deprivation, draft, September 9, 1964, box M2124, folder 11, RAS Papers. Psychiatrist David A. Freedman, who had performed considerable research on the topic of sensory deprivation, examined the role of early mother-child relations in the etiology of mental retardation, relying on the analogy with sensory deprivation studies (David A. Freedman, “The Role of Early Mother/Child Relations in the Etiology of Some Cases of Mental Retardation,” in Congenital Mental Retardation, ed. Gordon Farrell [Austin: University of Texas Press, 1969], 245–62).
51. Bowlby and Ainsworth claimed that studies of children in institutions had led researchers to understand the role of the parents in the etiology of mental retardation: “Parents who interact insufficiently with their children throughout the first few years of life” could cause damage comparable to that inflicted by life in “overcrowded, impersonal institutions” (John Bowlby and MA to the Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. Foundation, July 29, 1963, box M3176, folder 5, MA Papers).
52. In the 1963 Handbook of Mental Deficiency, one of the main reference books of the time in the field of intellectual disability, a chapter titled “Sensory Processes and Mental Deficiency” examined the interface between sensory deprivation and mental retardation. Summarizing the early findings of sensory deprivation studies, the Handbook’s authors suggested that “mental retardation” operated in a manner similar to partial sensory deprivation (Frank Kodman, “Sensory Processes and Mental Deficiency,” in Handbook of Mental Deficiency, ed. Norman Ellis [New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963], 471).
53. George Tarjan, “Sensory Deprivation and Mental Retardation,” in The Psychodynamic Implications of Physiological Studies on Sensory Deprivation, ed. Leo Madow and Laurence Snow (Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1970), 71.
54. Ibid., 73.
55. George Tarjan, “Some Thoughts on Sociocultural Retardation,” in Social-Cultural Aspects of Mental Retardation, ed. H. Carl Haywood (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1970), 754. For a description of the significance of this conference, see Zigler and Hodapp, Understanding Mental Retardation, 80.
56. President’s Committee on Mental Retardation, A 1st Report to the President on the Nation’s Progress and Remaining Great Needs in the Campaign to Combat Mental Retardation (Washington, D.C.: President’s Committee on Mental Retardation, 1967); President’s Committee on Mental Retardation, The Edge of Change: A Report to the President on Mental Retardation Program Trends and Innovations, with Recommendations on Residential Care, Manpower, and Deprivation (Washington, D.C.: President’s Committee on Mental Retardation, 1968), 24.
57. President’s Committee on Mental Retardation, Edge of Change, 24.
58. Urie Bronfenbrenner to Michael Mansfield, Fred Harris, Russell Long, Robert F. Kennedy, and Jacob Javits, December 14, 1967, box 7, folder 2, JBR Papers.
59. Richard Koch, “Annual Presidential Message to the AAMD Membership,” American Journal of Mental Deficiency 74, no. 1 (1969): 2–4.
60. Stanley Wright to JBR, January 28, 1970, box 9, folder 9, JBR Papers.
61. The inclusion criteria were chronological age of three to six years at study onset, IQ (per Stanford-Binet Test) between fifty and eighty-four, lower socioeconomic class, one or both parents diagnosed as “mentally subnormal,” at least one sibling diagnosed as “mentally subnormal,” and lack of gross neurological findings (Robert B. Kugel and Mabel Parsons, Children of Deprivation: Changing the Course of Familial Mental Retardation [Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Welfare Administration, Children’s Bureau, 1967], 14).
62. Ibid., i.
63. This intervention resembles the enrichment programs developed in the early 1960s that later served as models for Project Head Start. See, for example, Bettye M. Caldwell and Julius B. Richmond, “Programmed Day Care for the Very Young Child: A Preliminary Report,” Journal of Marriage and Family 26, no. 4 (1964): 481–88.
64. Kugel and Parsons, Children of Deprivation, 24.
65. Ibid., 24–25.
66. Ibid., 48.
67. Ibid., 57.
68. Mabel Parsons, “A Home Economist in Service to Families with Mental Retardation,” Children 7, no. 5 (1960): 188.
69. Robert Kugel, “The Forgotten Retarded: In Residential Facilities, in Poverty,” paper presented at the Joint Membership Meeting of the Minneapolis and St. Paul Associations for Retarded Children, April 24, 1968, 8, http://www.mnddc.state.mn.us/parallels2/pdf/index.html.
70. Howard Garber, The Milwaukee Project: Preventing Mental Retardation in Children at Risk (Washington, D.C.: American Association on Mental Retardation, 1988), 30–31.
71. Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (New York: Free Press, 1994), 408.
72. Kenneth A. Kavale and Mark P. Mostert, The Positive Side of Special Education: Minimizing Its Fads, Fancies, and Follies (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2004), 24.
73. Seth S. King, “Test Finds I.Q.’s Can Be Lifted for Children of Retarded,” New York Times, July 17, 1972; Stephen P. Strickland, “Can Slum Children Learn?,” in The Fallacy of IQ, ed. Carl Senna (New York: Third Press, 1973), 150–59.
74. Ellis B. Page, “Miracle in Milwaukee: Raising the IQ,” Educational Researcher 1, no. 10 (1972): 8.
75. Kavale and Mostert, Positive Side, 25; Robert Sommer and Barbara A. Sommer, “Mystery in Milwaukee: Early Intervention, IQ, and Psychology Textbooks,” American Psychologist 38, no. 9 (1983): 983.
76. Arthur Jensen, “Raising IQ without Increasing G?: A Review of the Milwaukee Project: Preventing Mental Retardation in Children at Risk,” Developmental Review 9, no. 3 (1989): 237.
77. Richard Heber and Howard Garber, “An Experiment in the Prevention of Cultural-Familial Mental Retardation,” 7, paper presented at the Second Congress of the International Association for the Scientific Study of Mental Deficiency, Warsaw, Poland, August 25–September 2, 1970.
78. Ibid., 6.
79. Howard Garber and Richard Heber, The Milwaukee Project: Early Intervention as a Technique to Prevent Mental Retardation (Storrs: University of Connecticut, National Leadership Institute, 1973), 11.
80. Garber, The Milwaukee Project: Preventing Mental Retardation in Children at Risk, 49–67. Garber’s publication, which appeared nearly two decades after the intervention had begun and after Heber’s death, provides much-needed detail on the program. Yet because of this program’s troubled history and the belated publication date, I did not examine its reliance on theories of deprivation but instead focused only on publications from the 1960s.
81. Jensen, “Raising IQ,” 245.
82. Reginald Lourie and Dorothy Huntington, “Proposal for a Program to Prevent Culturally Determined Intellectual Retardation and Personal Dysfunction,” June 1968, 8, box 1257, folder 4, G&LBM Papers; Allen E. Marans, Dale R. Meers, and Dorothy S. Huntington, “The Children’s Hospital in Washington, D.C.,” in Early Child Care: The New Perspectives, ed. Caroline A. Chandler, Reginald S. Lourie, and Anne D. Peters (New York: Atherton, 1968), 287–301.
83. Secretary’s Committee on Mental Retardation, Mental Retardation Grants, Fiscal Year 1966 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1966), http://www.mnddc.org/dd_act/documents/construction/66–MRG-HEW.pdf.
84. For example, in 1964, the Washington Post reported a $216,000 NIMH grant to Lourie and Allen E. Marans for an early intervention program targeting culturally deprived infants that was remarkably similar to the Lourie and Huntington project (“Unloved Infants to Get Vital Break,” Washington Post, December 20, 1964). Beginning in 1968, Lourie and a junior colleague, Dale R. Meers, conducted a study on “Culturally Determined Retardation: Clinical Explorations of Variability and Etiology” that was supported by private philanthropic organizations as well as by the Baltimore Psychoanalytic Society. Meers described this project as a continuation of the earlier NIMH-funded project. Lourie and Meers’s project yielded numerous publications but did not describe the actual intervention funded by Lourie and Huntington’s NIMH grant. See “News and Proceedings of Affiliate Societies and Institutes,” Bulletin of the American Psychoanalytic Association 24 (1968): 854–67; Dale R. Meers, “Contributions of a Ghetto Culture to Symptom Formation—Psychoanalytic Studies of Ego Anomalies in Childhood,” Psychoanalytic Study of the Child 25 (1970): 209–30; Dale R. Meers, “Psychoanalytic Research and Intellectual Functioning of Ghetto-Reared, Black Children,” Psychoanalytic Study of the Child 28 (1973): 395–417; Dale R. Meers, “Traumatic and Cultural Distortions of Psychoneurotic Symptoms in a Black Ghetto,” Annual of Psychoanalysis 2 (1974): 368–86.
85. Lourie and Huntington, “Proposal for a Program,” i.
86. Ibid., 8.
87. Ibid., 7.
88. Ibid., i, 4.
89. Ibid., 4.
90. Ibid., 5.
91. Ibid., ii.
92. The proposal cites the National Committee on Civil Disorder’s laudatory description of the benefits of Project Head Start and other early intervention programs to demonstrate the importance of early childhood enrichment (ibid.).
93. A detailed account of this lawsuit appears in Raymond Wolters, The Burden of Brown: Thirty Years of School Desegregation (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1984), 9–52. Wolters is a longtime critic of Brown v. Board of Education who has consistently argued for the plausibility of a genetic intellectual inferiority of African Americans. His work has been criticized for scholarly shortcomings or misinterpretations that have consistently advanced his political bias. See also Raymond Wolters, Race and Education, 1954–2007 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2009), x; David J. Garrow, “Segregation’s Legacy,” Reviews in American History 13, no. 3 (1985): 428–32.
94. Richard L. Lyons and Eve Edstrom, “Integration Called Miracle of Social Adjustment Here,” Washington Post, February 11, 1957; Gerald Grant, “Hansen and Aides Review Eight Years of Desegregation in Schools of District,” Washington Post, November 18, 1962; “‘Integrated’ Primers Get Hansen Nod,” Washington Post, December 26, 1963.
95. Erwin Knoll, “District School Rolls Declared 73.8% Negro,” Washington Post, September 5, 1958; “Big City Answers,” Time, July 9, 1965; Wolters, Burden of Brown, 18–23.
96. The case had originally alleged that because the District’s school board members were appointed directly by district court judges, the case could not be heard by any district court judge (Wolters, Burden of Brown, 31–33; Thomas W. Lippman, “Wright Edict Upheld on All Major Points,” Washington Post, January 22, 1969).
97. See, for example, “Impact Varies in Ban on Track System,” Washington Post, December 16, 1967.
98. William Raspberry, “Ban on Track System Deals Blow at Classes for Retarded Children,” Washington Post, September 15, 1967.
99. “Impact Varies in Ban on Track System,” Washington Post, December 16, 1967.
100. Ben A. Franklin, “School Head Quits in Washington Rift over Racial Policy,” New York Times, July 4, 1967; Susan Jacoby, “The Superintendent Simply Stood Still,” Washington Post, July 9, 1967; Ben A. Franklin, “Hansen Is Seeking to Appeal Order,” New York Times, July 18, 1967.
101. Osgood, History of Inclusion, 80–84; Harry and Klingner, Why Are So Many Minority Students, 2; Blanchett, Mumford, and Beachum, “Urban School Failure,” 74.
102. Lloyd Dunn, “Special Education for the Mildly Retarded—Is Much of It Justifiable?,” Exceptional Children 35, no. 1 (1965): 6.
103. Ibid., 7.
104. In 1987, Dunn published a controversial monograph that suggested that genetic factors might be involved in Latino-white differences in intelligence. Widely criticized, Dunn ultimately published an apology, though it did little to improve his image in the eyes of antiracist educators (Richard Valencia and Lisa Suzuki, Intelligence Testing and Minority Students [Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2001], 169–72; Richard Valencia, Dismantling Contemporary Deficit Thinking: Educational Thought and Practice [New York: Routledge, 2010], 47–48).
105. President’s Committee on Mental Retardation, The Six-Hour Retarded Child: A Report on a Conference on Problems of Education in Children in the Inner City (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Office of Education, 1969), 3.
106. The seven recommendations were (1) provide early childhood stimulation, education, and evaluation as part of the continuum of public education; (2) conduct a study of histories of successful inner-city families who have learned to cope effectively with their environment; (3) restructure the education of teachers, administrators, counselors and retrain those now in the field; (4) reexamine the present system of intelligence testing and classification; (5) commit substantial additional funding for research and development in educational improvement for disadvantaged children and youth; (6) thoroughly delineate what constitutes accountability, allocate sufficient funds to carry out the responsibility entailed, and hold schools accountable for providing quality education for all children; and (7) involve parents, citizens and citizen groups, students, and general and special educators in the total educational effort (ibid., 8).
107. Wilson C. Riles, “Educating Inner City Children: Challenges and Opportunities,” paper presented at the President’s Committee on Mental Retardation’s Conference on Problems of Education of Children in the Inner City, Warrenton, Virginia, August 10–12, 1969, in Disadvantaged Child, vol. 3, Compensatory Education: A National Debate, ed. Jerome Hellmuth (New York: Bruner/Mazel, 1970), 273.
108. Larry P. v. Riles, No. C-71 2270, 343 F. Supp. 1306, 1972, U.S. Dist. LEXIS 13149, June 20, 1972; Asa G. Hilliard III, “IQ and the Courts: Larry P. v. Wilson Riles and PASE v. Hannon,” in African American Psychology: Theory, Research, and Practice, ed. A. Kathleen Hoard Burlew, W. Curtis Banks, Harriette Pipes McAdoo, and Daudi Ajani ya Azibo (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1992), 199–218; Osgood, History of Inclusion, 104; Scott Graves and Angela Mitchell, “Is the Moratorium Over?: African American Psychology Professionals’ Views on Intelligence Testing in Response to Changes to Federal Policy,” Journal of Black Psychology 37, no. 4 (1965): 407–25.
109. Charles R. Tremper, “Organized Psychology’s Efforts to Influence Judicial Policy-Making,” American Psychologist 42, no. 5 (1987): 497–98.
110. Larry P. v. Riles, No. C-71-2270 RFP, 495 F. Supp. 926, October 16, 1979.
111. Larry P. v. Riles. No 80-4027, 793 F.2d 969; 1984 U.S. App., LEXIS 26195, January 23, 1984.
112. “Suit Challenges Score,” Los Angeles Times, November 23, 1977.
113. Joel Dreyfuss, “Wilson Riles Speaks Out,” Black Enterprise 8, no. 12 (1978): 35–38; Elaine Woo, “Wilson Riles, First Black Elected to State Office, Dies,” Los Angeles Times, April 3, 1999.
114. See, for example, “California’s New Education Boss,” Ebony, May 1971, 54–56; “California Children to Start School at Age Four,” Jet, April 5, 1973; “The 100 Most Influential Black Americans,” Ebony, May 1974, 92.
115. Wilson C. Riles, “‘No Adversary Situations’: Public School Education in California and Wilson C. Riles, Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1970–1982,” interview by Sarah Sharp, 1981–82, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley; “Educator Named Spingarn Medalist,” Crisis, June–July 1973, 211.
116. According to literature from the early to mid-1960s, 85 percent of those labeled “mentally retarded” were categorized as “mild” (Harvey A. Stevens, “Overview,” in Mental Retardation, ed. Stevens and Heber, 5).
117. James Clements and Sue Warren, “History of the Classification of Mental Retardation,” June 1978, Herbert J. Grossman, M.D., Collection, box 1, folder 20, Archives and Special Collections, Department of the Library, College of Staten Island, City University of New York, Staten Island.
118. Donovan and Cross, Minority Students, 45–47.
119. U.S. Congress, Amendment to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, January 7, 1997, Section 618. Since 2000, Indicator 9 of Section 300.600(a)(2) of IDEA has required that states monitor and avoid disproportionate representation of racial or ethnic groups in special education as a result of inappropriate identification policies.
120. Henry Leland, “Poverty and Mental Retardation,” Clinical Child Psychology Newsletter 9, no. 2 (1970): 4.
121. Michael B. Katz, a longtime poverty scholar and historian, has described the term “undeserving poor” as an “enduring attempt to classify poor people by merit.” This and related terms enable a debate over who is, by virtue of behavior and character, entitled to receive what are perceived as resources belonging to others (The Undeserving Poor: From the War on Poverty to the War on Welfare [New York: Pantheon, 1989], 9–15).
122. Dunn, “Special Education,” 6.
123. Donovan and Cross, Minority Students, 2; Harry and Klingner, Why Are So Many Minority Students, 2–3; Ferri and Connor, “Tools of Exclusion,” 458.
124. Intellectual Disability: Definition, Classification, and Systems of Supports (Washington, D.C.: American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 2010), 59–60.
1. Martin Gansberg, “37 Who Saw Murder Didn’t Call the Police,” New York Times, March 27, 1964.
2. Stanley Milgram and Paul Hollander, “The Murder They Heard,” The Nation, June 15, 1964, 602–4; Stanley Milgram, “The Experience of Living in Cities,” Science 167, no. 3924 (1970): 1461–68; Rachel Manning, Mark Levine, and Alan Collins, “The Kitty Genovese Murder and the Social Psychology of Helping: The Parable of the 38 Witnesses,” American Psychologist 62, no. 6 (2007): 555–62. A number of behavioral science experts speculated on this supposed urban detachment in the New York Times (Charles Mour, “Apathy Is Puzzle in Queens Killing,” New York Times, March 28, 1964).
3. J. H. Bradbury, “Walden Three: New Environmentalism, Urban Design, and Planning in the Nineteen Sixties,” Antipode 8, no. 3 (1976): 17–28.
4. Kevin Kruse, White Flight: Atlanta and the Making of Modern Conservatism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005).
5. Eric Avila, Popular Culture in the Age of White Flight: Fear and Fantasy in Suburban Los Angeles (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), 70–74.
6. Thomas Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), 8–9.
7. This game was first distributed as a pullout in the August 1968 issue of Psychology Today and was later available for separate purchase. See David Popoff, “The Cities Game,” Psychology Today 2, no. 3 (1968): 38–40.
8. Mark H. Lytle, The Gentle Subversive: Rachel Carson, Silent Spring, and the Rise of the Environmental Movement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007).
9. Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry, Urban America and the Planning of Mental Health Services (New York: GAP, 1964).
10. Ibid., 411–14.
11. Joachim F. Wohlwill, “The Emerging Discipline of Environmental Psychology,” American Psychologist 25, no. 4 (1970): 303–12; Harold Proshansky, William Ittelson, and Leanne Rivlin, eds., Environmental Psychology: Man and His Physical Setting (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1970).
12. Paul Leyhausen, “The Communal Organization of Solitary Mammals,” in Environmental Psychology, ed. Proshansky, Ittelson, and Rivlin, 183.
13. Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (New York: Bantam, 1968), 5–7; Joseph Boskin, Urban Racial Violence in the Twentieth Century, 2nd ed. (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Glencoe, 1976), 101–42; Robert M. Fogelson, Violence as Protest: A Study of Riots and Ghettos (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1971), 1–52.
14. Kenneth Neubeck and Noel Cazenave, Welfare Racism: Playing the Race Card against America’s Poor (New York: Routledge, 2001), 116–24.
15. Edmund Ramsen and Jon Adams, “Escaping the Laboratory: The Rodent Experiments of John B. Calhoun and Their Cultural Influence,” Journal of Social History 42, no. 3 (2009): 761–92.
16. Leonard Duhl, ed. The Urban Condition: People and Policy in the Metropolis (1963; New York: Simon and Schuster, 1969), xiii; Ramsen and Adams, “Escaping the Laboratory,” 767; Joe Flower, “Building Healthier Cities: A Conversation with Leonard J. Duhl,” Healthcare Forum Journal 36, no. 3 (1993): 48–54, 75.
17. Omer R. Galle, Walter R. Gove, and J. Miller McPherson, “Population Density and Pathology: What Are the Relations for Man?,” Science 176, no. 4030 (1972): 24.
18. René Dubos, “We Can’t Buy Our Way Out,” Psychology Today 3, no. 10 (1970): 20–22, 86–87, René Dubos, “Man Overadapting,” Psychology Today 4, no. 9 (1971): 50–53.
19. Carol L. Moberg, René Dubos: Friend of the Good Earth (Washington, D.C.: ASM Press, 2005), 147–50.
20. René Dubos, Man Adapting (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965), xxi, 25.
21. Ibid., 26.
22. René Dubos, “The Crisis of Man in His Environment,” in Human Identity in the Urban Environment, ed. Gwen Bell and Jacqueline Tyrwhitt (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972), 183–84 (first published in Proceedings of the Symposium on Human Ecology [Washington, D.C.: U.S. Public Health Service, 1968]).
23. Everett M. Rogers, “The Extensions of Men: The Correspondence of Marshall McLuhan and Edward T. Hall,” Mass Communication and Society 3, no. 1 (2000): 117–35.
24. Edward T. Hall, “The Silent Language in Overseas Business,” Harvard Business Review, May 1960, 87–96; Edward T. Hall and Mildred Hall, “The Sounds of Silence,” Playboy, June 1971, 139–40, 204, 206.
25. Edward T. Hall, The Hidden Dimension (New York: Anchor, 1966), 1.
26. Ibid., 177, 171.
27. Ibid., 168.
28. Parr was a frequent speaker to nonspecialized audiences on popular scientific topics and was often mentioned in the New York Times and other newspapers and magazines. See, for example, “Science: Weather Control?,” Time, July 5, 1943; “Making ‘Natural History Live,’” New York Times, April 5, 1959.
29. Albert E. Parr, “City and Psyche,” Yale Review 55 (1965): 80–81.
30. Albert E. Parr, “Psychological Aspects of Urbanology,” Social Issues 22, no. 4 (1966): 42.
31. James E. Montgomery, “Impact of Housing Patterns on Marital Interaction,” Family Coordinator 19, no. 3 (1970): 271.
32. Paul Lemkau, “A Psychiatrist’s View of Housing,” in Proceedings: Seventh Conference for the Improvement of the Teaching of Housing in Home Economics, October 30–November 2, 1963, 10, series 3, box 2, folder 4, American Association of Housing Educators Records, Cushing Memorial Library, Texas A&M University, College Station.
33. Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique (New York: Norton, 1963).
34. Ibid., 393–428; Kirsten Fermaglich, American Dreams and Nazi Nightmares: Early Holocaust Consciousness and Liberal America, 1957–1965 (Waltham, Mass.: Brandeis University Press; Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 2006), 58–82; Daniel Horowitz, Betty Friedan and the Making of The Feminine Mystique: The American Left, the Cold War, and Modern Feminism (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1998).
35. James Howard Kunstler, Home from Nowhere: Remaking Our Everyday World for the Twenty-First Century (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996); Nicholas Bloom, Suburban Alchemy: 1960s New Towns and the Transformation of the American Dream (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2001), 208–9; Lizabeth Cohen, A Consumers’ Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America (New York: Knopf, 2003), 193–256.
36. Leonard Duhl, “Looking Backwards: A Personal Look at Community Mental Health,” Journal of Primary Prevention 15, no. 1 (1994): 31–43; Flower, “Building Healthier Cities,” 48–52.
37. On Dubos’s role in the development of ekistics and his influence on Doxiadis, see Ellen Shoskes and Sy Adler, “Planning for Healthy People/Healthy Places: Lessons from Mid-Twentieth Century Global Discourse,” Planning Perspectives 24, no. 2 (2009): 197–217.
38. “Biographical Sketches,” Social Issues 22, no. 4 (1966): 137–40.
39. Robert W. Kates, “Stimulus and Symbol: The View from the Bridge,” Social Issues 22, no. 4 (1966): 23.
40. Robert Sommer, “Man’s Proximate Environment,” Social Issues 22, no. 4 (1966): 59.
41. Wohlwill, “Emerging Discipline,” 305, 307–8, 310. Harry Heft, Wohlwill’s former student, refers to this publication as a landmark that introduced the field of environmental psychology to many readers (“Joachim F. Wohlwill (1928–1987): His Contributions to the Emerging Discipline of Environmental Psychology,” Environment and Behavior 20 [1988]: 260).
42. Harold Searles, The Nonhuman Environment in Normal Development and in Schizophrenia (New York: International Universities Press, 1960), 5.
43. Ibid., 49–51.
44. Ibid., 166.
45. In 1963, Searles published an article in the International Journal of Psycho-Analysis examining the interrelations between sensory deprivation and schizophrenia. An interaction with a patient had led him to understand the “previously unsuspected intensity of sensory deprivation in the subjective experience of various other schizophrenic patients” (“The Place of Neutral Therapist-Responses in Psychotherapy with the Schizophrenic Patient,” International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 44 [1963]: 42).
46. Stuart C. Miller, “Ego-Autonomy in Sensory Deprivation, Isolation, and Stress,” International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 43 (1962): 6. See also Lawrence S. Kubie, “Theoretical Aspects of Sensory Deprivation,” in Sensory Deprivation: A Symposium Held at Harvard Medical School, ed. Philip Solomon, Philip E. Kubzansky, P. Herbert Leiderman Jr., Jack H. Mendelson, Richard Trumbull, and Donald Wexler (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1961), 208–20.
47. John E. S. Lawrence, “Science and Sentiment: Overview of Research on Crowding and Human Behavior,” Psychological Bulletin 81, no. 10 (1974): 712–20.
48. Robert E. Mitchell, “Some Social Implications of High Density Housing,” American Sociological Review 36, no. 1 (1971): 19–20.
49. Alvin Schorr, Slums and Social Insecurity (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health Education and Welfare, 1963), 1–2.
50. Ibid., 18.
51. Joseph Boskin, “The Revolt of the Urban Ghettos, 1964–1967,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 382 (1969): 1–14; Stanley Lieberson and Arnold R. Silverman, “The Precipitants and Underlying Conditions of Race Riots,” American Sociological Review 30, no. 6 (1965): 887–98; Walter Rucker and James Upton, eds., Encyclopedia of American Race Riots (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 2007), 478–79.
52. Rucker and Upton, Encyclopedia of American Race Riots, 507, 511.
53. Robert M. Fogelson, “White on Black: A Critique of the McCone Commission Report on the Los Angeles Riots,” Political Science Quarterly 82, no. 3 (1967): 337–67; David O. Sears and John B. McConahay, “Participation in the Los Angeles Riot,” Social Problems 17, no. 1 (1969): 15–16; Lindsey Lupo, Flak-Catchers: One Hundred Years of Riot Commission Politics in America (Lanham, Md.: Lexington, 2011), 93–122.
54. Ellen Herman, The Romance of American Psychology: Political Culture in the Age of Experts (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 232.
55. Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis, 259–68; Amy Maria Kenyon, Dreaming Suburbia: Detroit and the Production of Postwar Space and Culture (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2004), 9–15.
56. “Remarks of the President upon Issuing an Executive Order Establishing a National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders,” July 29, 1967, inReport of the National Advisory Commission, 536–37; Herman, Romance of American Psychology, 210. For an in-depth analysis of the Kerner Commission’s deliberations, see Michael Lipsky and David J. Olson, Commission Politics: The Processing of Racial Crisis in America (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1977), 107–230.
57. Herman, Romance of American Psychology, 216–18; Robert Shellow, “Social Scientists and Social Action from within the Establishment,” Journal of Social Issues 26, no. 1 (1970): 208; Lupo, Flak Catchers, 134–35.
58. Herman, Romance of American Psychology, 217.
59. Charles Pinderhughes, “Pathogenic Social Structure: A Prime Target for Preventative Psychiatric Intervention,” Journal of the National Medical Association 58, no. 6 (1966): 424.
60. Charles Pinderhughes and Herbert Levin, “Psychology of Adolescents in a Peaceful Protest and in an Urban Riot,” November 6, 1967, reel 27, 511–49, KC Records.
61. “Psychiatry: Understanding Militancy,” Time, May 24, 1968; Pinderhughes, “Pathogenic Social Structure,” 428; Jane Brody, “Doctor Analyzes Black Power Idea,” New York Times, May 16, 1968.
62. Pinderhughes, “Pathogenic Social Structure,” 427.
63. Ibid., 426.
64. Pinderhughes and Levin, “Psychology of Adolescents,” 533.
65. Kevin Mumford, “Harvesting the Crisis: The Newark Uprising, the Kerner Commission, and Writing on Riots,” in African American Urban History since World War II, ed. Kenneth Kusmer and Joe W. Trotter (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009), 209–10.
66. Alondra Nelson, Body and Soul: The Black Panther Party and the Fight against Medical Discrimination (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2011), 153–68; Michael Staub, Madness Is Civilization: When the Diagnosis Was Social, 1948–1980 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011), 124–26.
67. Jonathan Metzl, The Protest Psychosis: How Schizophrenia Became a Black Disease (Boston: Beacon, 2010), 95–128.
68. Vernon Mark, William Sweet, and Frank Ervin, “Role of Brain Disease in Riots and Urban Violence,” Journal of the American Medical Association 201, no. 11 (1967): 895.
69. Nelson, Body and Soul, 153–68; Staub, Madness Is Civilization, 125.
70. The popular press printed frequent updates regarding the Kerner Commission’s progress. See, for example, Donald Janson, “Kerner Pledges Thorough Study of Urban Rioting,” New York Times, July 29, 1967; “Text of Summary of Report by National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders,” New York Times, March 1, 1968; “Kerner Is Unsure on Riots Meeting,” New York Times, April 12, 1968.
71. Report of the National Advisory Commission.
72. Clarence W. Klassen to Christopher Vlahoplus, August 4, 1967, reel 13, 7801, KC Records; Michael Halberstam to Joseph Califano, July 28, 1967, reel 13, 786, KC Records; Jacquelyne Jackson to Lyndon Johnson, July 28, 1967, reel 13, 642, KC Records.
73. Herman, Romance of American Psychology, 224.
74. Ibid., 237; Peter Lupsha, “On Theories of Urban Violence,” Urban Affairs Quarterly 4, no. 3 (1969): 273–96. Lipsky and Olson provide a scathing critique of attempts to depoliticize and delegitimize insurgent groups and their goals (Commission Politics, 443–59). A concrete illustration of these attempts to depoliticize riots can be seen in an item in the Science News-Letter that sported an unambiguous subtitle: “Extreme poverty and social deprivation, rather than civil rights issues, lead to resentments, mental imbalance and violence” (Faye Marley, “Poverty Causes Violence,” Science News-Letter, August 22, 1964, 114).
75. Report of the National Advisory Commission, 123, 325; William Griffitt and Russell Veitch, “Hot and Crowded: Influences of Population Density and Temperature on Interpersonal Affective Behavior,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 17, no. 1 (1971): 93.
76. For a history of the concept of relative deprivation, see Francine Tougas and Ann M. Beaton, “Personal Relative Deprivation: A Look at the Grievous Consequences of Grievance,” Social and Personality Psychology Compass 2, no. 4 (2008): 1753–66.
77. Siddharth Chadra and Angela Williams Foster, “The ‘Revolution of Rising Expectations,’ Relative Deprivation, and the Urban Social Disorders of the 1960s: Evidence from State-Level Data,” Social Science History 29, no. 2 (2005): 299–332; Don R. Bowen, Elinor R. Bowen, Sheldon R. Gawiser, and Louis H. Masotti, “Deprivation, Mobility, and Orientation toward Protest of the Urban Poor,” American Behavioral Scientist 11, no. 4 (1968): 20–24; Thomas J. Crawford and Murray Naditch, “Relative Deprivation, Powerlessness, and Militancy: The Psychology of Social Protest,” Psychiatry 33, no. 2 (1970): 208–23.
78. Kenneth B. Clark, statement, September 13, 1967, reel 3, 1263, KC Records; John Gardner, statement, August 1, 1967, reel 1, 86–87, KC Records; Herman, Romance of American Psychology, 220.
79. Andreas Hess, Concepts of Social Stratification: European and American Models (New York: Palgrave, 2001), 161–67; Seymour Martin Lipset, “Comments on the Problems of Urban Ghettos and Issues of Public Order,” discussion paper for the RAND Urban Programs Workshop, December 1967–January 1968, reel 22, 281, KC Records (published as Seymour M. Lipset, “The Problems of Urban Ghettos and the Issues of Public Order,” in Thinking about Cities: New Perspectives on Urban Problems, ed. Anthony Pascal [Belmont, Calif.: Dickenson, 1970], 140–52).
80. Ursula Dibble, “Socially Shared Deprivation, Participation in Non-Violent Protest, and the Approval of Violence” (Ph.D. diss., University of Connecticut, 1978); Susan Olzak and Suzanne Shanahan, “Deprivation and Race Riots: An Extension of Spilerman’s Analysis,” Social Forces 74, no. 3 (1996): 931–61; Stephen G. Brush, “Dynamics of Theory Change in the Social Sciences: Relative Deprivation and Collective Violence,” Journal of Conflict Resolution 40, no. 4 (1996): 523–45.
81. John Gardner, statement, reel 1, 371, KC Records; Louis H. Masotti, “Preface,” American Behavioral Scientist 2, no. 4 (1968): 1; Herman, Romance of American Psychology, 218.
82. “Toward an Understanding of Mass Violence: Contributions from the Behavioral Sciences,” NIMH confidential report, August 1967, reel 15, 372, KC Records.
83. Ibid., 4.
84. Martin Luther King Jr., statement, October 23, 1967, reel 4, 963, KC Records.
85. Ibid., 958.
86. Martin Luther King Jr., Why We Can’t Wait (New York: Harper and Row, 1964), 152. In his statement before the Kerner Commission, King argued that the “bill of rights for the disadvantaged” would apply to whites as well as blacks (reel 4, 961, KC Records).
87. King, Why We Can’t Wait, 153, 141.
88. Martin Luther King Jr., Nobel lecture, December 11, 1964, http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1964/king-lecture.html.
89. King made similar suggestions in a 1965 interview for Playboy magazine (Alex Haley, “Interview with Martin Luther King,” Playboy, January 1965, 70–71).
90. Throughout his career, King appropriated material, often verbatim, into his sermons, writings, and academic work, frequently without the customary documentation. When this practice was uncovered in the late 1980s, considerable controversy erupted regarding King’s legacy and academic credentials. A committee of scholars at Boston University, which had granted King his doctorate, concluded that King had plagiarized parts of his dissertation, leading to the decision to append a note to the university’s copy of the work. While King’s misappropriation of material in his academic work has been universally criticized, his tendency to borrow and synthesize from a wide range of sources in his sermons has been tied to the oral tradition of black folk preachers. See David Thelen, “Becoming Martin Luther King, Jr.: An Introduction,” Journal of American History 78, no. 1 (1991): 11–22; Clayborne Carson, Peter Holloran, Ralph E. Luker, and Penny Russell, “Martin Luther King, Jr., as Scholar: A Reexamination of His Theological Writings,” Journal of American History 78, no. 1 (1991): 93–105; Keith D. Miller, “Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Black Folk Pulpit,” Journal of American History 78, no. 1 (1991): 120–23; “Boston U. Panel Finds Plagiarism by Dr. King,” New York Times, October 11, 1991; Keith D. Miller, Voice of Deliverance: The Language of Martin Luther King, Jr., and Its Sources (New York: Free Press, 1992).
91. In his work on the “damage imagery” of the African American psyche, historian Daryl M. Scott examines how black intellectuals linked this imagery to demands for compensatory programs targeting blacks (Contempt and Pity: Social Policy and the Image of the Damaged Black Psyche, 1880–1996 [Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997], 138, 148–50).
92. Ibid., 149; Karen Ferguson, “Organizing the Ghetto: The Ford Foundation, CORE, and White Power in the Black Power Era,” Journal of Urban History 34, no. 1 (2007): 67–99.
93. Willie E. Thompson to William B. Spong, August 21, 1967, reel 14, 13, KC Records.
94. Herman, Romance of American Psychology, 219–22; Kevin Mumford, “Untangling Pathology: The Moynihan Report and Homosexual Damage, 1965–1975,” Journal of Policy History 24, no. 1 (2012): 53–73.
95. Lupo, Flak Catchers, 137–40; John Gardner, statement, reel 1, 95–96, KC Records.
96. Clarice U. Heckert to Kerner Commission, August 25, 1967, reel 13, 704, KC Records.
97. Elliot Liebow, Tally’s Corner: A Study of Negro Streetcorner Men (Boston: Little, Brown, 1967). See also James D. Montgomery, “Revisiting Tally’s Corner: Mainstream Norms, Cognitive Dissonance, and Underclass Behavior,” Rationality and Society 6 (October 1994): 462–88; Herman, Romance of American Psychology, 221–22; Mitchell Duneier, “On the Legacy of Elliot Liebow and Carol Stack: Context-Driven Fieldwork and the Need for Continuous Ethnography,” Focus 25, no. 1 (2007): 33–38.
98. Commission Meeting Transcripts, November 9, 1967, reel 5, 3712, 3715, KC Records.
99. Commission Meeting Transcripts, November 9, 1967, reel 5, 3719, 3750, KC Records.
100. Commission Meeting Transcripts, November 9, 1967, reel 5, 3729, 3736, KC Records. Analyses and interpretations of the locus of control among the poor (internal versus external control) and the attempt to empower populations seen to be powerless or motivate them to develop more “internal control” provided the basis for different governmental interventions during the War on Poverty. See Karen Baistow, “Problems of Powerlessness: Psychological Explanations of Social Inequality and Civil Unrest in Post-War America,” History of the Human Sciences 13, no. 3 (2000): 95–116.
101. Commission Meeting Transcripts, November 9, 1967, reel 5, 3775, KC Records.
102. Ibid., 3572.
103. Ibid., 3574.
104. For a fuller discussion of the interrelations among maternal employment, race, and welfare eligibility, see Jill Quadagno, The Color of Welfare: How Racism Undermined the War on Poverty (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994).
105. Commission Meeting Transcripts, November 9, 1967, reel 5, 3757, KC Records.
106. Duhl, “Looking Back,” 40.
107. Matthew Dumont, The Absurd Healer: Perspective of a Community Psychiatrist (New York: Science House, 1968).
108. Ibid., 54–55.
109. Ibid., 66.
110. Ibid., 67.
111. Ibid., 68–71.
112. Ibid., 50–51.
113. Ibid., 75–77.
114. Ibid., 80.
115. Lupo, Flak Catchers, 139–40.
116. Mumford, “Harvesting the Crisis,” 209.
117. Report of the National Advisory Commission, 2. On this point, see Herman, Romance of American Psychology, 232.
118. Report of the National Advisory Commission, 10–11.
119. Ibid., 226, 244, 258–59.
120. Ibid., 22–23.
121. Ibid., 395, 403–5.
122. Ibid., 262.
123. Ibid., 446.
124. Ibid., 449.
125. Ibid., 427.
126. Lupo, Flak Catchers, 147–49.
127. Herman, Romance of American Psychology, 243–46; Claire Jean Kim, “Clinton’s Race Initiative: Recasting the American Dilemma,” Polity 33, no. 2 (2000): 185.
128. Richard L. Meier, “Violence: The Last Urban Epidemic,” American Behavioral Scientist 11, no. 4 (1968): 35.
1. Sarah Huisenga, “Newt Gingrich: Poor Kids Don’t Work ‘Unless It’s Illegal,’” December 1, 2011, http://www.cbsnews.com/8301–503544_162–57335118–503544/newt-gingrich-poor-kids-dont-work-unless-its-illegal/; Karen Tumulty, “Gingrich Urges Students to Get Part-Time Jobs,” Washington Post, January 28, 2012.
2. Maris A. Vinovskis, The Birth of Head Start: Preschool Education Policies in the Kennedy and Johnson Administrations (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005), 76–89, 149–52.
3. Society for Research in Child Development, “Award History,” http://www.srcd.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=153&Itemid=0.
4. Mieke Bal, Travelling Concepts in the Humanities: A Rough Guide (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002).
5. Tom Levin, “A Social Action Analysis of Head Start,” American Journal of Public Health and the Nation’s Health 57, no. 7 (1967): 1193–1200; Martin Deutsch and the IDS Staff, The Deutsch Model: Institute for Developmental Studies (New York: New York University Institute for Developmental Studies, 1968), 11.
6. David Labaree, “The Winning Ways of a Losing Strategy: Educationalizing Social Problems in the U.S.,” Educational Theory 58, no. 4 (2008): 447–60; David Labaree, Someone Has to Fail: The Zero-Sum Game of Public Schooling (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2010), 163–221.
7. Sol Cohen, “The Mental Hygiene Movement, the Development of Personality, and the School: The Medicalization of American Education,” History of Education Quarterly 23, no. 2 (1983): 123–49; Stephen Petrina, “The Medicalization of Education: A Historiographic Synthesis,” History of Education Quarterly 46, no. 4 (2006): 503–31.
8. Alice O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge: Social Science, Social Policy, and the Poor in Twentieth-Century U.S. History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), 3–23.
9. Sanford Schram, “In the Clinic: The Medicalization of Welfare,” Social Text 62, no. 18.1 (2000): 81–107; Joe Soss, Richard C. Fording, and Sanford F. Schram, Disciplining the Poor: Neoliberal Paternalism and the Persistent Power of Race (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011), 262–92.
10. See, for example, Kandauda A. S. Wickrama, Rand D. Conger, Frederick O. Lorenz, and Tony Jung, “Family Antecedents and Consequences of Trajectories of Depressive Symptoms from Adolescence to Young Adulthood: A Life Course Investigation,” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 49, no. 4 (2008): 468–83; Phillip L. Hammack, W. LaVome Robinson, Isiaah Crawford, and Susan T. Li, “Poverty and Depressed Mood among Urban African-American Adolescents: A Family Stress Perspective,” Journal of Child and Family Studies 13, no. 3 (2004): 309–23; R. N. Bluthenthal, L. Jones, N. Fackler-Lowrie, M. Ellison, T. Booker, F. Jones, S. McDaniel, M. Moini, K. R. Williams, R. Klap, P. Koegel, and K. B. Wells, “Witness for Wellness: Preliminary Findings from a Community-Academic Participatory Research Mental Health Initiative,” Ethnicity and Disease 16, no. 1, suppl. 1 (2006): 18–34; Tracy Vericker, Jennifer Ehrle Macomber, and Olivia Golden, “Infants of Depressed Mothers Living in Poverty: Opportunities to Identify and Serve,” August 2010, http://www.urban.org/uploadedpdf/412199–infants-of-depressed.pdf; Brandon Vick, Kristine Jones, and Sophie Mitra, “Poverty and Severe Psychiatric Disorder in the U.S.: Evidence from the Medical Expenditure Panel Survey,”Journal of Mental Health Policy and Economics 15, no. 2 (2012): 83–96.
For a sample of media items, see Andrew Solomon, “A Cure for Poverty,” New York Times, May 6, 2001; “Depression May Underlie ‘Transmission’ of Poverty,” Reuters, January 7, 2009; Donna St. George, “Study Links Poverty to Depression among Mothers,” Washington Post, August 26, 2010.