Adair v. United States, 99–100
Adarand Contractors, Inc. v. Pena, 116
Adkins v. Children’s Hospital, 38
Africa, 12, 145n5. See also South Africa
African hairstyling, 78
Alabama, 33, 94
Allgeyer v. Louisiana, 141
Allgood, Clayton, 34
ambiguity, language, 111–12, 120–21, 128–29, 162n2
American Federation of Labor (AFL), 32, 90–91, 103–4
Anderson, Bernard, 45
anti-Japanese land law, 14
apartheid era, 46–48
apprenticeship, 94–95
exams, 85
Arrow, Kenneth, 115
Asians, 12, 129, 130, 145n6
assortive selection, 114–15, 163n5, 163n6
auto insurance industry, 126–27
automation, myth about unemployment and, 55
banks, perceived racial discrimination of, 128–30
barbers, 60
baseball, 137, 138
basketball, 124
behavioral poverty, material v., 6–9
black(s)
becoming white, 123, 164n21
collusion participation of, 140–41
crime amongst whites v., 121–22
early 1900s unemployment rate for, 31–32, 32t, 36
economic achievement of, 5, 15–22
exclusion from trades, 83–109
licensing as tool for excluding, 83–85
1930s–1950s housing markets control by, 139
slave era, 15–22
unemployment statistics for, 41, 42t–43t
upward mobility problem of, 140, 141
use of government intervention against, 99–100
whites underbid by, 99
youth unemployment, 40, 41. See also race; workers; specific employment industries; specific topics
Brazier Construction Co., et al. V. Robert Reich, et al., 37
businessmen
as employers, 150n41
minimum wage supported by, 52–53
Cadillac effect, 79
cancer, 118
capital, substituting labor with, 55
capitalism, 83, 88
Card, David, 40, 41
Carroll, Sidney, 79
certificate of public convenience and necessity (CPCN), 65–66
certification
high school-equivalency test, 94
levels of, 80
union, 99–101
Chicago
number of black workers in, 1910, 90
taxicab operations in, 65
Chinese, in Southeast Asia, 12–13
Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, 14
Civil Act of 1964, 106
Civil War, licensing of free blacks during, 27–28
collective bargaining agreements, 138
collusions, 136–38
blacks/whites supporting, 140–41
voluntary, 136
Community Reinvestment Act of 1977, 130
compensating differences, 49, 91, 140
competition
efficiency resulting from, 108
fears of black, 24, 89–91
housing market example of, 139–40
immigrants as, blacks facing, 24–25
impact of reduced, 81
licensing for protection from, 63, 73, 155n15
minimum wage to reduce, 48, 52–53, 57, 89
regulated, 67
violent response to black, 89–91
Constitution, Davis-Bacon Act and, 37–38
construction industry, 34, 36–37
consumer credit survey, 129–30
contracts, 120
yellow dog, 99–100
Coppage v. Kansas, 100
Cornwell v. California Board of Barbering and Cosmetology, 78
cosmetologists, licensing of, 75–76, 77
costs
approximating licensing, 155n15
capital relative to wage, 55
costly-to-observe attributes, 126
employer preference indulgence, 50–51, 150n42
entry, 75
information, 117
licensing as increasing service, 80–81
racial preference, 124
CPCN. See certificate of public convenience and necessity
credit, minority access to, 128–30
crime, 121–22, 132–33
racial profiling and, 121
Davis, James J., 33–34
Davis-Bacon Act, 32–38
DeBow, J. D. B., 17
Debs, Eugene V., 89, 99–100
Denver, taxicab operations in, 65–67
Department of Housing and Urban Development, U.S. (HUD), 36
Depository Institutions Deregulatory and Monetary Control Act, 130
deregulation, 106–8
taxi, 70–71
discrimination
employment, 125–28, 164n25
home mortgage, 128–30
against low-income shoppers, 132–33
operational definitions of, 113–15, 163n5, 163n6
diseases, race and, 119
Domino’s Pizza, 120–21
Dorsey, Stuart, 75–76
Douglass, Frederick, 3–4, 18, 25, 26
Dubois, W. E. B., 96
Durham, John Stephen, 86–87
earnings, 2008, 5
economic achievements
of blacks, 5, 15–22
of minorities, 13–15, 145n19
racial discrimination and, 13–15, 145n19
slave-era blacks’, 15–22
economic incentives, racial discrimination v., 10
economic theory
compensating differences, 49, 91, 140
intentions v. effects and, 3, 48–51, 56–57, 59–60
prediction ability of, 3
zero elasticity response in, 57, 155n77
education, 85, 102–3, 113, 125–26, 162n2
white v. black levels of, 46, 153n57
EEOC. See Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
effects v. intentions, 3, 48–51, 56–57, 59–60
electricity. See plumbing/electricity trade
employers
businessmen as, 150n41
higher-skilled labor substituted by, 46
incentives to experiment, 127–28
minimum wage cost to, 50–51, 150n42
preference indulgence of, 48–51
zero elasticity response of, 57, 155n77
employment
decline in black/trades, 87
discrimination, 125–28, 164n25
Fourteenth amendment right to, 141
-population ratio by race, 31, 32t
railroad, 95–100. See also youth, employment of
engineers, hiring requirements for, 102–3
England, racial discrimination in, 11
entry restrictions, 59, 61, 63, 68, 75, 155n15
New Deal raising of, 93
racial discrimination not explaining, 109
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), 94
equal starting wages, 127–28
equal-pay-for-equal work, 48–51, 96, 154n69, 160n68
ethnic conflict, 12–13, 145n5, 145n6, 145n9
ethnic groups, politically successful, 14–15
exams
apprenticeship, 85
firemen promotion, 102–3
licensing and, 76
pass rates, 95
exclusive bargaining representation, 101
Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA), 38, 93
family structure, 1880s v. today’s blacks’, 7–8
farmers, minimum wage and, 52–53
fast-food restaurant study, 40–41
Federal Housing Administration, 130–31
Federal Trade Commission (FTC), 132
female-headed households, 7
firemen, 95, 97t, 96, 102–3
FLSA. See Fair Labor Standards Act
football, 124, 137–38
foreclosure, 131
Fourteenth Amendment, 67, 141
Freddie Mac, 129
free blacks, 16–17, 22–23, 27–28
in North, 22–27
quasi-, 19, 21
free market, 137
as colorblind, 28–29
as friend to blacks, 9–10
paying for preferences in, 124
prices/competition and, 63
resource allocation, 1–2
Galloway, Lowell, 32, 36
Garrison, William Lloyd, 25
Garvey, Marcus, 88
genocide, in Rwanda, 12, 145n9
Gompers, Samuel, 103–4
government intervention
blacks workers excluded through, 99–100
collusions and, 137
entry into occupation, 59, 61, 63, 68, 93, 155n15
1930–1950 rise in, 36
Greene, Lorenzo, 84
Gross Domestic Product (GDP), 6t
Ireland’s, 70
Gutman, Herbert, 8
gypsy cabs, 63–65
Haas Act of 1937, 62
hair braiding, 77–78, 157n40
Haiti, migration and, 27
Hardie, Keir, 47–48
Harvard University Civil Rights Project, 112
Higgs, Robert, 31
Hill, Herbert, 87
Hispanics, home ownership of, 130
home mortgages, 128–30
home ownership, 130
homogeneity, racial, 112–13
households, single-parent, 7
housing markets, 139–40
Houston, Charles, 103
HUD. See Department of Housing and Urban Development, U.S.
illegitimacy, 8
immigration
Chinese, 103–4
competition from, 24–25
early 1900s, 34–35
In re Debs, 99–100
income
discrimination against shoppers with low, 132–33
equal distribution of, 46
non-money, 50
prices and, 135
total earnings of blacks in 2008, 5
understated, 7
inflation, 55
information
cost of gathering enough, 117
decisions and, 126
physical attributes as, 126–27
Institute for Justice, 37, 67, 72, 77, 79
intentions, effects v., 3, 48–51, 56–57, 59–60
Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), 107–8, 109
IQ
assortive mate selection and, 114–15
racial profiling and, 123
Ireland, taxi licensing/deregulation in, 70–71
Irish Americans, 14–15, 25
iron industry, 86
Jackson, Jesse, 121–22, 128
Japanese Americans, 14
Jews, 1930s citizenship law and, 79–80
jitney services, 71–72
job-reservation laws, South Africa, 47–48, 134
Johnson, James Weldon, 86, 88
Kennedy, John F., 52
Krueger, Alan B., 40, 41
labor, 38
acquiring marketable skills, 150n43
adjustments in use of, 39, 150n41
low/high-skilled, 34, 40, 46, 51–52, 54, 58
machines replacing, 46
marginal/youth, 39–40, 150n43
as monopolies, 93, 101
participation by race/age, 41, 44t–45t
substituting capital for, 55
labor market
myths about, 53–56
opportunities, 45
land acquisition, 14, 16
Landers, Monique, 77–78, 157n40
law of demand, 49–50, 54
Leroy Jones et al. v. Colorado Public Utilities commission, 67
liberalism, 115, 153n60
licensing, occupational, 59–81, 155n1
approximating price of, 155n15
board of commissioners, 60
certification and, 80
competition and, 63, 73, 155n15
cosmetologists, 75–76, 77
incumbent practitioners as beneficiaries of, 61, 76, 79–80, 95
intention v. effect of, 59–60
jitney services, 71–72
Landers case, 77–78, 157n40
1930s citizenship law and, 79–80
quality of services and, 80–81
racial discrimination by, 75, 83–85, 94–95
stated justifications for, 59
strategy of exclusion, 83–85
taxicab, New York City’s, 62–63
violation penalties in, 60
youth suffering from abuses by, 81
life chances, racial identification and, 115
life insurance, perceived discrimination in, 126–27, 164n25
loan applications, 128–30
Mac, Freddie, 129
Macarty, Cecee, 17
Malaysia, 13
market
housing, 139–40. See also free market; labor market
material poverty, behavioral v., 6–9
Mau Mau, 145n5
Maurizi, Alex, 95
medallion system, 62–63, 140
merchant behavior, crime and, 132–33
Mexico, 53
migration
blacks’ option of, 27
Jewish, 79–80
minimum wage, 9, 55–56
acquiring marketable skills with, 150n43
business interests in support of, 52–53
competition reduced by, 48, 52–53, 57, 89
Davis-Bacon Act, 32–38
determinations of, 35–36
economic theory and, 45–46
effects of, 38–46, 150n41, 150n42, 150n43
effects v. intentions behind, 48–51, 56–57
history of, 38
impetus for federal law on, 33–34
myth of antipoverty weapon as, 55
NRA setting, 91
on-the-job training impacted by, 39, 48, 57, 150n43
racial discrimination and, 46–49
recent three-step increase in hourly, 38
South Africa and, 46–48
studies on, 40–41
unemployment statistics and, 42t–43t
U.S. unions as supporting, 51–52, 154n71
victims of, invisible, 57–58
worker productivity and, 150n41
zero elasticity of response and, 57, 155n77
Minneapolis, taxi industry in, 68
minorities, racial
artificial disqualification of, 54
banks owned by, 130
Chinese, 12–13
credit access of, 130
deregulation as help to, 108–9
economic progress of, 13–15, 145n19
equal-pay-for-equal work as handicap to, 96, 160n68
free-market and, 1–2
home ownership, 130
licensing as handicap to, 79, 95
loan applications and, 129–30
taxi cab industry and, 65
trucking industry carriers owned by, 107t
as union members, 154n71
monopolies
cosmetologist, 75–76
entrepreneurial response to, 63–65
labor unions as, 93, 101
taxi cab industry, 62–71, 140
transportation, 71–72, 74
Washington, D.C.’s stand against, 69–70
mortgages, home, 128–30
subprime, 130–31
Motor Carrier Act of 1980, 108
Myrdal, Gunnar, 93
Myth and Measurement: The New Economics of the Minimum Wage, 40
myths, labor market, 53–56
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), 67, 91
National Mediation Board (NMB), 100
National Recovery Act (NRA), 91, 92
net worth, 128–29
Neumark, David, 41
New Deal, 32, 91–93, 100–103
New Jersey, fast-food restaurant study in, 40–41
New Orleans, free blacks in, 16–17, 27
New York City
gypsy cabs in, 63–65
taxicab licensing in, 62–63
van services in, 72–74
NMB. See National Mediation Board
North, free blacks in, 22–27
North American Free Trade Agreement, 53
NRA. See National Recovery Act
on-the-job training, 39, 48, 57, 150n43
Orientals, AFL discrimination against, 103–4
paired testing, 125–26
Papa John’s, 121
Peckham, Rufus W., 141
people
licensing laws as anti-, 140
prejudging, 118–19
Philadelphia, 22–24
taxicab operations in, 65
photographers, 60
physical attributes, nonracial use of, 126–27
planters, failed collusions of, 136–37
plumbing/electricity trade, 83–85, 87
black opportunity in today’s, 94–95
policy
compassionate, 56
intentions v. effects of, 3, 48–51, 56–57, 59–60
prejudice misdiagnosis and, 131
political success, Irish economic problems coexistence with, 14–15
politics, free-market resource allocation v., 1–2
poor families’, work experience of, 8–9
population
racial segregation and, 111–12
ratio of employment-, 31, 32t
Potato King, Negro, 27
poverty
census bureau definition of, 6
material v. behavioral, 6–9
minimum wage as anti-, myth of, 55
money measures of, 7
racial discrimination as not linked to, 9
practitioners, incumbent, 61, 76, 79–80, 95
preference, 135
indulgence, 48–51, 118, 123–24, 150n42
intensity, 2
moral dimension of, 123–24
racial, 122–24
prejudging, people, 118–19
prejudice, misdiagnosed, 131
prejudice, operational definition of, 116–18
prevailing wages. See minimum wage
price-setting, 49, 139
productivity, worker
equal-pay-for-equal work and, 48–49
minimum wage and, 150n41
racial discrimination and, 48–49, 125, 127, 150n41
public health, as licensing justification, 77
Public Utilities commission (PUC), 65–66
public works projects, early 1900s regulations on, 33–35
Pullman strike of 1894, 89, 90
qualifications, artificial, 54
quality levels, 80
quasi-free blacks, 19, 21
quotas, racial, 98–99, 108
race
disease and, 119
employment-population ratio by, 31, 32t
labor force participation by age and, 41, 44t–45t
terminology and, 111–34, 162n2, 163n5, 163n6
unemployment statistics by, 41, 42t–43t
wage regulations and, 31–58. See also minorities, racial
race riots, 89
racial discrimination
ambiguous language of, 111–12, 120–21, 128–29, 162n2
against Asians, 12, 145n6
banks’ perceived, 128–30
college entrance testing and, 125–26
collusions based on, failure of, 136–38
colorblind markets and, 28–29
economic incentives v., 10
economic progress and, 13–15, 145n19
examples of widespread, 11–12, 145n5, 145n9
laws as providing incentives for, 48–49
licensing as means of, 75, 83–85, 94–95
minimum wage and, 46–49
New Deal acceptance of, 92
1940s unions and, 102–3
poverty as not related to, 9
worker productivity and, 48–49, 125, 127, 150n41. See also discrimination
racial preferences, 122–24
racial profiling, 119–22
racial segregation
ambiguity of term, 111–13, 162n2
union, 92
railroad industry, 95–100, 138
New Deal impact on blacks in, 100–103
Railway Labor Act of 1926 (RLA), 100, 102, 138
Reconstruction era, collusions during, 136–37
redlining, 131
“A Register of Trades of Colored People in the City of Philadelphia and Districts,” 22
regulations
anti-people, 140
against black slave entrepreneurship, 20–22
competition with, 67
Davis-Bacon Act, 32–38
early 1900s public works projects, 33–35
equal-pay-for-equal work, 48–51, 154n69
immigration, 34–35
racial discrimination incentives from, 48–49
wage, 31–58, 98. See also minimum wage
representation, exclusive bargaining, 101
riots, race, 89
RLA. See Railway Labor Act of 1926
Rwanda, genocide in, 12, 145n9
Santos, Alfred, 71–72
Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), 125, 126
schools
perceived racial segregation in, 113
political parceling of, 2
segregation. See racial segregation
sickle-cell disease, 119
SIME / DIME. See Seattle / Denver Income Maintenance Experiment
single-parent households, 7
skills, 34, 40
acquiring marketable, 150n43
minimum wage and, 51–52, 58
qualifications and, 54
substitution of higher for lower, 46
unemployment as not linked to, 54
slaves / slavery
economic achievements of blacks during, 15–22
self-hire of, 15, 18–22
Social Security Act, 36
South
1800s, 86–87
1900s, 96
South Africa, 11–12, 46–48, 134, 145n5, 153n60
Southeast Asia, Chinese in, 12–13
Southeastern Carrier’s Agreement, 101–102
steak analogy, 49–50
Steele v. Louisville & Nashville Railroad, 101, 102
stereotyping, 117
strikes, railroad, 96–99
strikebreaking, 88–91, 93
subprime mortgages, 130–31
supermarkets, worker productivity and, 127
Supreme Court, U.S.
Davis-Bacon constitutionality rulings of, 37–38
jitney services ruling of, 72
Lochner era / “old,” 91
NRA rulings by, 92
racial discrimination laws upheld by, 14
railroad unions thwarted by early, 99–100
right to work interpretation by, 141
RLA rulings by, 102
Wagner Act upheld by “new,” 92
yellow-dog contracts outlawed by, 99–100
sweatshop jobs, 58
task system, 18
tavern licenses, 28
taxi cab industry, 62–71, 140
denied entry into, 68
foreign deregulation of, 70–71
in major cities, 65–67
race and, 65
racial profiling accusation in, 120
terminology, racial, 111–34, 162n2, 164n25
operational definition of discrimination in, 113–15, 163n5, 163n6
prejudice in, 116–18
racial preferences, 122–24
racial profiling, 119–22
racial segregation and, 111–13, 162n2
tests
high school-equivalency, 94
racial gap in college entrance, 125–26
Tillman, Ben (“Pitchfork”), 89
Tillman, Oscar S., 67
A Touch of Class, 77–78
trades, 22
black exclusion from, 83–109
training, on-the-job, 39, 48, 57, 150n43
transportation monopolies, 71–72, 74
trucking industry, 105–6
deregulation, 106–8
minority-owned common carriers, 107t
unemployment
automation and, 55
early 1900s black, 31–32, 32t, 36
Japanese Americans, 14
myth about skills and, 54
rise of black, 36
statistics on, 41, 42t–43t
youth, 40, 41
unions, 25
black exclusion from, 86–89, 95
certification by, U.S. Supreme Court on, 100–101
as collusions, 137
electrical apprenticeships sponsored by, 94–95
licensing used by, 84–85
minimum wage support from, 51–52, 154n71
1940s subtle discriminatory techniques of, 102–3
number of practitioners set by, 61
racial segregation in, 92
railroad, 96, 98–100
South Africa’s racist, 46–48, 153n60
taxicab, 69
trucking, 105–6
van services opposed by, 72–74
United States (U.S.), employment-population ratio by race for, 31, 32t
United Transport Service Employees of America (UTSEA), 101
van services, New York City’s licensing of, 72–74
Vedder, Richard, 32, 36
Village of Arlington Heights v. Metropolitan Housing Development Corporation, 37
violence
black / white labor, 89–91
1911 strike and, 99
unions use of, 137
Virginia, slave era, 26
wages
capital costs relative to, 55
equal starting, 127–28
right to lower, 91
Wagner Act, 92–93, 138
Washington, Booker T., 89
Washington, D.C., taxicab industry in, 68–70
Washington Lawyers committee, 119–20
welfare programs, 8–9, 52
West Coast Hotel v. Parrish, 38
whites
blacks becoming, 123, 164n21
collusions supported equally by blacks , 140–41
crime amongst blacks v., 121–22
education levels of blacks v., 46, 153n57
net worth of blacks v., 128–29
Wilkins, Roy, 91
Woodson, Carter G., 84
work experience, poor families’, 8–9
workers
Chicago’s 1910 number of black, 90
government used to exclude black, 99–100
hiring most productive, 48–49
low / high-skilled, 34, 40, 46, 51–52, 54, 58
minimum wage, percentages for, 55–56
New Deal impact on black, 91–93
political arguments of highly-skilled, 51
productivity, 48–49, 125, 127, 150n41
yellow dog contracts, 99–100
youth, employment of, 39–40, 77–78, 81, 150n43
educational attainment and, 46, 153n57
myth about, 53–54