A. A PERSONAL DOCUMENT
None of Paul’s other letters carries us so deeply into the heart of the man and the apostle as this letter to the church at Corinth. “Here,” writes Hanson, “broken sharply off, with none of the jagged edges filed down, is a chunk of Paul’s life—authentic, uncensored, bewilderingly complicated, but amazingly interesting.”1 As Philippians amazes us with its unveiling of the quality of Paul’s commitment as a Christian, II Corinthians astounds us by its revelation of the radical caliber of his commitment as an apostle. Open to view in this letter is the heartthrob of that gospel ministry which belongs to every member of Christ, laity and clergy alike—its commitment, its content, its resources, its character. Witness is borne to the inescapable truth that the mission of the Church as the body of Christ is the carrying on of the self-giving, sacrificial, suffering ministry of Jesus.
Humanly the letter is designed to complete the personal reconciliation of Paul as a spiritual father with his impertinent children in the faith.2 They had been seduced for a time by severe criticisms leveled at the integrity of Paul’s apostolic ministry by some in their midst. Paul meets this attack on his personal calling by an appeal to the character of the gospel itself. Interestingly, in Galatians, when some had attempted to attach a legalistic compromise to the gospel of grace, Paul had argued in reverse manner, from the divine origin of his apostolate to the integrity of his gospel. The message and the manner of its communication were inseparable for Paul. The manner of his ministry was determined by the nature of his message. So as Paul defends his ministry we are confronted again with an effective witness to the reality and import of the coming of God into the world “in Christ.”
Apart from the more personal sections (1:1-11; 6:11-16; 13: 11-14) and his concern for the collection project (8:1—9:15) the letter falls into two main sections. The first (1:12—6:10) contains Paul’s defense of his apostolic integrity in regard to his motives and methods of operation in relation to the Corinthians. The second (10:1—13:10) deals with the vindication of his apostolic authority in the light of the attacks which had been made against it. The necessity of defending the integrity of his total existence in such personally excruciating circumstances reveals the fundamental drives of the man. Out of this situation has come to us a penetrating witness to the all-pervading dynamic of the gospel of Christ in the life of the apostle.
B. LITERARY INTEGRITY
1. Authenticity
The letter claims to come from the hand of Paul: “Paul an apostle of Jesus Christ … unto the church of God which is at Corinth” (1:1). All indications within the letter itself confirm this claim. There was no doubt as to its Pauline authorship in the Ancient Church and it remains undisputed in the reputable scholarly circles of the Modern Church.3
Some, however, view 6:14—7:1 as a non-Pauline interpolation into the letter. The arguments include (1) the large number of words not found elsewhere in Paul or in the NT, (2) word combinations unusual for Paul (cf. 6:14; 7:1), and (3) close conceptual relationship with the Qumran community.4 While these objections cannot be proved invalid, neither do they constitute decisive proof that Paul could not have written the passage.5 Until conclusive evidence is forthcoming there is no commanding reason to deny the authenticity of 6:14—7:1. The phenomenon that demands explanation is the poor connection of the passage with its context, discussed next.
2. Unity
In spite of the fact that there is no supporting evidence in the history of the transmission of the text many scholars hold that II Corinthians is a collection of letters or fragments of letters which the apostle wrote to Corinth at various times.6 Some go so far as to include not only 6:17—7:1 and cc. 10—13 but also 2:14”7:4 and c. 9 as coming from one or more other letters of Paul.7 Kuemmel rightly insists that a convincing motive for a secondary combination must be recognizable before the unity of the letter is abandoned. He finds none which he would accord that status among the proposals of those who would reconstruct the letter.8 Only two passages have been sufficiently challenged to merit our attention here: 6:14—7:1 and cc. 10—13.
Because 6:14—7:1 appears to interrupt the thought connection between 6:13 and 7:2, it is often held to be an interpolated fragment of an earlier letter known as the “previous letter” (I Cor. 5:9).9 The contents, however, do not appear to agree, for that letter warns against fellowship with a fornicator “that is called a brother” (I Cor. 5:11). Here the warning is against being “unequally yoked together with unbelievers” (6:14). Also, as Filson suggests, “7:2 does not follow 6:13 as smoothly as some have said. It reads like a resumption of an appeal after an interruption.”10 Paul could have paused, after asking the Corinthians to open their hearts wide to him, to warn them against being too free in their friendships. But even if a connection with the context is not discerned, there is no reason why this could not be an example of the apostle’s tendency to digress, due perhaps to his having written the letter at several sittings.11
Very widespread is the assumption that cc. 10—13 were written earlier than cc. 1—9 and constitute part of what has been called the “sorrowful” or “intermediate letter” (2:3-9).12 This letter written “out of much affliction and anguish of heart” (2:4) had made possible the reconciliation of the church as a whole with Paul (7:6-16).
The problem arises primarily out of a change from the sense of an accomplished reconciliation (cc. 1—9) to a renewed attack against “some” (10:2) in the church whom Paul calls “false apostles” (11:13). He fears that when he comes he will not find them as he would like (12:20), and if so he “will not spare” (13:2). To this, many supporting arguments have been added.13
The decisive question is whether or not it is possible for cc. 10—13 to have stood in the same Epistle with cc. 1—9.14 Two basic considerations remove the supposed impossibility. The first is that, although Paul does appear to change his position in respect to the church in the latter section, there are indications in the previous chapters that all is not right with the church. There are defenses against a misinterpretation of the conduct of his ministry (4:2-6; 5:11-15; 7:2) and a polemic against other traveling preachers (2:17—3:1; cf. 4:2-5). Since it is mentioned in 2:6 that the majority punished the offender, there may have been a minority who opposed Paul’s judgment in the matter. Second, the polemic of 2:17 is expanded in cc. 10—13, where Paul indicates that it is only specific persons in the church who are attacking him (10:2; 11:5, 12:15, 21; 13:2). Paul is writing to the majority, who are reconciled with him, to support them in their handling of the dangerous minority, at whose center are the “false apostles” (11:13).
Further it is difficult to maintain the identity of cc. 10—13 with the intermediate letter. Nothing is said in 10—13 about the event mentioned in 2:3-9. Also nothing is said in cc. 1—9 about the reaction of the congregation to the polemic against the false apostles of cc. 10—13. In 12:18, Paul looks back to the sending of Titus with the letter. Hughes concludes that
the difficulty of the change of tone and content of the final four chapters is more imaginary than real … it can be demonstrated that they harmonize with the pervading theme of the epistle—the theme, namely, of strength through weakness. In this theme is bound up the whole argument for the genuineness of Paul’s apostolic authority, which has been impugned by his adversaries in Corinth. … It is by the amazing contrast between his own frailty and the all-conquering strength of God manifested through him that his apostleship is unshakably authenticated to the world.15
C. HISTORICAL SITUATION
1. City of Corinth and Founding the Church
Corinth, the capital of the Roman province of Achaia, was a prosperous commercial city located on the Isthmus of Corinth (see map 1). Through it passed the mainland route between East and West as well as several sea routes. Its population was a cosmopolitan mixture of Romans, Greeks, Orientals, and Jews. Although it was not the cultural match of Athens, it prided itself on its intellectual sophistication. But its fame was more as a city of pleasure. The Isthmian games were held every other year. It was the center of worship for the goddess Aphrodite, whose temple women were also entertainers in the city’s night life. All this produced a city filled with vice and licentiousness under a veneer of sophistication. Corinth became so notorious for its loose morals that its very name became an expression for such behavior—to Corinthianize.
To this strategic center the apostle came on his second missionary journey after a somewhat disappointing visit to Athens (Acts 18:1-22). In Corinth he made his home with two exiled Jews from Rome, Aquila and Priscilla, and worked with them at their common trade of tentmaking. Every Sabbath, Paul was in the synagogue persuading the Jews and Greeks that Jesus was the Christ. Opposition soon arose from the Jews. So he turned to the Gentiles, continuing his evangelistic activity in the house of Titius Justus next door to the synagogue. Crispus, the leader of the synagogue, along with many of the Corinthians, believed in the Lord. Thus the church was composed of both Gentile and Jewish believers. Silas and Timothy became co-workers with Paul in Corinth (II Cor. 1:19). During his stay Paul was brought by the Jews before the Roman proconsul Gallic He, however, refused to indict Paul, securing him for the most part from further open attacks from the Jews. Aided by direct divine encouragement Paul remained in Corinth for a year and a half, establishing the church. When the apostle left he returned to Antioch by way of Ephesus, having no further contact with the church at Corinth until his three-year mission in Ephesus during his third missionary journey.
The church in Corinth, a cross section of the local inhabitants, was affected by the moral laxity and intellectual pride of its pagan environment. It gave Paul more problems and severely anxious moments than any other church. In his letters extant, as Paul deals with these problems (I Corinthians) and his own relation to them (II Corinthians), we are afforded a rare glimpse into the heart of a primitive Christian community.16
2. Paul’s Relations with the Church
In I Cor. 5:9, Paul alludes to a “previous letter” which he had written warning them not to associate with immoral persons within the fellowship of the church. This they had misconstrued, deliberately or otherwise, to mean immoral men in general (I Cor. 5:10-11). This letter has not been preserved, due perhaps to the repetition of its substance in I Corinthians.
A second letter, our I Corinthians, was written in response to this misunderstanding as well as to several other matters. For Paul had heard of divisiveness (1:11), immorality (5:1-2), and lawsuits (6:1-8) within the church. Also a letter had come to him possibly by a delegation (16:17) asking questions in regard to marriage (7:1), meat sacrificed to idols (8:1), spiritual gifts (12:1) and the resurrection (15:1-58). This letter was sent in the spring of 55 or 56.
I Corinthians, sent perhaps by Timothy (I Cor. 4:17; 16:10), did not produce the desired results. The report came back that conditions in the church were becoming worse. So Paul left his work at Ephesus and paid what is described as “the painful visit” (II Cor. 2:1) to Corinth. It appears that some particular person, a ringleader, rose up in arrogant defiance to Paul (II Cor. 2:5-8; 7:12);17 the church sided with him, and Paul was forced to retreat in haste.
II Corinthians gives evidence that the polemic against the apostle had been stepped up. The charges and slurs against his person were many. The integrity of his motives, of his behavior, and even of his apostolic ministry were all brought into question (1:13; 3:1; 4:2-5; 5:11-12; 6:3; 7:2; 10:2, 7, 13; 11:5, 7-9; 12:11-13; 13:3). Even his courage (10:1,10) and abilities were attacked (10:11; 11:6). Paul’s critics appear to have been a minority (2:6), centering in a few Jewish Christians (2:6) who had made their way into the congregation with letters of recommendation and self-commendation (3:1; 10:12, 18). According to Kuemmel they were not “ ‘Judaizers,’but Palestinian opponents of the Pauline mission and apostolic dignity”18 who had joined themselves with the somewhat Gnostic-like opposition to Paul already evident in I Corinthians.19
On returning to Ephesus from the “painful visit” Paul wrote the “sorrowful letter” (2:3-4) and dispatched Titus (7:6) to take it to Corinth and attempt to restore the church to Paul. After Titus’ departure, Paul’s troubled concern would not let him continue his work, so he proceeded to Troas and on to Macedonia (2:12-13; 7:5; see map 1) to await the return of Titus. When Titus came with word that the church had dealt with the offender and that it had re-submitted itself to the authority of the apostle, Paul was comforted (7:6-12).
So from Macedonia, within a year (8:10; 9:2) after the writing of I Corinthians, Paul wrote to the church of God in Corinth. He included “all the saints which are in all Achaia” (1:1) and asked them to prepare the way for his third visit. In the letter he expressed his relief at the success of Titus’ mission of reconciliation and answered the derogatory charges of his critics. Throughout the entire letter, but especially in cc. 10—13, he found it necessary to defend the legitimacy of his apostleship.20 Although proper relations between the apostle and the church as a whole were restored, some opposition to Paul still remained in Corinth. He hoped to heal fully the situation there.
With the restoration of normal relations Paul was also concerned that the collection project be reactivated and carried to completion (cc. 8—9). When he visited Corinth for the third time (12:14; 13:1-2), he spent the winter, before continuing on to Jerusalem with the offering for the poverty-stricken Christians there.
The three well-defined sections of the letter (cc. 1—7; 8—9; 10—13) reflect the perspective of the apostle in the successive phases of his relations with the church. As he is writing, cc. 1—7 look back to his anxiety and relief in relation to the mission of Titus; cc. 8—9 reflect his present position as he seeks to motivate their generosity; and cc. 10—13 look ahead to some factors that still need attention in the church.21