Tuning Up
2 Genie: Curtiss, 1977.
2 differences typically pertain more to accent: Newport, 1990.
2 near-native fluency: Birdsong, 2009.
3 literally keeping the blood flowing: Mozolic, Hayasaka, and Laurienti, 2010.
3 twenty-sixth-greatest guitarist: http://www.rollingstone.com/music/lists/5945/32609/32772.
3 didn’t start until he was seventeen: Morello, interview with author, May 20, 2010.
3 Patti Smith: Smith, 2010.
6 must indeed start early: Deutsch et al., 2006.
6 don’t control for total amount of practice: Watanabe, Savion-Lemieux, and Penhune, 2007.
6 the more you practice the better you get: Ericsson, Krampe, and Tesch-Römer, 1993; Gladwell, 2008.
8 Knudsen’s original results: Knudsen and Knudsen, 1990.
8 adult owls can often get: Linkenhoker and Knudsen, 2002.
11 second languages in immersion programs: Genesee, 1987.
11 it takes the human brain a great deal of exposure … and we tend to forget: Anderson and Schooler, 1991.
11 Suzuki method: Suzuki, 1969.
12 “ten years” or “ten thousand hours”: Ericsson, Krampe, and Tesch-Römer, 1993; Ericsson, Prietula, and Cokely, 2007.
12 “deliberate practice”: Ericsson, 2008.
12 most learners reach a plateau: Ericsson et al., 2006.
12 “zone of proximal development”: Vygotsky, 1978.
12 neither too hard nor too easy: Fisher et al., 1981.
13 the level of challenge: Salen and Zimmerman, 2004; Thompson, 2007.
13 Play Piano in a Flash!: Houston, 2004.
13 The Complete Guitar Player: Shipton, 2001.
16 Crash Course: Acoustic Guitar: Mead, 2004.
17 surge of dopamine: Knutson and Cooper, 2006.
18 brain’s representation of fingers: Elbert et al., 1995.
19 monkey that lost its middle finger: Merzenich et al., 1984.
19 taking some of the neural tissue: Bavelier and Neville, 2002.
19 the brains of musicians differ from those of nonmusicians: For a review of these studies, see Münte, Altenmüller, and Jäncke, 2002; Habib and Besson, 2009.
20 the planum temporale: Keenan et al., 2001.
20 the cerebellum: Schlaug et al., 1995.
20 slight deviations in … pitch, rhythm, and timbre: Kraus et al., 2009; Rüsseler et al., 2001.
20 musician’s instrument of choice: Pantev et al., 2001.
20 Opera singers show specializations: Kleber et al., 2009.
20 tracked two groups of children: Hyde et al., 2009a; Schlaug et al., 2009.
21 brain changes correlated with the size of behavioral changes: Hyde et al., 2009b.
21 master at least three distinct sets of skills: Uszler, 2003.
22 eighteen hundred notes in a minute: Münte, Altenmüller, and Jäncke, 2002.
Learning to Crawl
23 by the end of the final trimester: Moon and Fifer, 2000.
24 “music instinct”: To take four examples, the phrase “the music instinct” served as the title of a recent PBS documentary, as a chapter title in Daniel Levitin’s book This Is Your Brain on Music, as the title of a book by Philip Ball, and as the title of a recent journal article by Steven Mithen. Mannes, 2009; Levitin, 2006; Ball 2010; Mithen, 2009.
24 When infants heard large musical leaps amid a series of smaller leaps: Stefanics et al., 2009.
24 sudden absence of bass kick drum: Winkler et al., 2009.
24 recognize changes in timbre: Háden et al., 2009.
24 distinguish consonance … from dissonance: Perani et al., 2010.
24 prefer listening to consonance rather than dissonance: Trainor, Tsang, and Cheung, 2002.
24 infant chimpanzees: Sugimoto et al., 2010.
25 recognize a short melody even when it has been transposed: Plantinga and Trainor, 2005.
25 sometimes remember melodies for weeks: Saffran, Loman, and Robertson, 2001.
25 ten-month-olds are better able than adults: Hannon and Trehub, 2005.
25 young infants are sensitive to some linguistic distinctions: Werker and Tees, 1992.
25 babies are born with perfect or absolute pitch: Saffran and Griepentrog, 2001, but see also Plantinga and Trainor, 2005, for a different perspective.
26 only a few months to recognize some of the basic rhythms: Soley and Hannon, 2010.
26 discrete notes until they are at least two: Davidson, McKernon, and Gardner, 1981; Dowling, 1982.
26 rare phenomenon of perfect pitch: Deutsch, Henthorn, and Dolson, 2004.
26 miss many of the individual notes: Dowling, 1982.
26 recognizing that major chords: Kastner and Crowder, 1990; Dalla Bella et al., 2001.
26 detecting chords that are merely unexpected: Trainor and Trehub, 1994.
26 trouble paying attention to a background harmony: Ibid.; Moog, 1976.
26 Rhythm is no easier: Moog, 1976.
26 bop along to music: Phillips-Silver and Trainor, 2005.
26 can’t bop in time: Rainbow, 1981; Frega, 1979; Eerola, Luck, and Toiviainen, 2006. One recent study does, however, suggest that children’s capacity to keep time improves when their drumming is embedded in a social situation: Kirschner and Tomasello, 2009.
27 a precise sense of melody: Welch, Sergeant, and White, 1998.
27 Mastering the ability to stay in key: Davidson, 1985; Davidson, McKernon, and Gardner, 1981.
27 “children enter school”: Welch, Sergeant, and White, 1998.
27 never learn to sing in key: Pfordresher and Brown, 2007; Dalla Bella, Giguère, and Peretz, 2007.
27 By the time a young zebra finch reaches the age of ninety days: Zann, 1996.
27 without any obvious correction or feedback: Kroodsma, 2005.
27 Few humans can say the same: Welch, 2008.
27 better sense of pitch than most humans: Friedrich, Zentall, and Weisman, 2007.
27 Freud may have been [amusical]: Roth, 1986.
28 much more innate interest in music: McDermott and Hauser, 2005.
28 aspects of language that might be cross-culturally universal: Two exceptionally accessible discussions of what universal grammar might consist of can be found in Pinker, 1994, and Baker, 2001.
29 reading draws on a set of circuits that predate reading itself: Dehaene and Cohen, 2007; Ramus, 2004.
29 circuits in the temporal cortex: Rauschecker, 2005; Rauschecker, Tian, and Hauser, 1995.
30 far more precise than would be necessary for music alone: Trehub, 2001.
30 neural architecture, shared with other mammals: Stein and Meredith, 1993.
30 recognize when a vowel: Kuhl and Meltzoff, 1982.
30 true for rhythm: Patel, 2003.
30 and pitch: Ross, Choi, and Purves, 2007; Curtis and Bharucha, 2010.
30 infants prefer their mother’s voice to instrumental music: Standley and Madsen, 1990.
30 only other study: Marcus et al., 1999.
31 infants couldn’t grasp the patterns: Marcus, Fernandes, and Johnson, 2007; Gervain, Berent, and Werker, 2009.
31 paid more attention to rhythmical patterns: Phillips-Silver and Trainor, 2005.
31 information in any two senses goes together: Lewkowicz, 2002.
31 The coupling between music and motion: Stein and Stanford, 2008.
32 the fusiform gyrus responds more to faces: Grill-Spector, Knouf, and Kanwisher, 2004.
32 a vast mélange of brain regions: On music and the prefrontal cortex, see Bengtsson, Csíkszentmihályi, and Ullén, 2007; Janata, 2009; Wilson et al., 2009; Leaver et al., 2009; Limb, 2006. On music and the superior temporal gyrus, see Chen, Penhune, and Zatorre, 2009.
32 the superior temporal gyrus: Hickok and Poeppel, 2004.
32 Broca’s area … language: Grodzinsky, 2001; Embick et al., 2000.
32 Ditto for the planum temporale: Hickok, Okada, and Serences, 2009.
32 all kinds of auditory analyses: Rauschecker, Tian, and Hauser, 1995; Howard et al., 2000.
32 whether we are listening to speech: Hickok and Poeppel, 2004.
32 cerebellum is a key player in all kinds of movements: Ito, 2008.
32 the amygdala is implicated in everything: On its role in fear, see Rogan, Stäubli, and LeDoux, 1997; Phelps and LeDoux, 2005. On its role in lust, see Baird et al., 2004. On its role in anxiety, see Wilson and Junor, 2008.
32 Unexpected chords might trigger the amygdala: Koelsch, Fritz, and Schlaug, 2008.
32 so will electric shocks: Phelps and LeDoux, 2005.
33 evolved long before human beings did: Moreno and González, 2007; Poremba et al., 2004.
33 increase as people learn to juggle: Draganski et al., 2004.
It Don’t Come Easy
38 the most popular theory wasn’t quite right: Marcus et al., 1992.
40 “A person who has not studied German”: Twain, 1880.
42 we rely on “cues”: Marcus, 2008; Anderson and Neely, 1996.
45 Both children and untrained adults: Trehub, Trainor, and Unyk, 1993.
45 the general direction a melody is going: Dowling, 1982.
45 the difference between big leaps and smaller leaps: Yust, 2010.
45 too imprecise for music: Cuddy and Cohen, 1976.
45 recognize several intervals every second: Burns and Ward, 1999.
46 A more common trick: Smith et al., 1994.
46 considerable brain reorganization: Fujioka et al., 2004.
47 fingers don’t naturally move independently: Lang and Schieber, 2004.
49 auditory illusions: Repp and Bruttomesso, 2009.
49 Art Blakey: An amazing illustration of the accuracy of Blakey’s timing can be found at http://musicmachinery.com/2010/02/08/revisiting-the-click-track/.
50 devolves into one against one: Summers, 2002.
50 overflow errors: Soska, Galeon, and Adolph, in press.
50 illusion of independence: Peters and Schwartz, 1989; Summers, 2002; Deutsch, 1983.
51 speed-accuracy trade-off: Fitts, 1954; Wickelgren, 1977.
51 automatization or proceduralization: Anderson, 1992; Moors and De Houwer, 2006.
51 more efficient, larger units: Rosenbloom and Newell, 1986.
52 leave room for other tasks: Expert soccer players, for example, become so accustomed to dribbling that they can dribble a ball through a slalom and still have enough mental resources left to identify shapes projected on a screen at the end of the slalom (Smith and Chamberlin, 1992).
52 carefully coordinated processes: On changes to gray matter during music learning, see Schneider et al., 2005. On changes in white matter during skill learning, see Scholz et al., 2009.
52 made more efficient: Harms et al., 2008.
52 new dendritic spines: Xu et al., 2009.
52 proteins must be synthesized: Luft and Buitrago, 2005.
52 mental representations: On the prefrontal cortex, see Grol et al., 2006; Poldrack et al., 2005. On the motor cortex, see Debaere et al., 2004. On the hippocampus and basal ganglia, see Rémy et al., 2008.
Talking Heads
54 twin reflexes: Katz and Pesetsky, 2009.
54 creatures that can dance in time: Patel et al., 2009; Schachner et al., 2009.
55 still fail to acquire perfect pitch: Deutsch et al., 2006.
55 distinct “modules”: Alossa and Castelli, 2009.
55 impaired musical abilities: Gall, 1825.
55 musical impairments … alongside normal linguistic abilities: Peretz et al., 1994.
55 impaired language abilities … yet largely preserved musical abilities: Tomaino, 2010.
55 manage to recognize songs learned long ago: Vanstone et al., 2009.
55 orthopedic surgeon who became obsessed: Sacks, 2007.
56 prefrontal cortex, which has been implicated in everything: On sarcasm, see Shammi and Stuss, 1999; on pitch perception, see Zatorre and Gandour, 2008; on orgasm, see Tiihonen et al., 1994; on jazz improvisation, see Bengtsson, Csíkszentmihályi, and Ullén, 2007. The prefrontal cortex has also been tied to self-recognition (Keenan et al., 2000) and the perception of fairness (Knoch et al., 2006).
56 recent review by the neuroscientist: Patel, 2008.
56 the most systematic review: Marin and Perry, 1999. The estimate of a third is likely an underestimate of the real proportion, since many patients who have impairments in both probably aren’t deemed unusual enough to merit reporting in the literature.
56 people who speak tonal languages: Pfordresher and Brown, 2009.
56 interfered with people’s sentence comprehension: Slevc, Rosenberg, and Patel, 2009.
56 identify the emotions in speech: Thompson, Schellenberg, and Husain, 2004.
57 smaller units into larger units: Fadiga, Craighero, and D’Ausilio, 2009.
57 allow us to use tools: Higuchi et al., 2009.
57 so-called muscle memory: Albouy et al., 2008.
57 constellation of brain areas: Marcus, 2006.
57 draw heavily on our neural resources for memory: Snyder, 2000.
58 our memories lack the neat tabular form: Marcus, 2008.
58 Listeners get lost: Ibid.
58 musicians learning Philip Glass pieces: Mary Farbood, personal communication.
58 musical “protolanguage”: Darwin, 1874.
58 The Singing Neanderthals: Mithen, 2005. The animal behaviorist Tecumseh Fitch has defended a similar view: Fitch, n.d.
59 motherese may not be truly innate: Ingram, 1995.
59 infants pay more attention to it: Fernald, 1985.
59 intrinsically sound happy: Singh, Morgan, and Best, 2002.
59 developing skill at golf … tango: Jäncke et al., 2009; Sacco et al., 2006.
60 show almost no interest in music: McDermott and Hauser, 2005.
60 tone-deaf … can’t reliably sing on pitch: Pfordresher and Brown, 2007.
60 extracting even simple musical intervals: Trehub, Schellenberg, and Hill, 1997.
60 seems deeply implausible: Tallerman, 2007; Bickerton, 2009.
60 ivory flute: Conard, Malina, and Münzel, 2009.
60 at least fifty thousand years ago: Klein and Edgar, 2002.
60 a few million years: Bickerton, 2009.
60 other kinds of tools far earlier: Semaw et al., 2003. An unusual 2005 article by Iegor Reznikoff argues that cave paintings (from roughly the same era) were placed in exceptionally resonant regions of caves, but none of the paintings Reznikoff points to depict anything that could reasonably be construed as musical imagery.
61 lyrics are more easily remembered than melodies: Peretz, Radeau, and Arguin, 2004.
61 four-year-olds consider two songs: Serafine et al., 1986.
61 A more recent study has shown: Lebedeva and Kuhl, 2010.
61 enormously influential book: Lerdahl and Jackendoff, 1983, and the papers in a 2009 special issue of Music Perception, celebrating the book’s twenty-fifth anniversary.
61 Jackendoff broke down the process of making a cup of coffee: Jackendoff, 2007.
62 both … draw from a wide range of important cognitive resources: Jackendoff’s view is further explained in Jackendoff, 2009.
62 even mundane activities: Zacks, Tversky, and Iyer, 2001.
63 “Writing about music is like dancing about architecture”: http://www.paclink.com/ascott/they/tamildaa.htm and http://theonlinephotographer.typepad.com/the_online_photographer/2010/07/ot-we-hear-from-martin-mull.html.
63 “the most popular”: Schiff, 1997.
63 “begins with a languid trill”: Ross, 2007.
64 interpretation and imagination of the clarinetist: Schwartz, 1979.
64 three physicists wrote an entire article: Chen, Smith, and Wolfe, 2008.
64 “Music expresses”: Copland, 1957.
Back to School
66 “[Often, too much of a student’s] attention”: Lehmann, Sloboda, and Woody, 2007.
70 over 40 percent: http://home3.americanexpress.com/corp/pc/2006/platlux_survey.asp.
70 what makes music teaching effective: Buttram, 1996.
71 Suzuki method: Suzuki, 1969.
72 “growth” mind-set: Dweck, 2007.
75 Dalcroze method: Mead, 1996.
76 a class in music production: http://www.cirtgill.com/Weaver.html.
79 cult-classic book: Andreas, 2005.
80 memories solidify over time: Luft and Buitrago, 2005; Wright and Sabin, 2007.
81 parental support: Creech, 2009.
81 “all [Hendrix] really wanted to do in life was to play guitar”: Henderson, 1981.
82 The Well-Tempered Keyboard Teacher: Uszler, Gordon, and Mach, 1991.
83 motivated by compositions that were fun to play: McPherson, 2006.
83 audiation: Gordon, 1997.
84 strict sequence of steps: Ibid.
84 Orff or Kodaly: Buttram, 1996.
School of Rock
91 gradually begins to decline: Giedd et al., 1999.
92 no firm break in the curve: Hakuta, Bialystok, and Wiley, 2003.
92 memory skills slowly decline: Salthouse, 2009.
92 interference and habits: Iverson et al., 2003.
93 “less is more”: Newport, 1988.
93 Bulgarian kids learning to play: Rice, 1994, with thanks to Erin Hannon for the example.
93 adults were systematically better: Savion-Lemieux, Bailey, and Penhune, 2009.
93 watch the same episode of a TV show: Crawley et al., 1999.
94 get there in the end: Savion-Lemieux, Bailey, and Penhune, 2009.
94 known as chunking: Miller, 1956.
94 known as attention: Green and Bavelier, 2003; Memmert, 2006.
95 familiar chunks: Groot, 1965.
95 gray matter tends to get denser: Draganski et al., 2004.
True Talent
97 “New research shows”: Ericsson, Prietula, and Cokely, 2007.
97 “Give me a dozen healthy infants”: Watson, 1925.
97 surprising ways: Gladwell, 2008.
99 The autism likely helped: Richard is not alone in this regard. For a general discussion of the music ability of children with autism, see Miller, 1989.
100 put in more like two thousand hours: Weisberg, 1999.
101 the two met only once: Browne, 1993.
101 Even before modern genetic techniques were available: Scheinfeld and Schweitzer, 1939.
102 genetics is a better predictor: Bouchard et al., 1990.
102 talent matters … from sports to chess to writing to music: Vinkhuyzen et al., 2009.
102 The chain of causality from gene to … behavior: Marcus, 2004.
102 FOXP2: Fisher and Marcus, 2006.
102 affects memory efficiency: Cowansage, LeDoux, and Monfils, 2010.
103 modulate curiosity: Ackermann et al., 2010.
103 sensitivity to absolute pitch: Theusch, Basu, and Gitschier, 2009.
103 Another recent study shows: Ukkola et al., 2009.
103 important role in social interaction: Turner et al., 2010.
103 statistically controlled for: Ruthsatz et al., 2008; Meinz and Hambrick, 2010.
103 nature working together with nurture: Marcus, 2004.
103 study with identical twins: Coon and Carey, 1989.
103 the original study by Ericsson and others: Ericsson, Krampe, and Tesch-Römer, 1993; Sloboda, 1996; Jorgensen, 2002.
103 without becoming as good as others who had played for only eight: Ericsson, Krampe, and Tesch-Römer, 1993.
104 study of musical aptitude: Gordon, 1967.
104 directly affect rhythmic perception: Trainor et al., 2009.
Into the Groove
108 “sexual liaisons”: Miller, 2000.
109 break the glass ceiling: http://www.usatoday.com/life/music/news/2006-04-11-female-producers-sidebar_x.htm.
110 can’t make ends meet: Bennett, 2007.
111 leads to social bonding: Kirschner and Tomasello, 2010.
113 retooled Mickey’s image: Gould, 1980.
113 Flow: Csíkszentmihályi, 1990; Nakamura and Csíkszentmihályi, 2009.
114 The piano…represented a huge advance: Ehrlich, 1990.
114 sophistication of piano players: Lehmann and Ericsson, 1998.
114 the microphone opened: Milner, 2009.
115 the advent of multitrack recording: Ibid.
115 modern Western harmony: Grout, Burkholder, and Palisca, 2006.
Onstage
120 The Inner Game of Music: Green and Gallwey, 1986.
120 sense of fear and mortification sets in: Kenny and Osborne, 2006.
120 mix of different factors: Craske and Craig, 1984.
120 cardiac medications known as beta-blockers: Tindall, 2004.
The Worst Song in the World
125 hear on his Web site: http://davesoldier.com/experimental.html.
125 no book is more notorious: McKee, 1997.
126 to make us like it more: Zajonc, 1968.
126 “liking for familiarity”: Schellenberg, Peretz, and Vieillard, 2008; Szpunar, Schellenberg, and Pliner, 2004.
127 hundreds of experiments have replicated: Bornstein, 1989.
127 paper bags full of cash: Palmer, 1995.
127 the music we hear as teenagers: North and Hargreaves, 1995.
127 “Not a whole lot”: Sapolsky, 2005.
127 rebellion a key factor: Cowen, 2007.
128 too “advanced” for their listeners: http://papercuts.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/05/26/living-with-music-jason-hartley/?hp.
128 personality traits: Rentfrow and Gosling, 2003.
128 experts may listen more analytically: Muller et al., 2009.
129 participants on the Web: Salganik, Dodds, and Watts, 2006.
129 flipping a control group’s rankings: Salganik and Watts, 2008.
129 most songs … flop: Vogel, 2004.
130 the focus of production is … on timbre: Levitin, 2006.
131 what key a piece is in: Bigand and Poulin-Charronnat, 2006.
131 Small jumps: Huron, 2006.
132 differing sensitivity to dissonance: McDermott, Lehr, and Oxenham, 2010.
132 in which case the ratio: Thomson, 1991.
133 categories they know best: Shepard and Jordan, 1984.
133 experienced musicians are more sensitive: McDermott, Lehr, and Oxenham, 2010.
134 “Who Cares If You Listen?”: Babbitt, 1958.
137 novelty conveys its own separate reward: Guitart-Masip et al., 2010; Bunzeck and Düzel, 2006.
137 many listeners don’t recognize repetitions: Margulis, 2010.
138 become truly bored: Schellenberg, Peretz, and Vieillard, 2008.
138 carefully matched lists of letters: Williamson, Baddeley, and Hitch, 2010.
138 less powerful than visual memory: Cohen, Horowitz, and Wolfe, 2009.
138 “The ‘special’ power”: Schuylkind, 2009.
138 Beethoven … is often praised: Kone ˇcni and Karno, 1992.
138 “If the movements”: Quoted in ibid.
139 rearranged the order of the movements: Koneˇcni, 1984.
139 Bach’s Goldberg Variations: Gotlieb and Koneˇcni, 1985.
139 carving musical compositions: Tillmann and Bigand, 1996.
139 preferred the bastardized combinations: Tan, Spackman, and Peaslee, 2006.
139 ended in keys that were inconsistent: Cook, 1987.
141 what the program has going for it: http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/um/redmond/projects/songsmith/research.html.
142 “plays merely with sensations”: Kant, 1790.
142 “sonic wallpaper”: Kivy, 1993.
142 Kant’s argument was that music: Kant, 1790.
143 affiliative component: Rentfrow and Gosling, 2006; Selfhout et al., 2009.
143 us and them: Berreby, 2005.
143 Music also unfolds over time: Kivy, 1993.
143 two distinct neural systems: Salimpoor et al., 2010.
144 the brain pats itself on the back: Pessiglione et al., 2006.
144 thug-love duets: Sanneh, 2006.
145 directly tied to neural machinery: Chen, Penhune, and Zatorre, 2008; Grahn and Rowe, 2009.
145 “Music is a kind of kaleidoscope”: Payzant, 1986. Some philosophers have taken Hanslick’s kaleidoscope metaphor to be a pejorative dig against music, akin to Kant’s perspective of music as empty decoration. Regardless of how it was intended, his characterization of music seems remarkably apt.
Knowing Without Knowing
148 follow descending melodies: Starr and Waterman, 2003.
150 “When composing”: Tymoczko, 2011.
151 something is slightly out of key: Fujioka et al., 2004.
151 how far apart two notes are: Burns and Ward, 1999.
151 detect deviations in a rhythm: Honing and Ladinig, 2009; Vuust et al., 2009.
151 identify the individual notes in a chord: Marco, McLachlan, and Wilson, 2010.
151 all expert listeners: Bigand and Poulin-Charronnat, 2006.
152 seemed to have much the same intuitions: Bigand, 1990.
153 “Telling More Than We Can Know”: Nisbett and Wilson, 1977.
155 jazz almost always requires a kind of mixture: Johnson-Laird, 2002.
155 legendary improviser: http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio3/bach/bachatozi.shtml.
155 performers in the classical tradition improvised frequently: Haynes, 2007.
158 Zollo interviews James Taylor: http://bluerailroad.wordpress.com/james-taylor-the-bluerailroad-interview/.
159 “this [unusual] chord”: The exact identity of the chord in question is in dispute. James Taylor, who is in a good position to know, possibly having asked McCartney, claimed it was an F13, but on the basis of sound and video, Dominic Pedler, 2003, argues that the chord in question was instead an F7#9. Either way, the chord was not very common in the pop music of the time.
Take It to the Limit
164 key of F-sharp: http://www.historynet.com/irving-berlin.htm.
164 special custom piano: http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/object.cfm?key=35&objkey=59.
165 “As long as the two of us”: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ca_GcvApODg.
167 alignment of … representations: Van Ee et al., 2009; Andersen et al., 1995.
168 relearn mappings between visual and motor space bit by bit: Ghahramani, Wolpert, and Jordan, 1996.
169 generally an alignment problem: Pfordresher and Brown, 2007.
169 head and chest voices: Clippinger, 1917.
170 Such feedback can be extremely useful: Welch, Howard, and Rush, 1989; Howard, 2005.
170 digital pianos that had been electronically muted: Repp and Knoblich, 2004.
171 astonishingly complex choreography: Ortmann, 1929.
171 The articulators in our vocal tract do something similar: Macneilage, 1969; Garrett, 1980.
171 remarkable efficiency: Palmer, 2006.
171 the kinds of errors they make: Ibid.
171 anticipation error: Garrett, 1980.
172 other notes from the same key: Palmer and van de Sande, 1993; Repp, 1996.
172 listeners rarely even notice: Repp, 1996.
174 first scientific documentation: Vernon, 1932.
174 even experts aren’t perfect: Repp, 2005.
175 is true around the globe: Balkwill, Thompson, and Matsunaga, 2004; Balkwill and Thompson, 1999.
175 power of subtle timing cues transcends … expertise: Honing and Ladinig, 2009.
175 memorize complex pieces: Chaffin and Logan, 2006.
176 Roger Chaffin: Chaffin’s lab has an Excel spreadsheet called Study Your Music Practice that you can download for free at http://www.musicpsyc.uconn.edu/symp/intro.html.
177 away from their instruments: I thank Terre Roche for relating Ms. Abreu’s advice.
177 showmanship: For more stage antics, see http://www.ultimate-guitar.com/columns/the_guide_to/stage_antics_the_good_the_bad_and_the_ugly.html.
178 “The first thing I learned”: Barone, 2007.
178 musical coordination between individuals: Keller and Appel, 2010.
178 divide one’s attention: Keller, 2008.
178 auditory equivalent of mental imagery: Keller and Appel, 2010.
180 even-tempered system: An exceptionally accessible discussion of the widely used even-tempered tuning system, and how it was developed, can be found in Isacoff, 2001; illustrative sound examples can be found at http://www.yuvalnov.org/temperament/.
181 an entire realm of alternate tuning: http://members.cox.net/waguitartunings/tunings.htm.
182 recognize expressive timing differences: Honing and Ladinig, 2009.
183 removed the entire low bass string: For a gallery of Keith Richards’s guitars and alternate tunings, see http://members.tripod.com/~Blue_Lena/guitar.html.
183 “I found I was getting sort of jaded”: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_QqsNIH9cio.
183 earliest adopters of the Mellotron: Emerick and Massey, 2006.
184 Hendrix preferred Fender Stratocasters: Henderson, 1981.
185 “Hammond’s Folly”: Shelton, 2003.
185 Dylan’s own account: Dylan, 2005.
187 The Beatles may have undergone a similar revolution: Everett, 1999. According to Everett, “Paperback Writer” was perhaps the first of Paul’s character studies, after he was goaded by an aunt who wondered why all he ever wrote about was love.
Heavy Metal
193 software that improvises jazz: Johnson-Laird, 1987; Johnson-Laird, 2002.
193 consisted entirely of robots: http://www.patmetheny.com/orchestrioninfo/.
194 Tristan Jehan’s Swinger: http://musicmachinery.com/2010/05/21/the-swinger/.
195 better at learning foreign languages: Marques et al., 2007.
195 higher IQs: Schellenberg, 2004.
195 Nobel Prize winners: Root-Bernstein et al., 2008.
195 more effective than … drama lessons: Schellenberg, 2004.
195 small number of carefully controlled studies: Moreno et al., 2009.
196 “almost all of the available data”: Schellenberg, 2009.
196 show social advantages: Goldstein, Wu, and Winner, 2009.
196 grossed over three billion dollars: Radosh, 2009.
197 researchers have built robots: http://slashbot.wordpress.com/ and http://guitar heronoid.blogspot.com/.
197 the illusion of control: Langer, 1975; Wegner, 2002.
197 famous set of studies: Glass and Singer, 1972.
197 learned helplessness: Seligman and Maier, 1967.
199 informal study: http://multiplayerblog.mtv.com/2009/01/15/fender-survey-shows-music-games-drive-students-to-play-real-instruments/.
199 the science of pleasure: Gilbert, 2006.
199 eudaimonia: Waterman, 2008.
199 “How can I live a balanced life”: Ryff and Singer, 1998.
200 “ self-actualization”: Maslow, 1946.
200 a greater sense of purpose and personal growth: Ryff and Singer, 2008.
200 twenty-seven cultures: Park, Peterson, and Ruch, 2009.
200 A third used diary checklists: Steger, Kashdan, and Oishi, 2008.
200 room for both: Peterson, Park, and Seligman, 2005; Steger, Kashdan, and Oishi, 2008; Huta and Ryan, n.d.
200 “selfish gene”: Dawkins, 1976.