Chapter 3
The Development of the Ancient Cultures
In This Chapter
Checking out the Clovis and Folsom cultures
Finding out more about the Hopewell and Adena cultures
Getting to know the Hohokam and Mogollon cultures
Discovering the Ancestral Puebloans
Native American history is an epic story spanning centuries. More importantly than its chronological duration, though, are the many types of cultures that evolved on their own based on geography and resources, and then either died off or assimilated as migration patterns changed, or contact was made with other tribes.
This chapter looks at the ancestral cultures of the Indian past whose spear points, and drinking vessels, and, yes bones are telling their story to us today as we dig deeper, both literally and figuratively, into the lost ages of this land’s first inhabitants.
Clovis, Folsom, and Plano (11,500 B.C.)
After arriving on the North American continent, the first explorers spread across the land not covered by ice.
As it was then, and as it has always been for humans, they had two main concerns, sustenance and protection from the elements. Food and shelter.
People learned to adapt to the environment and to exploit the flora and fauna of the continent. As people traveled throughout the land, they analyzed the available resources and developed technology to best utilize them. The first inhabitants invented specialized stone tools to hunt the animals they discovered.
Two of the most well-known tool types were named after the places that archae- ologists first identified these artifacts. Clovis and Folsom points are among the most highly recognized types of artifacts that are found in the Americas. When they are found, they provide evidence that humans were present at that location many thousands of years ago.
Clovis
The Clovis culture has long been believed to be one of the oldest types of people in North America. Many scientists believe they were the first group who successfully spread across the continent. This theory is called Clovis First.
The Clovis people are identified archaeologically by a distinctive type of spear point. The spear point is characterized by a groove down the middle. This made it much easier to attach to a wooden shaft. The edges of the stone were also chipped down to an almost razor edge. The stones are usually 4 to 6 inches long, and up to 2 inches across. The points narrowed to a point at the very end. They were mostly flat on the top and bottom.
The first of these spear points was located near the town of Clovis, New Mexico, in 1936. It was near the fossils of an extinct American mammoth. Organic material around the stone suggested it was from about 11,500 years ago.
These kinds of spear points were especially good for hunting the very large animals which populated North America at the time. The American mammoth was a perfect example of one of these large beasts. In essence, the people who used Clovis points were big-game hunters.
Clovis points have been found over much of North America, and the exact dates of the Clovis period are under debate by archaeologists. Scientists generally agree that these points date to the period of time in which megafauna were present in the Americas. The length of time during which these points were used is still being evaluated.
The “Clovis First” theory has changed significantly in the last few decades. The following list discusses some of those changes:
Scientists Michael R. Waters and Thomas W. Stafford have suggested that the discovery of isolated sites in North and South America seem to pre-date Clovis times by as much as several thousands of years.
Another theory relating to the Clovis people is that they might have hunted the largest land animals to death.
A similar layer of soil has been discovered at many of the archaeological sites where Clovis points have been found. According to a new theory, this is evidence of something affecting both the weather and the living beings on this continent.
Folsom
The first points of the type that were later named Folsom were discovered by an African-American cowboy named George McJunkin. McJunkin, a former slave, was interested in the bones of extinct animals he saw while working on a ranch near Folsom, New Mexico. While examining the bones, he also noticed some interesting spear points mixed in with the animals. While the points interested McJunkin, it took longer for professional archaeologists to take notice.
The Folsom culture follows the Clovis culture. Folsom points are similar to Clovis points in that they are manufactured with a shallow groove in the middle of the point. Unlike Clovis points, the grooves are wider and run the length of the Folsom point. This may represent a change in hunting practices.
As with the Clovis era, the exact dates of the Folsom period are debatable. Generally, they range from about 10,000 to 10,900 years ago. Some scientists place these dates as much as a thousand years sooner and later.
More knives were being produced at this time. These knives were often much thinner than the knives made by the Clovis period and are believed to be related to the need to quickly and efficiently process meat and hides of bison. Folsom craftspeople also made hide scrapers. One of the other tools they are believed to have produced was the atlatl. This was a notched stick which could be used to throw a spear faster and farther. (See Chapter 11 for more on the atlatl.)
The following list gives you an idea of what these tools were like:
Spear points: The spear points became more fluted and were thinner. These points often had notches cut in the side, so they could be attached more easily to wooden staffs with sinews.
Knives: More knives were being produced. These knives were often much thinner than the knives made by the Clovis period.
Hide scrapers: Folsom craftspeople also made hide scrapers.
Atlatl: One of the other tools they are believed to have produced was the atlatl. This was a notched stick which could be used to throw a spear faster and farther. (See Chapter 11 for more on the atlatl.)
Plano
The Plano people were a further development of the Folsom people. Their period of existence is usually estimated to be from 6,000 to 8,000 years ago. Some of their ancient sites showed dwellings that were circular in shape. This has led some scientists to believe they employed skins over poles for shelters. The Plano people also refined the spear points that had been used by the Clovis and Folsom people.
The Folsom people are best known for their hunting of a now-extinct form of American bison called the Bison antiquus. Whether the Folsom people hunted the Bison antiquus into extinction is a matter of debate among scientists. With the eventual extinction of the Bison antiquus, the Plano people turned their attention to the smaller modern American bison (commonly called the American Buffalo) and other small game.
Adena and Hopewell (1000 B.C.– A.D. 1000)
Another significant period of time in the development of the people of North America occurred as the weather started to stabilize into conditions which are similar to what we experience today. In the Southeast, the Woodland period covers sites that were occupied between the Archaic period and the Mississippian period.
The Woodland period people were the first to create and use pottery, and the earliest type came from the coast and was tempered with fiber. Woodland groups deliberately cultivated plants such as sunflowers, instead of simply gathering plants.
Some Woodland groups built large earthen mounds that were elaborately designed in the shapes of animals and birds. The size of the mounds indicates that there was some form of organized political control over the communities. A typical settlement would range from three or four dozen in the winter to as many as 100 people during the summer.
Woodland groups developed new tools, and it was during this period that the bow and arrow was first utilized. In addition to hunting, Woodland period people fished using nets and traps. In the Late Woodland period, reliance on plants increased and corn, beans, and squash were all grown.
Adena
The Adena culture belongs to the Early Woodland period, and may date to as early as 500 B.C. You may have noticed that archaeologists like to name cultures after places near which they were first uncovered, and — surprise — this culture was first identified during excavations at a plantation named Adena.
Adena sites are centered in the Ohio River Valley. Other sites in the eastern U.S. have some similarities, but these may not actually belong to the same culture.
Adena people lived in circular houses, but may also have moved seasonally to take advantage of resources. Like other Woodland-period people, they utilized pottery and created mounds. Circular earthworks were sometimes built near the mound sites.
The burials of important Adena people were incredibly elaborate, and could result in the creation of a mound that eventually reached 60 feet in height! It’s unclear whether this was the original intent of the burial practice, because the mounds usually began as smaller affairs that grew with each event associated with them.
Hopewell
The change from the Adena era to the Hopewell era seems to have occurred gradually, and one of the most distinct changes was in their pottery.
While the Adena culture did have pottery, it was very basic in shape and design. Hopewell pottery became very ornate and detailed. Their mounds and earthworks also grew in size and complexity. The Hopewell Culture also covered more territory.
Generally, the Hopewell Culture is dated from around 100 B.C.–A.D. 400 or A.D. 500. They had a much more developed agriculture than did the Adena. They expanded the number of foods they raised. However, they were one of the few early American Indian societies not to have a significant use of corn.
They also made refinements to the tools that they used. Hopewell craftwork made sizable improvements. Their jewelry was very detailed and was constructed out of many different types of material. Copper, mica, and ceramics were all used. Their pottery took on some very intricate designs and patterns.
Hopewell trade networks covered considerable territory. Excavations at ancient Hopewell settlements have discovered shells from the Gulf of Mexico, the Great Lakes, and the Atlantic. Minerals from as far as Lake Superior and northern Georgia have been found.
Hopewell earthworks and mounds were significantly larger and more elaborate than the Adena. One earthwork surrounded over 100 acres. They used geometric shapes such as circles, octagons, and squares. Many of the earthworks were designed to be outlines of animals such as birds and bears. Such large structures hinted at a much more complex society and political organization.
Hohokom and Mogollon (A.D. 200–1450)
A different type of development took place in other parts of North America. The desert southwest saw several different societies grow and prosper for a time.
The eruption of Sunset Crater in 1064 distributed a layer of ash over much of this area, and people were soon drawn to the much-improved growing conditions.
The three main groups in this area were the Hohokam, Mogollon, and the Ancestral Puebloans.
Hohokam
Hohokam is generally thought to be a Pima (Akimel O’odham) word for “those who have gone” or “all used up.”
The Hohokam were a group of people who lived in the central and southern part of Arizona from before 200 B.C. until around 1450 of the common era. They may have originated in Mexico or they may be the descendants of local hunter-gatherers. While they have a couple of distinct characteristics, they are perhaps best known for their irrigation systems.
Water, water everywhere
The Hohokam canals are an amazing accomplishment considering that all the builders had to build the canals with were stone hand tools. Over the course of history, the Hohokam built well over 500 miles of canals. Some canals were narrow, short, and shallow. Canals were up to 15 miles long, 60 feet wide, and over 10 feet deep. Many of these canals still exist, including in modern Phoenix.
With the availability of water from the Gila and Salt rivers, the Hohokam were able to produce crops year-round. They raised beans, corn, cotton, and a variety of squashes. With a good food supply, they often had surpluses. This helped them to develop a thriving amount of trade with neighboring groups.
Their pottery was very distinctive. It was often based on the colors of red and tan. A unique part of their design was the use of distilled plant juices to etch their pottery. They were also skilled artisans, specializing in working with shells from the Gulf of California.
Their ceremonial dress had a certain central Mexico flair because of their use of feathers. While they also had ball courts like the central Mexicans, Hohokam courts were often oval, rather than rectangular like the Mexicans. Many of their towns had raised central platforms.
Historians have divided the experiences of the Hohokam into several time periods. They are
The Pioneer Period
The Colonial Period
The Sedentary Period
The Classic Period
The Pioneer Period
As is often the case with the chronology of Native American history, the starting date for the Pioneer Period varies depending on which historian you ask. Genesis dates range from around A.D. 1–A.D. 300. The year A.D. 775 is the commonly accepted ending date for this period.
During this time, the Hohokam were farmers situated around the Gila River in Arizona and the southwestern United States. They lived in simply constructed homes made from a framework of woven small branches that would often be covered with mud. This design is usually called wattle and daub. They also had pit houses. (See Chapter 15 for more on the types of homes American Indians lived in.)
A village often had a central plaza. A village was often built on the design of a large ranch. Fields were located around a central housing complex. The Hohokam had begun to make simple jewelry from shells and locally produced turquoise. Their pottery during this time was for basic purposes and was simple in design. As more time passed, the designs became more colorful and intricate. They also designed simple pots which they often used to bury the remains of the dead.
Starting with corn and beans, as the years passed, they acquired a wider variety of crops. Living in river valleys, they could irrigate their crops with shallow wells. Toward the end of this period, the villages increased in size, and the irrigation canals began to appear. Notably, the villages of Pueblo Grande and Snaketown developed.
The Colonial Period
The standard time for the Colonial Period is from A.D. 750–A.D.775 to A.D. 950– A.D. 975.
The most significant development of this period is the growth of the population. Villages and houses increased in size and spread out over a larger region. Groups of houses will often circle a courtyard. Raised central mounds in the plaza will increase in size. These seem to be built atop trash heaps and may have served as dance grounds. Some towns may now have as many as 1,000 residents.
Ball courts were built in some of the larger towns. Irrigation canals continue to grow. They now have over 20,000 acres in crops. They continue to harvest a very wide variety of naturally occurring plants. Local animals are also a source of food.
The color and design of the pottery is further developed. More red is used. Minerals are added to give the pots a two-tone color. Funeral pots also become much more elaborate.
Based on excavations of some of the ruins, it appears that classes had started to develop among the population. Some areas had larger homes, bigger trash pits, and more elaborate funeral materials.
Trade with Mexico and their surrounding neighbors continued to increase.
The Sedentary Period
The Sedentary Period ranges from around A.D. 950–A.D. 1150. As the population continued to grow, so did the towns, the canals, and the complexity of society. Pit houses were being reinforced by posts. More house clusters were being built around central courtyards. Larger ovens are constructed. Society developed determinedly, and the Hohokam built more, traded more, and employed what could justifiably be called mass-production practices.
Artisans continue to develop new designs, materials, and crafts. Feathers from birds, a wide variety of minerals, especially copper, shells and jewels are now either being discovered, or reaching the Hohokam through trade. Macaw feathers and mosaic pyrite mirrors were among the items that were traded from MesoAmerica. Using distilled plant juices, pottery and jewelry are now being made using a technique called “acid etching.” The Hohokam may be one of the first cultures in the world to utilize this method.
The Hohokam were now trading extensively throughout Mexico and their surrounding area, including California. Definite social classes were present by this time. The social structure essentially had three levels — here they are in descending order:
The cultural elites
The artisans
The common laborers
Business was good. Even pottery and shell work were now being manufactured in bulk for sale.
Larger towns were developing, more urban areas developed with a raised platform in the central plaza, and ball courts were appearing all over the region. Toward the end of this period, Snaketown was abandoned. It was later excavated in 1934, which provided an enormous wealth of information about the Hohokams during this period.
The Soho Phase
The Soho Phase is the first part of the Classic Period. It lasts from around A.D. 1150–A.D. 1300.
During this period, the indigenous population slowly started to decline. Fewer new villages were being built; some old ones were abandoned. The larger towns started to build walls around their perimeters. Multi-storied buildings (in the classic Pueblo style) started to expand. Pit house construction seemed to end. Fewer canals were built, and the main canals were strengthened and deepened.
Based on architecture alone, the Hohokam seem to have developed a siege mentality. Casa Grande, Mesa Grande, and Pueblo Grande were the largest towns. The Hokokom had reached their peak.
Contacts with the distant world seemed to be fewer, as trade with nearby neighbors increased. Polychrome (three or more colors) pottery was developed and no new ball courts were being built.
What is acid etching?
The Hohokam achieved designs and patterns on shells and pottery using a technique called acid etching.
The Hohokam discovered that fermenting cactus juice resulted in a highly acid liquid that they could use to burn away unprotected areas of their pottery and decorative shells.
They got so good at it, that today we credit them with “perfecting” the skill.
The Civano Phase
The Civano Phase is the second half of the Classic Period. It runs from around A.D. 1300–A.D. 1450. Many settlements were abandoned. The population dropped considerably. No major construction projects took place, but facilities were seldom maintained. Agriculture ranged between extremes, and river levels were well above normal for several years, and then well under normal levels for several years. For all practical purposes, the society collapsed.
So, what happened to the Hohokam?
That is a question which experts can only guess at, and, as you would certainly expect, there are several theories, including:
Drought: There was a significant drought in the late 1200s. Then there was extensive flooding after that. A large population cannot long survive without a reliable source of food.
Devastating raids: Another theory says that raiders entered the area and plundered mercilessly. In a region that was relatively peaceful for a long time, this would have been a major jolt to the society.
Corrupt leaders: Another theory is that the leaders of the culture demanded too much of the population, while they took too much of the spoils of society. A story among the Pima (Akimel O’odham) says that the population revolted against corrupt leaders. Without leaders, the society broke up.
So where are the Hohokam today? Are they still around, or did they die out? This is still a matter of debate among historians and anthropologists. The Pima (Akimel O’odham) and Tohono O’odam (Papago) may be the descendants of the Hohokam. If that is true, then the Hohokam are still alive in the same relative area. There are also stories among the Hopi and Zuni which suggest some of the Hohokam drifted into their areas and merged with the Ancestral Puebloans and the Mogollon.
The Mogollon
The Mogollon people’s name comes from where they lived, the Mogollon Mountains, which were named after Spanish official Juan Ignacio Flores Mogollón.
The Mogollon lived in parts of Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Sonora, and Chihuahua. Their “turf” ranged from the Little Colorado River in the north, to the Pecos River in the east, to Verde River in the west, and central Chihuahua in the south. This area includes mountains, valleys, high deserts, canyons, and forests.
Common bonds
The Mogollon were really a group of different people who had certain things in common. They are separated into certain branches, which were usually based in a certain geographic area. Two of the better known Mogollon groups were the Mimbres (southwest New Mexico) and the Jornada Mogollon (southeast Mexico and Texas).
Dates are a bit hazy, but the Mogollons existed from around 150 B.C. to the 1500s. Initially, they lived in narrow mountain valleys or mesa tops. There was little fertile ground, so they were primarily hunter-gatherers. They lived off of nuts, grasses, and small game. Their earliest homes were often pit houses. They eventually developed aboveground houses in the traditional pueblo style.
Stargazers?
There is some evidence that the Mogollons made astronomical observations. Certain images on pottery, pictographs, and petroglyphs appear to be of star patterns or astronomical events. An “astronomy circle” has been discovered in the Casa Malpais ruins near Springerville, Arizona. Measuring about 80 feet across, certain notches or openings appear to match up with astronomical events such as solstices. While this is still being researched, it is not the only such site among the Mogollon.
Their pottery
The Mogollon are known in large part by their pottery. Their pottery started out in the color of the clay they used. Eventually, it evolved into a very distinctive black-on-white color scheme. They buried their dead, often in or accompanied by pottery or special earthenware.
By around the period A.D. 600–A.D. 700, the Mogollon had been able to develop significant crops of corn, beans, and squash. By this time, they had often found more fertile areas in which to live.
Early on, their homes were pit houses. These would consist of a circular or rectangular hole about 3 feet deep. Poles were set up around the perimeter. Thin poles or branches were placed across the top. Sometimes, mud was applied to the roof. These types of homes were well insulated and could handle extreme cold and heat fairly well. Villages started out with just a few families, and slowly grew over the centuries. These were most common until around the year 1000.
Hot and cold
After 1000, the Mogollon began living in the typical aboveground style of adobe pueblo. These would have somewhat thick walls and roofs to help keep out the heat and cold of their environment. Desert temperatures are often over 100 degrees Fahrenheit during the day. Winter temperatures could get under zero degrees.
In the northern part of their territory, there are many similarities with Ancestral Puebloan cliff dwellings during this time. Gila Cliffs is an example of this. In the south, they appear to have been influenced by Mexican styles. In both cases, these structures could have over 100 rooms. Casa Grande (Paquimé) in Chihuahua is a good example of this.
Many of these villages had underground ceremonial pits called kivas. Similar to the other groups of the region, these were believed to be used for religious and civic purposes. The Mogollon were believed to have shamans and very developed religious and burial ceremonies.
Mimbres, Grasshopper, and Jornada cultures
Also after A.D. 1000, the Mimbres branch of the Mogollon were reaching their peak. They lived in southwestern New Mexico and are especially known for their very artistic pottery. They had a variety of designs that included wildlife and intense mystical and abstract designs. Kokopelli, a humpbacked flute player, was a very common character on their pottery. It is from these pots that many archaeologists believe they have learned a lot about Mimbres culture. As with the Hohokam, they also had detailed pots used for burials.
Starting around A.D. 1200, the culture slowly began to decline, moving slowly from the north to the south. However, Casa Grandes in Chihuahua, Mexico, continued to thrive during this time. Casa Grandes (or Paquimé, as it is more commonly known now) was a very large village. It had a central plaza and large buildings. It seemed to be a trading center between Mexico and the northern regions.
One of the other communities which did see some population increase during this time was called Grasshopper. It was in central Arizona situated on what is called the Mogollon rim. It is speculated that Ancestral Puebloans moving away from their drought-stricken areas may have moved into this area.
The Jornada Mogollon were centered in western Texas, west of the Pecos River. They were one of the last of the Mogollon people. There are some ruins (Firecracker) which appear to have still been occupied in the 1400s.
So, what happened to the Mogollon people?
This is the difficult question asked regarding the fate of all of the ancient southwestern cultures. All of the reasons listed in the earlier section “So, what happened to the Hohokam?” can be applied to the Mogollon. They may have died off, drifted away, or evolved into what would become the Pueblos.
The Ancestral Puebloans: The people formerly known as Anasazi
The Ancestral Puebloans are perhaps the best known of all the ancient people of North America, but many people know them by their former name: Anasazi.
The ruins of their villages can be found all over the “four corners” area of the United States. Their old name, Anasazi, comes from a Navajo word meaning “ancient enemies.” (See Chapter 2 for more info on the Ancestral Puebloan.)
Other names for this group of people are
Ancient Ones
Ancient Pueblos
Basketmakers
Hisatsinom (Hopi for “ancient people” or “those who came before”)
Se’da (Tewa for “ancient ones”)
Archaeologists have established several timelines for the Ancestral Puebloans. It is difficult to be precise on the boundaries between periods. Many of the different timelines overlap, as well.
Here is a combination of some of the many Ancestral Puebloans timelines:
6500–1200 B.C. Archaic
1200 B.C.–A.D. 50 Basketmaker II (Early)
A.D. 50–A.D. 500 Basketmaker II (Late)
A.D. 500–A.D. 750 Basketmaker III
A.D. 750–A.D. 900 Pueblo I
A.D. 900–A.D. 1150 Pueblo II
A.D. 1150–A.D. 1350 Pueblo III
People have been living in the southern part of the Colorado Plateau for many thousands of years. The Archaic people were hunter-gatherers. The start of culture is often picked as the time when these people started developing agriculture. This happened around 2,000 years ago. These ancient crops were centered around corn and squash.
Unlike the Hohokam and the Mogollon, in the early days the Ancestral Puebloans did not produce many pots. They were known for their basket-making skills. This is why they are often called Basketmakers. Their lived in pit houses, or structures made from logs sealed with mud.
They were able to make fabrics from the fiber of naturally growing plants. These were used for mats, bags, blankets, and to cover the dead for burial. The Ancestral Puebloans also seem to have domesticated dogs. They used spears and small arrows or darts to hunt the small game of the area. Rabbits were important for food and fur.
Ch, ch, ch, changes . . .
Starting around A.D. 450–A.D. 500 (Basketmaker II period), changes became apparent in Ancient Puebloan culture.
More pit houses were being built closer together. These dwellings began to be developed in large caves or under overhanging rock walls. This would be the classic look of Ancient Puebloan structures. Toward the end of this period, kivas began to be built. These ceremonial structures were often found in the front sections of a village. Some jewelry was being made with local materials and stones (turquoise). Also during this time beans were first seen as one of their crops.
In the Pueblo I period, starting around A.D. 700–A.D. 750, the Ancient Puebloan began building mud and adobe brick homes. Slowly, these developed into multi-storied buildings. It is right around the transition into this time period that bows and arrows were developed. Spears would ultimately be discarded.
They also started making pottery and growing cotton during this time. This led to an increase in craftwork and clothing. Some birds, such as turkeys, became domesticated. The feathers would be used for many purposes.
Chaco
The Pueblo II period, starting around A.D. 950, saw the development of what would be called the Chaco Phenomenon. Centered around Chaco Canyon in northwestern New Mexico, this became a widespread series of villages. Trade was highly developed throughout the area, with their neighbors and into Mexico.
The Chaco area seemed to develop a highly structured society. There are thousands of small structures and nine major building complexes in the valley. One of them, Pueblo Bonito, was five stories tall, and had over 600 rooms and dozens of kivas. They built roads which went on for over 100 miles. They had many irrigation ditches. Stairways were carved into the cliff faces. There are several examples of structures and drawings that showed their interest in astronomy.
This period is marked by the largest expansion of then Ancestral Puebloan culture. More multi-tiered structures are being built in cliff alcoves, mesa tops, and cliff bases. Trade expands and brings lots of goods into Ancestral Puebloan areas.
The Pueblo III Period is marked by the relatively quick abandonment of the major towns. Between 1277 and 1300, a 20-year drought developed and was centered in the area of the San Juan River basin. It is during this time that populations declined and people started migrating to the south and east. Many archaeologists now believe the Ancestral Puebloans moved toward the Rio Grande River valley.