Chapter 5
Settling Down: Tribal Settlements after the Great Migrations
In This Chapter
Understanding what culture areas are about
Discovering details about tribal settlements
Looking at life in culture areas
The identification and study of Indian culture areas provides us with an interesting look at how societies and civilizations evolve. Each specific culture area can be viewed as a microcosm of larger, more expansive societal constructs such as towns and cities — yet with an important difference: The Indians had no technology to utilize to compensate for nature’s shortages or complications.
The different culture areas developed based on the natural resources of the area in which the tribes found themselves, or to which they migrated. It’s reasonable to say that the indigenous cultural evolutionary model consisted of environment equaled adaptation, or at the very least directed said adaptation.
The Major Culture Areas
As the earliest groups of American Indians spread across the North American continent they encountered many different kinds of geography. Each area had its own unique combination of land, weather, native plants, and animals. Even- tually, these groups began to settle. When they lived off the land, they had to adapt to that land. After spending a long enough period of time in one area, these ways of life became societies. Scientists, anthropologists, historians, and people with OCD always like to put things in categories. And these societies were no exception!
One of the ways which the early inhabitants of North America were categorized by anthropologists and historians was by culture areas. While different tribal groups had different ways of life, they often shared certain activities with other tribes living in similar areas. For example, the shelters required for a normally hot climate would share similar features, such as ventilation, sun reflection, lightweight portability, and so forth — even if the shelters were different in structure and appearance. Anthropologists and sociologists noted many of the common lifestyles among tribes that lived in certain regions. This led them to try to group together those tribes who shared the same basic environments. These areas became known as culture areas.
While the numbers vary a bit, there are eight major culture areas in North America:
Arctic and the Subarctic
Eastern Woodlands
Southeast
Plains
Southwest
Plateau and Great Basin
Pacific Northwest
California
As is commonly the case when experts start coming up with “definitions,” opinions varied. Many scientists established different boundaries for each culture area. Some culture areas were bounded by major obstacles to travel such as mountain ranges, lakes, or deserts. Other culture areas were set up to match similar weather patterns or similar languages. Initially, the number of major culture areas ranged from as few as 5 to as many as 20. Cultural scientists seem to have settled on from 5 to 9 major areas. Similar geographical regions have become the major deciding factor for setting up the boundaries of these areas.
The Arctic and the Subarctic
The Arctic and Subarctic culture areas are usually grouped together. While there are some differences between them, they are more similar than most of the other areas. The sections that follow discuss these culture areas, their similarities, and differences in detail.
Location, location, location
On a map, the Arctic culture area covers the western coast of Alaska, across the Arctic Ocean, including the Yukon, the Northwest Territories, and Nunavut to the northeastern part of Labrador in Canada. Included in this area are the Arctic islands of Canada and the northern half of Hudson’s Bay.
The Subarctic culture area included the inland part of eastern Alaska and most of southern half of Canada. The Subarctic was the area where trees were able grow year-round. There was more abundant plant and animal life, too. Like the Arctic culture area, this area is extremely cold for much of the year.
Braving the brrrrr!
Among the common factors of tribes living in the Arctic culture area is their adaptation to year-round cold weather. The northern tundra (a cold, treeless, rolling plain with a short growing season where often the earth just a few feet under the surface remains frozen year-round) has a very short growing season for the limited number of plants that grow there. There are almost no trees here. So, many of the houses were made from skins, sod, stone, or snow (igloo). Today, people may still use traditional houses at hunting or fishing camps, but most live in regular houses made of brick or wood.
The communities in Alaska have been identified politically as Alaska Native villages. It may be confusing to think of each village as a separate tribe, but this is the easiest way to compare communities to those in the lower 48 states. Villages that are quite close to each other may contain members of the same cultural group, but as a political entity, each has its own tribal or village council.
Catching up on their culture
Socially, in the Arctic the nuclear family was quite common. Family relationships were important in this region as people needed to depend on each other for social and economic support. Thus, extended families were usually in contact with each other. In the eastern Subarctic, families were patrilineal (centered on the father and his family). In the western Subarctic, the Athabascan groups were often matrilineal (a family which is based around the mother and her family).
In the Arctic, traditional religion was oriented around myths, spirits, and the practice of shaman. Most groups believed that both humans and animals had souls. Many Subarctic groups believed in witchcraft.
The inhabitants of the Arctic culture area are not normally called American Indians, while this is usually the case with people living in the Subarctic Culture areas and farther south. Historical events have meant that tribal people situated in mainland Alaska are referred to as Native Alaskan and tribes on the Aleutian peninsula are known as Aleut or Unangan. Tribes, such as the Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian that are located along the Alaska pan-handle are referred to as American Indian.
The most common language family in the western part of the Subarctic culture area is Athabascan. Algonquian is the basis for most of the groups in the east. Native Alaskan languages can be divided into Inuit, Yup’ik, or Aleut.
Hunting wildlife
Wildlife in Arctic culture areas was and is somewhat limited. As you can imagine, this limits the ways a person could live. Many of the early settlers lived by fishing and hunting the few animals that grazed here in the summer months. The Unangan, or people of the Aleutian Islands, are believed by anthropologists to have been the most recent Native settlers of North America.
Parts of the Subarctic culture area are the summer home of large herds of migrating animals. Elk (wapiti) and caribou herds could travel through the area in the thousands. Fur from large game is used for clothing and shelter. The early settlers in the area would occasionally cleverly build low stone walls in valleys along the migration routes. These walls would help to “funnel” the caribou into a smaller area where they could be more easily hunted.
Some Arctic and Subarctic tribes
The Arctic Tribes are so-called because, duh, their areas of inhabitation are in the Arctic! Interestingly, the term “Arctic tribe” is also used to describe tribes in northern Europe, especially in the Scandinavian countries. This is a list of the most well-known Arctic tribes:
Aleut
Inuit (Eskimo)
Yupik
The Subarctic culture area is huge and spans most of the northern half of the North American continent, and extends into Canada. These peoples lived with long, hard winters and were skilled trappers. These are the Subarctic tribes:
Bear Lake
Beaver
Carrier
Chipewyan
Cree
Dogrib
Han
Hare
Kaska
Koyukon
Kutchin
Malecite
Micmac
Montagnais
Naskapi
Ojibwa
Sekani
Slave
Tanaina
Tanana
Tutchone
Yellowknife
The Eastern Woodlands
The Eastern Woodlands culture area essentially consisted of the entire western half of the United States. There are many different types of trees in this area. Lakes and rivers were abundant. Rain was frequent enough for a wide variety of vegetation to prosper.
Getting the lay of the land
The Eastern Woodlands culture area includes the following areas in the United States:
Along the southern part of the Great Lakes
The Mississippi and Ohio River valleys
The lands along the eastern Atlantic from Virginia to southern Labrador
The area had a moderate climate with cold winters and warm summers. There were large forests covering much of the region.
Housing was often a series of poles covered by bark shelving. These types of housing were often seen as wigwams (a round, domed structure). It usually has wooden pole supports and bark or plank walls and roofing. It is similar to the wickiups and long houses. Long houses were long (go figure), rectangular, usually narrow structures with poles for support and a curved or peaked roof. The siding and roof covering was often from bark. Wigwams and long houses were used as long-term housing as they could not easily be moved. They were fairly durable and stable. (See Chapter 15 for more on the various types of domiciles of the American Indians.)
Understanding what life was like
The early settlers were hunter-gatherers. Some of the earliest cultural groups defined by archaeologists are the people belonging to the Adena and Hopewell cultures. These people were the earliest agriculturalists and developed basketry and distinct pottery styles. Hunting and fishing were also important means of subsistence.
Later Woodland peoples were among the first to encounter permanent settlers in the Northeast and were among the first to face dissolution as a cultural group.
The density of the population in the Eastern Woodland area means that communities exercised careful control over their territory. Disputes could arise over the use of hunting grounds, and these were sometimes settled through outright war. Societies within the tribes developed to structure this type of behavior, and distinct rules could be applied to fighting.
Housing styles varied throughout the region and through history. For early Algonquian groups, housing was often a series of poles covered by bark shelving. These were described by Europeans as wigwams and long houses.
Many of these societies were communal in nature. The goods of the tribe were shared by the members of the tribe. Families around the Great Lakes were often patrilineal. Mom was often the clan boss in groups in the northeast.
Traditional religions of the Eastern Woodlands employed the use of music and masks to connect with the sacred world. In addition, religious societies organized people’s relationship to the spirit world.
Many tribes had a specific leader. Tribal groups in these areas often had conflicts with their neighbors over hunting grounds. Warrior societies developed with many groups. Bows, arrows, and clubs were common fighting and hunting tools. Some disputes could often be solved without killings, but many areas appeared to be in a state of constant conflict. Counting coup (a way to prove a person’s bravery) was an occasional practice.
Religious practices could include:
Shaman
Spirits
Medicine societies
There are four major language groups in this culture area:
Macro-Algonquian
Algonquian
Iroquoian
Macro-Siouan
Tag, you’re hit!
Counting coup was a way to prove a person’s bravery. An individual would find a way to approach an enemy warrior. He would touch the enemy with his hand or a stick, and then run away. You could call it an adult version of tag, but the other person might strike you back, and it could have deadly consequences. (See Chapter 11 for more on counting coup.)
Some Eastern Woodlands tribes
The names of the Eastern Woodlands tribes are some of the most remembered names in Native American history: Algonquin, Iroquois, and Mohican. Many tribes are still extant and some, like the Pequot and Mohegans, have become extraordinarily successful in gaming. Here’s a list of some Eastern Woodlands tribes:
Abenaki
Algonquin
Cayuga
Chickahominy
Chippewa (Ojibwa)
Conestoga
Delaware (Lenni Lenape)
Erie
Fox
Huron (Wyandot)
Illinois
Iroquois
Kickapoo
Mahican
Massachusetts
Menominee
Miami
Micmac
Mohawk
Mohegan
Mohican
Montauk
Nanticoke
Narragansett
Neutral
Niantic
Oneida
Onondaga
Ottawa
Passamaquoddy
Pennacook
Penobscot
Penacola
Pequot
Podunk
Potawatomi
Sauk
Schaghticoke
Seneca
Shawnee
Susquehanna
Tuscarora
Wampanoag
Wappinger
Wea
Winnebago (Ho-Chunk)
The Southeast
The Southeastern tribes’ lifestyles and culture were impacted by the warmer climate and their coastline locations. Here you get a glimpse of their styles of homes, how they led and fed themselves, and how they communicated.
The area
The Southeastern culture area includes the United States south and east of the Mississippi and Ohio River valleys to the Atlantic south of Virginia to the Gulf of Mexico. Many scientists often place Florida in its own culture area.
The area had a moderate climate with cool winters and hot summers. Forests covered much of the area. Pine was the most common type of tree. There were numerous freshwater lakes and rivers. A very wide variety of vegetation was able to be grown due to the temperate climate and the abundant rainfall. There were also coastal lowlands and extensive marshes.
Housing varied somewhat depending on how far south you were. The more northerly areas often had a large community hall. Individual houses were often round using a wattle-and-daub construction (a durable construction made by loosely weaving a frame made from sticks and/or reeds, which is then covered with a combination of clay, mud, and sand). In the marshy coastal areas and in Florida, many of the houses were on raised platforms. In the warmer area, the houses would have a roof but no walls. This would allow for better ventilation and cooler temperatures during the very hot summer months.
Farming, fishing, and hunting
Many of the groups in the Southeast came to rely mainly on agriculture, but also exploited the rich food resources of the river valleys. Some groups developed a very complex social and religious structure that in some places involved the construction of elaborate settlements. Mound groups were built under the authority of a central leadership. These sites are quite impressive and some, such as Cahokia, rivaled later European settlements in size and grandeur.
Many of the tribes in the Southeast relied on a main leader and had developed complex class systems. Relationships among groups were structured as well, and it was not uncommon for tribes to fight with each other. Some tribes divided themselves up into clans based on belonging to a red or white town, meaning that they were devoted to war or to peace. Artifacts recovered from some of these sites show elaborate warrior outfits.
Today, the Southeastern tribes still fight with each other, but it’s more likely to be over who has the best museum or the newest healthcare facility!
Corn, beans, and squash were common crops. The climate in Florida was temperate enough that crops could be grown much of the year. Many of these groups had highly developed agriculture with a wide variety of plants being harvested for food, construction, and handicrafts.
There was a fair amount of small game, especially deer and turkeys. Hunters would often cover large areas in order to find enough game. Fishing was very common along the coastal areas.
Life, leaders, and language
The early settlers were hunter-gatherers, but they switched quickly to stationary farming. Some of the early settlers were mound builders. These societies seemed to be highly class conscious. A royal or priestly caste was found in such ancient groups as the Natchez. Many of the villages were situated along the river valleys. See Figure 5-1 for an idea of what a typical Indian village looked like.
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Figure 5-1: A typical Indian village. |
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Many tribes had a king-like leader. In some groups there was a leader for peace and another one for war. Warrior societies developed within many of these groups, too. Bows, arrows, and clubs were common fighting and hunting tools.
Many of the North American early societies divided responsibilities along gender lines and were communal in nature — goods were shared by the entire tribe. Men were responsible for the hunting, women for planting. Some of these societies, such as the Cherokee, were matriarchal. The home and the children belonged to the women. Clan societies were also quite common in many of these tribes, a characteristic which continues to this day. A man would become part of his wife’s family. Often, a male child was mentored by his mother’s brother, rather than by his father. Basket and pottery making was often done by the women and children.
The languages of the culture area are based on these language groups:
Algonquian
Iroquoian
Muskogean
Siouan
Some Southeast tribes
If you wanted to sum up the Southeastern tribes in three words (y’know, if the opportunity ever arises when someone says to you, “Hey, could you sum up the Southeastern tribes in three words”?), those three words would be corn, cotton, and mounds. Here are some of the more prevalent Southeastern tribes.
Alabama
Atakapa
Biloxi
Catawba
Cherokee
Chickasaw
Chitimacha
Choctaw
Creek
Koasati
Hitchiti
Houma
Meherrin
Mikasuki
Natchez
Nottaway
Ofo
Pascagoula
Powhatan
Saponi
Seminole
Timucua
Tunica
Tutelo
Yuchi
The Plains
If there were ever a more dead-on accurate word to describe a geographical location than “plain” to describe the Plains, we don’t know what it is.
The Plains have few wooded areas and extend for light-years in all directions. Survival wasn’t easy and most Plains tribes hunted rather than grew crops, since buffalo were plentiful.
Taking a peek at the Plains
The Plains culture area includes much of the United States between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains and areas from southern Canada to the Mexico border.
The area had a variety of climate areas ranging from very cold winters to hot summers. It is covered by a variety of grasses. The few wooded areas are along the river valleys. Rainfall is light to moderate. The elevation ranges from about 300 feet to 5,500 feet. There are three major river systems: Arkansas, Missouri and Red Rivers.
Traditional housing came in two basic types. It was often a series of long thin poles covered by animal skins. This tipi (teepee) allowed for quick setup and removal. They were well ventilated. They were only partially effective against hard rain or very cold temperatures. Some of the non-horse tribes of this area had sod houses. These types of building were used as long-term housing as they could not easily be moved. They were fairly durable and stable.
The religious beliefs of the Plains tribes are among the most exploited by non-Native people. Practices such as vision quests and sweat lodge ceremonies have been appropriated and used improperly by outsiders. For members of these tribes, these are not activities to be trifled with! (See Chapter 15 for more on the various types of domiciles of the American Indians.)
Living life in the Plains
There were few early settlers in this area. Most of the population that traveled through here was hunter-gatherers. Some farming took place along the river valleys, with corn, beans, and squash being the natural choice. Baskets and pottery were produced by most groups.
The great herds of American Bison (buffalo) allowed for adequate hunting to take place. When the domesticated horse arrived on the Plains in the late 1600s, a few more tribes moved into the area. In fact, this is the rare culture area where the population actually was greater after the initial contact with Europeans. From around 1650 to 1880, the Plains horse culture led to the spread of several American Indian tribes. It is these tribes which are most known to the general public. Through books, films, and television, the exploits of such tribes as the Cheyenne, Comanche, and the Sioux entered the American consciousness.
Many tribes had a group of leaders, rather than a single “boss.” Tribal groups in these areas often had conflicts with their neighbors over hunting grounds. Warrior societies were highly organized within many groups. Bows, arrows, lances, and clubs were common fighting and hunting tools. Some disputes were resolved through prolonged negotiation, but fighting was also common. “Counting coup” was an honorable activity during war.
There are three major language groups in this culture area:
Algonquian
Siouan
Uto-Aztecan
Some Plains tribes
Plains tribes were mostly nomadic, traveling after the buffalo herds, but over time, small villages did spring up where they planted for sustenance. They were dominant in the Plains areas from the mid–18th century to the late 19th century. Here’s a list of some of the Plains tribes:
Arapaho
Arikara
Assiniboine
Atsina (Gros Ventre)
Blackfeet
Blood
Brule
Caddo
Cheyenne
Comanche
Crow
Dakota
Hidatsa
Iowa
Kansa
Kichai
Kiowa
Mandan
Missouri
Omaha
Osage
Oto
Pawnee
Piegan
Ponca
Quapaw
Sarsi
Siksika
Sioux
Stoney
Tejas
Teton
Tonkawa
Wichita
Yankton
The Southwest
The American Southwest is mystical, man. There’s a reason New Mexico is known as the Land of Enchantment. The endless deserts and spooky caves, the red and yellow landscapes, the mountains that, if you look at them at just the right angle, and in just the right light, might seem to show the face of a long-dead chief or warriors.
The Southwestern tribes paid attention to their dreams, if you know what we mean.
The land and its location
The Southwest culture area includes
Arizona
New Mexico
Southern Utah
Colorado
This is a desert area, so rainfall is light in most areas, with cold winters and hot summers. There are some forested areas, mainly in the mountain areas. There are only two major rivers here, the Rio Grande and the Colorado River.
Housing came in a wide variety of forms, and other types of structures included wickiups, hogans, tipis, and subterranean houses. (See Chapter 15 for more on the various types of domiciles of the American Indians). The following list gives you an idea of what some of these structures were like:
Adobe house: A structure built from a special type of dried mud brick. The brick is made from clay, sand, and straw. These types of structures are often found in desert areas because they are very durable and can handle extremely hot weather quite well.
Wickiups: A round, domed structure. It usually has flexible wooden poles that are either completely arched or gathered together at the top. It is usually covered in thatch. It is similar to the wigwam.
Hogans: A special structure among the Navajo. There are a variety of designs depending on their purpose. Modern hogans are often round or multi-sided and only have one room inside. Many hogans are used only for ceremonial purposes. Traditionally, the door faces east.
Surviving the desert
The early settlers were hunters. The Clovis and Folsom societies were the earliest historical Southwest culture inhabitants. Later, various groups lived here, including the groups identified by archaeologists as the Ancestral Puebloans, Hohokam, and Mogollon. Each of these groups became quite good at growing corn, beans, and squash. Later Pueblo/Hopi groups would develop dry land farming methods, which were well suited to the low rainfalls here.
After contact with Europeans, raising cattle, horses, and sheep became quite common. The Navajo are particularly known for raising sheep. Baskets, weaving, jewelry-making and pottery are highly developed art forms for many of the Southwestern tribes.
Seed gathering is an important activity for many of these groups. Special pottery was even developed to hold the seeds.
Leadership among these groups often rested in a specific leader, but today tribal councils exist to run the show. Bows and arrows were common fighting and hunting tools. Intertribal conflicts seemed to develop in certain areas, especially among the Apache, River Yuma, and the Pima. There are nuclear, matriarchal, and patriarchal families and clans in this area. Pueblo societies became very distinct among themselves. Each Pueblo has certain different practices, events, or customs from each other.
The tribes in the Southwest have religious practices that are specific to their community. Today, there has been some blending of practices with Catholicism, due to the extensive presence of Catholic missions. Dances are held by some of the Pueblos on specific saints’ days.
There are six major language groups in this culture area:
Athabascan
Hokan
Kiowa-Tanoan
Penutian
Uto-Aztecan
Zuni
Some Southwest tribes
Many of the Southwestern tribes are gone with the wind now. But their names still resonate in the annals of Native American history.
Some Southwest tribes, including the Apache, Hopi, and Navajo, are still going strong, though, and many live on reservations in ancient Southwestern lands. Here’s a list of some Southwest tribes:
Acoma
Apache
Cochiti
Cocopah
Hano
Havasupai
Hopi
Hualapai (Walapai)
Isleta
Jemez
Laguna
Maricopa
Mojave
Nambe
Navajo
Pecos
Picuris
Pima (Akimel O’odham)
San Ildefonso
San Juan
San Felipe
Sandia
Santa Ana
Santa Clara
Santo Domingo
Taos
Tesuque
Tohono O’odham (Papago)
Yavapai
Yuma (Quechan)
Zia
Zuni
Lost in translation
There are countless stories about Italian immigrants coming to Ellis Island and having their real last name changed from whatever it was to the name of their hometown in Italy, simply because the name of the town was on their “papers” — which they couldn’t read. Mario Puzo used this common occurrence in The Godfather when Vito Andolini ended up named Vito Corleone, because his hometown in Sicily was named Corleone.
Many Indian tribes throughout the centuries faced similar “lost in translation” moments, and many tribal groups also changed their names to accurately reflect what they call themselves.
As the (funny but true) story goes, a missionary once asked a local Indian if he knew the name for a certain tribe. His answer (in his language) was “Pima.” In his language Pima roughly translates as “I don’t know.” The Pima are now known as the Akimel O’odham (river people).
The Papagos (which means “bean eaters”) changed their names to Tohono O’odham (“desert people”).
The Great Basin and Plateau
The Great Basin and Plateau area is a broad expanse that’s just southwest of Washington State and spreads across several states. It’s something of a hybrid of terrain and climate, including forests and deserts, and it’s called a “basin” because it’s almost completely surrounded by mountains, which makes it appear like it’s, well, a basin!
Taking a look at the terrain
The Great Basin and Plateau culture areas are often lumped together. The Great Basin culture area includes Nevada and parts of California, Colorado, Idaho, Oregon, Utah, and Wyoming. The Plateau culture area includes parts of Idaho, Montana, Oregon, and Washington. The Plateau culture area is centered around the higher elevations of the Columbia River watershed and is between the Cascades and Rocky Mountains.
The area has very cold winters and hot summers. There are some forested areas, mainly in the mountain areas. There are three major rivers here, the Columbia, Fraser (in British Columbia), and the Snake. There are some very large forests in the Plateau area. Some of the tallest trees in the world grow here. The trees grow so tall because of the plentiful rainfall. Conversely, the Great Basin has some of the lowest rainfalls on the continent.
Traditional housing came in a wide variety of forms. The adobe house was very common and is still in use among both tribal and non-tribal people in the Southwest. They are very durable and can handle extremely hot weather quite well. Other types of structures included wickiups, hogans, tipis, and subterranean houses. (See Chapter 15 for more on the various types of domiciles of the American Indians.)
Fishing and foraging plus
The early settlers were
Hunters: Small game was often hunted.
Gatherers: The camas root grows wild in many areas here. Camas root is a flowering plant that grows wild in the intermountain region of the United States. The baked root is very similar to the sweet potato.
Anglers: Fish were often found in many of the rivers and streams.
The area was sparsely populated and many groups were nomadic. Many tribes had a group of leaders, and politics were usually grounded in the local village. Generally speaking, intertribal conflicts were fairly rare.
Bows, arrows, spears (digging sticks), and nets were common fighting, hunting, and fishing tools. Baskets were a highly developed craft, but there was little pottery.
Tribes in this region have traditional stories that explain many of the geographic features. Some of these involve the actions of spirit beings or of distinguished ancestors.
There are six major language groups in these culture areas:
Cayuse
Hokan
Klamath-Modoc
Sahaptin
Salish
Uto-Aztecan
Some Great Basin and Plateau tribes
The Great Basin and Plateau tribes were influenced by interactions with the Plains Indians and many today still exist, the most famous being the Shoshoni and the Ute.
Here are some Great Basin tribes:
Bannock
Goshiute
Lemhi
Mono
Paiute
Panamint
Shoshoni
Ute
Washo
Here are some Plateau tribes:
Cayuse
Chelan
Coeur d’Alene
Columbia
Colville
Flathead (Salish)
Kalispel
Klamath
Klikitat
Kutenai
Lake
Lillooet
Modoc
Nespelem
Nez Perce
Nicola
Okanagan
Palus
Sanpoil
Shuswap
Spokan
Tenino
Thompson
Umatilla
Wallawalla
Wishram
Yakama
The Pacific Northwest
The Pacific Northwest is known for having its own rain forest and for its array of climatological “styles,” if you will. Ocean winds, enormous rivers, and even volcanoes and earthquakes all comprise this area stretching down the western coast of the U.S.
Home sweet (and rainy) home
The Pacific Northwest culture area includes the coastal areas for about 150 miles inland from Oregon to southern Alaska.
The area has cold winters and warm summers. The area is mostly forested. With rainfall averaging over 100 inches a year, the area is often considered a temperate rain forest. There are many islands, rivers, and lakes in the region. Much of the area is mountainous.
Traditional housing was primarily large wooden houses. They were often long and wide, with peaked roofs. The sides and roofs were made from wooden planks, often cedar. They are very durable and withstood the rain quite well. Totem poles are often found in many villages in this area. A totem is commonly a being which watches over a group of people. A totem pole is not always related to a totem. It is a large carving, usually made of wood. It features a group of figures, one on top of another. The meaning was often the recounting of a family history. It could also be religious, symbolic, or for any of a few other reasons. (See Chapter 19 for complete details on the totem pole.)
Traditional stories from some Northwest tribes involve supernatural beings or trickster figures such as Raven. Raven is a troublesome character sometimes, but at other times allows good things to happen in the world, such as the return of the Sun.
Sustaining life in the Pacific Northwest
The early settlers were gatherers, anglers, and hunters. With an abundance of seafood and wild agricultural products available, extensive farming was not needed. Hunting of deer and elk was also practiced here. Fishing was highly developed. From salmon on the rivers to long trips on the ocean, fishing (including whales) was a major operation. Basketry and wooden box manufacturing were developed. Trade was highly developed with a market-based, capitalistic economy being common.
Many villages had a specific leader, but there was little recognition of tribal nations. Kinship and the local village were the most important factors. Bows, arrows, knives, and harpoons were common fighting and hunting tools. Some intertribal conflicts seemed to develop in certain areas. There are nuclear, matriarchal, and patriarchal families and clans (Haida: Raven and Eagle) in this area.
Family status within the community was often very important. A family wanting to raise or establish their social status would often participate in a giving of gifts called a potlatch. This practice was severely restricted by the government in historical times, and many potlatch items were removed from the community and taken to museums. Tribes are only now getting these returned. In the Chinook language, Potlatch roughly translates as to give. A Potlatch is one of many community ceremonies, often held in a large hall. The events can be religious, civic, a wedding, performances, or a formal exchanging of gifts for social status. In several matriarchal tribes, such as the Haida and Tlingit, girl children were preferred over boys.
There are three major language groups in this culture area and some considerable diversity in the number of languages within these three major groups:
Chinookan
Na-Dene
Penutian
Some Pacific Northwest tribes
Alsea
Bella Bella
Bella Coola
Chehalis
Chetco
Chilliwack
Chinook
Clackamas
Comox
Coos
Cowlitz
Gitskan
Haida
Heiltsuk
Kathlemet
Klallam (S’kallam)
Klatsop
Kwakiutl
Lummi
Makah
Nooksack
Nootka
Pentlatch
Puget (Lushootseed)
Puyallup
Quileute
Quinalt
Salish
Sooke
Squamish
Tillamook
Tlingit
Tolowa
Tsimshain
Twana
Umpqua
Wishram
Wasco
California
California’s name came from a 16th-century novel, and its history is, to put it mildly, diverse. The state boasts an array of varied climates and geographical terrains, and four flags have flown over it since its earliest days.
California and its climate
The California culture area includes all but the east edge of the state of California.
The climate in the culture area varies widely from north to south. In the north, winters can be very cold and the summers warm. The southern summer area has a moderate climate with cold winters and hot summers. There were large forests covering much of the region. There are also desert areas. There are several mountain ranges, wide valleys, rolling hills, and long beaches. There are a wide variety of trees and natural vegetation in this area. Lakes and rivers were abundant. Rain ranges from heavy in the north to sparse in the south. Some areas had sunshine almost every day of the year. Other areas were constantly overcast from coastal clouds to Tule fog.
Housing varied with the terrain and weather. The Pomo utilized wooden tipi-like buildings in the winter. Others used grass huts, subterranean structures, sweathouses, and plank houses.
Nice, but not 90210
The early settlers were hunters, gatherers, and anglers. This is one of the few southern culture areas where corn, beans, and squash were not major crops for early farmers. Women often saw to the planting and manufacture of skins into clothing. Seeds, acorns, grasshoppers, and yucca were part of the diet for many California tribes.
Fish and all kinds of wild game were caught. Men often did the hunting and fishing. Fishing included small catches from ocean-going boats.
There were a wide variety of societies in California. Decisions were made by an array of bureaucratic “systems,” including single tribal leaders, council groups, clans, and family groups. Intertribal fighting was not that common in this area. Many conflicts could be settled by a payment arranged by dispute negotiators. (The first lawyers!) Bows, arrows, nets, traps, and harpoons were common fighting, hunting, and fishing tools. Baskets and pottery were common in many areas.
American Indian tribes have long used Tule plants, which grow in central California, to make mats, boats, and even houses. Tule fog is a thick fog that forms in the long central valley of California. It usually happens after the fall and winter rains and is named after the Tule plants.
There are five major language groups in this culture area:
Algonquian
Athabascan
Hokan
Penutian
Uto-Aztecan
Some California tribes
California tribes adapted to their locales, and several different culture areas developed in the state. Some of the more memorable tribes include the fishing Chumash and California’s largest tribe, the Yurok. Here are some California tribes:
Achomawi
Atsugewi
Cahuilla
Chumash
Costoan
Cupeno
Diegueno
Esselen
Fernandeno
Gabrielino
Hupa
Kamia
Karok
Kato
Luiseno
Maidu
Miwok
Numa
Patwin
Pomo
Oolone
Salinan
Serrano
Shasta
Tolowa
Tubatulabal
Wailaki
Wappo
Wintun
Wiyot
Yahi
Yana
Yokut
Yuki
Yurok
Present-day subsistence practices
Many tribes strive to maintain a connection to the way that their ancestors lived, even if this is not the main means of subsistence. Farming, hunting, gathering plants, and fishing are all ways in which tribal people provide food and clothing for themselves, even as they jump in their SUVs to head off to work as doctors or lawyers. From the Abenaki to the Zuni, many tribal people still see this as an important means of maintaining identity.
Some groups have updated their tools, but their activities are similar to those of their ancestors. For example, in many Inuit communities, snowmobiles have replaced dog sleds, but hunting remains the main source of food.