Chapter 7
A Tally of Important Tribes
There were, and still are, many more tribes than just the Five Civilized Tribes. These tribes all played — and continue to play — a role in the history of the American Indian, and their heritage informs their modern-day lives, cultures, and religious practices. Even the smallest tribes manifest great pride in their name, their ancestors, their past, and their achievements. Throughout this book, we have made every attempt to cite specific tribes when speaking about types of housing, or religious practices, or other culture-specific characteristics.
This is because, simply put, a tribe’s identity is the sum total of their past, their present, and their future. And their name is their honor.
In this chapter, we’ll look at some of the largest and most well-known American Indian tribes and discuss their past and their present.
Navajo: “The People”
The Navajo Nation is the second-largest tribal group in the United States. Their name for themselves is Ni’hookaa Diyan Diné. This translates as “Lords of the Earth” or “Holy Earth People.” They also use the shorter form of “Diné” which means “the people.”
The Navajo originally lived in the Subarctic as part of the Na-Dene people. Along with the Apache, they slowly migrated to the south. The exact date they arrived in the Four Corners area of the American Southwest is not known. Most experts say they reached this region between the years 1000 and 1400. Their language is Navajo, which is one of the Athabascan languages.
The Navajo have a very detailed creation story. It says they rose up out of three underworlds before they reached this world, which is called the “Glittering World.” There are four sacred mountains which mark the edges of their land:
Mt. Hesperus to the north, in Colorado
Mt. Taylor to the south, in New Mexico
Mt. Blanca to the east, in Colorado
San Francisco Peak to the west, in Arizona
There are four directions with a color for each of them:
Jet Black, the north
Turquoise, the south
White Shell, the east
Abalone and Coral, the west
Navajo life
As with many other tribes, the Navajo families are clan oriented. A child belongs to its mother’s clan. Tradition states that a person should only marry a person from another clan. There are dozens of clans in the Navajo Nation.
The Navajo were originally hunters and farmers, but also fought with tribes in the area and conducted raids upon them. The Navajo took up sheep and goat herding once those animals had been introduced by the Spanish. Today, many Navajo people continue to be ranchers.
War and peace
With the invasion of the Spanish into the Southwest, the Navajos often had conflict with the conquistadors. Spanish settlers and the Navajo would go through periods of calm and conflict. The worst encounter was a punitive expedition by the Spanish in 1805 that tracked down some Navajos in the Canyon de Chelly. The Navajos fled into one of the ancient cliff dwellings expecting it to protect them. However, the Spanish had firearms that could reach them. Over a hundred men, women, and children were killed.
Many of the Navajos in this era were living in small communities. While they were a people with a common heritage, they had no tribal government that covered the entire tribe. Efforts by the Spanish, the Mexican, and later the American government to find a central government to deal with were unsuccessful. Peace accords reached with one group would be unknown to another.
In 1863, American forces, under famed scout Kit Carson, entered Navajo territory. They were there to punish the Navajo for their continuing raids. Several of the tribes who had been the victims of the Navajo’s raids volunteered to join the expedition. With the Navajo’s ability to hide themselves in their canyons, the expedition’s most effective tool became fire. Carson’s people burned the crops and the homes of the Navajos whenever they could find them. This had a drastic effect in this arid region.
The Long Walk
During this campaign, the army had captured about 6,000 Navajos. Along with about 2,000 other Indians under their control, they would eventually be marched 300 miles from eastern Arizona to a “resettlement” camp in New Mexico. The army called the camp Bosque Redondo. The Navajos called their forced march “The Long Walk.” Many of the Navajos were in bad shape because of Carson’s “burnt earth” policy. Hundreds of Navajos died during the march. Life in Bosque Redondo was hard. The land was poor, and the conditions were unforgiving. The surviving Navajos were allowed to return to their homelands in 1868.
Navajo craftspeople are especially known for their skills in working with silver and weaving. Navajo blankets, rugs, and silverworks are some of the most prized crafts in the world.
Today, the Navajo are the second-largest tribal group in America today in population. According to the 2000 census, there were 270,000 Navajos. They have the largest reservation in the United States. It covers 27,000 square miles and is larger than 10 of the 50 states in America.
Lakotas, Nakotas, and Santee
These tribes are, perhaps, the best known of all American Indian tribes.
Once a large group of Indians, they split into three main groups. They are known by the different dialects of the language they speak: Dakota, Lakota, and Nakota. You may know them as the Santee, Yankton, and Teton Sioux. In their own languages, Dakota, Lakota, and Nakota each can be translated as something similar to “allies.” Whereas, “Sioux” is a French variation of an Algonquian language word which means “enemy” or “snake.” Check out Figure 7-1 for a depiction of a Sioux chief.
Within each of these three main branches are several smaller groups:
Santee Tribes:
• Mdewakantonwan
• Sisitonwan
• Wahpekute
• Wahpetonwan
Yankton Tribes:
• Yankton
• Yanktonai
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Figure 7-1: A Sioux chief. |
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Teton Tribes:
• Brule (Burnt Thighs)
• Hunkpapa
• Itazipco (Sans Arcs)
• Minneconjou
• Oglala
• Oohenumpa (Two Kettles)
• Sihasapa
According to many scholars, the Sioux once lived in the northeastern part of North America. They slowly moved toward the Great Plains. They were first documented by Europeans in Minnesota in the 1600s. Some bands would linger in an area, as others continued to move on. Some theories say that the Sioux started their migration because of pressure from other tribes such as the Ojibwa.
By around 1800, the Sioux had spread across much of the north central part of the United States including North and South Dakota, Iowa, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. The Santee were primarily in Wisconsin. The Yanktons had some of the Dakotas and Iowa. The Tetons ruled the rest of the area. The Indians of the Great Plains were able to stick to their traditions and their lands for much longer than the tribes of the southeastern United States. But, once the Southeastern tribes had been moved to Indian Territory, other lands became the target of American expansionism. It was in 1803, with the Louisiana Purchase, that the Sioux came under the jurisdiction of the United States.
The buffalo
Upon entering the Great Plains, much of the Sioux’s life was centered on the buffalo, or the American Bison, as it is more properly called. The Sioux used the buffalo in almost every part of their life. American hunters saw the buffalo as a source of food, but they also saw it as sport. Between 1867 and 1883, tens of millions of buffalo were killed by American hunters. In one three-year period, almost 5,000,000 buffalos were killed. In many ways, the near extermination of the buffalo did more to remove the Indians from the Great Plains than all of the armies put together.
Below we list some uses of the buffalo:
Bones: Tools such as awls and brushes
Brains: Used to soften hides
Fat: Food and paint
Hair: Rope and thread
Hides: Clothing, shelter, and containers
Hoofs: Glue
Horns: Arrows, cups, and spoons
Manure: Fuel
Robes: Extra warm clothing and bedding
Sinew: Bow strings and thread
Just a short time after the Sioux entered the Great Plains, Americans also had a presence there. In 1804, the Lewis and Clark Expedition entered the region. In the 1840s, American settlers and prospectors heading for Oregon and California really started crossing Sioux lands in significant numbers. In the 1860s, gold was discovered in Montana, and the Dakota Territories were set up. 1868 saw the last of the treaties between the United States and Indian tribes. In 1869, the first transcontinental railroad was completed. 1874 saw the discovery of gold in the Black Hills. All of these events had a significant effect on the lives of the Sioux.
In 1851, the United States and many tribes agreed to the Fort Laramie Treaty. This designated over 60,000,000 acres as the Sioux Reservation. Through a process of wars and treaties, the Sioux’s land was rapidly whittled down to less than 10 percent of that amount. The Sioux fought to keep their lands. Parts of it (the Black Hills, or the Paha Sapa, as they call it) were sacred to them. History books of the time usually labeled a victory by the army as a “battle.” A victory by the Indians was often called a “massacre.” (For a depiction of a Native American, see Figure 7-2.)
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Figure 7-2: A Native American. |
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The Sioux fought the army in many of their lands. The Santee War of 1862 took place in Minnesota. It was instigated by the lack of promised food being delivered to the tribe. Many people died on both sides. For their part in the uprising, 38 Santee Indians were hanged in Mankato, Minnesota, on December 26, 1862. This was the largest mass execution in U.S. history.
The Sioux Wars
The Sioux Wars of 1866–1868 took place primarily in Wyoming. The Bozeman Trail was built through Sioux lands despite a treaty that prohibited it. The trail was to help prospectors get to the Montana mining areas. Forts were also established in the area. Sioux warriors fought under Chief Red Cloud. Battles such as the “Fetterman Massacre” and the “Wagon Box Fight” were fought. Red Cloud’s forces won this war. The trail and nearby forts was abandoned for a period of time.
The Sioux War of 1876–1877 was the largest series of battles in Sioux–U.S. Army relations. This involved more violations of treaties, and Sioux warriors going off the reservation to live in their old ways. Mostly, it was because gold had been discovered in Sioux lands. This war featured such battles as the Battle of the Little Big Horn, Battle on the Powder River, Battle of the Rosebud, Battle of Wolf Mountain, and Battle of Slim Buttes. Some of the famous names in this war included Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse, and George Custer. (Figure 7-3 shows you Sioux Indians.)
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Figure 7-3: Sioux Indians. |
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Wounded Knee
The final series of battles involving the Sioux was in 1890. A Northern Paiute by the name of Wovoka had a vision. His vision saw the return of the old American Indian way of life and the removal of the white man from their lands. His prophecy became a religion to some. It was called the Ghost Dance religion. In order for the prophecy to come true, the Indians would have to dance the ghost dance, and to live in a righteous manner. While he also talked of this being a peaceful process, Indian agents became fearful of the numbers of Indians who began to believe in the message.
This all led to a confrontation on the Pine Ridge reservation in South Dakota. The army attacked a group of Miniconjou and Hunkpapa Sioux at a place called Wounded Knee. Most of the Indians were unarmed. Shooting broke out, and when it was all over, 25 soldiers and over 150 Lakota men, women, and children were dead. For all practical purposes, this was the last significant fight between American Indians and the U.S. Army. (See Chapter 11 for more on the Wounded Knee massacre.)
At 108,000 people, according to the U.S. census of 2000, the Sioux are the third-largest tribal group in America, and the Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota — a 2-million-acre expanse the size of Connecticut — is the second-largest reservation in the country.
Chippewa: We are Anishinabe
The Chippewa are the fourth-largest tribal nation today and live mainly in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan (as well as in Canada). Chippewa is the term most used in the United States for this tribe; in Canada, they’re known as Ojibwa. Interestingly, if you add an “O” in front of Chippewa, it does sound a little like Ojibwa. Their traditional name is Anishinabe. They are closely related to the Ottawa and the Potawatomi.
Their language is Anishinaabemowin, which is one of the Algonquian languages. According to their old stories, they originally lived on the Atlantic coast. They began moving to the west about 500 years ago. One of their creation stories is of a series of prophecies. It says they will have seven great fires. Each of these fires will be a special time in their history.
As delivered by the prophets, the final fire is said to mean “New people will emerge. They will find the old ways and the old traditions. The nation will be reborn.”
The Chippewa traditionally would fish, hunt, and farm corn and squash. They are especially known for their use of wild rice, which grows on the water. They go out in their canoes and gather it together. Today, as in the past, one person steers the canoe, while the other uses a stick to knock the rice into the boat. Wild rice harvesting is a very important part of Chippewa tradition. The right to harvest the rice is cherished.
In different parts of their history, the Chippewa had great trading networks. They traded all of the normal food and tools. They were also known for finding copper that could be used to make many things.
The Midewiwin was their medicine society. It had a very powerful influence on the lives of the Chippewa. They were shamans who used a variety of methods to help the sick. This included using Migiis shells, which were normally only found in the Pacific.
The Chippewa are one of the few tribes who were able to beat the Sioux in battle. Experts have suggested the reason the Sioux moved from the Great Lakes area is that the Chippewa continued to press them out of the region.
Around the middle 1700s, there were as many as 25,000 Chippewas, according to reports made at the time. According to the United States census there were an estimated 105,000 Chippewas in the year 2000.
Pueblo: The First Apartment Buildings
There was no single tribe called the Pueblo. This term is cultural and describes how some of the tribes in the Southwest lived. The Pueblos are mainly in Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas. The word Pueblo is Spanish for village.
The languages of the Puebloan tribes belong to different language families. (See Chapter 2 for more details about the earliest times in Pueblo history.)
Some of these tribes are believed to be the descendants of the people formerly known as Anasazi. There’s a good reason that the Anasazi are now known as the Ancestral Puebloans.
The western Pueblos tend toward matrilineal societies. The eastern Pueblos are more often patrilineal. Within each of these groups, traditional roles, customs, and religious practices vary. While some Pueblos have adopted various forms of Christianity, many also still follow old traditional practices.
Almost all Pueblos share the creation story that says they entered this world through a hole in the roof of the world below. They were able to reach the hole by using a ladder. Kivas (usually underground ceremonial chambers) will sometimes have a ceremonial hole in the floor to symbolize this entrance place. There are often ladders in Pueblos that represent the ladder used to exit the underworld.
The first Spanish expedition into Pueblo areas was that of Francisco Vasquez de Coronado in 1540. When he did not find the fabled “Seven Cities of Gold,” he left the area. In 1598, Spanish conquistador Juan de Oñate Salazar began a major expedition into the lands north of the Rio Grande. Oñate claimed most of modern New Mexico for Spain. He then established a capital city in Santa Fe.
Many of the domesticated animals (cattle, goats, horses, and sheep) introduced by the Spanish were adopted by the Pueblos. While cotton was used for textiles, wool from their sheep and goats soon became the predominant fiber.
Spanish efforts to dominate the daily life of the Pueblos, including religious conversions, led to considerable resistance by the Pueblos. In 1680, a Tewa Pueblo Indian named Popé led a revolution against the Spanish. Starting in the Taos pueblo, the revolt was successful. The Pueblos managed to rid much of New Mexico of Spanish forces.
Twelve years later, the Spanish, under Diego de Vargas, returned with a vengeance. They reconquered the area, and destroyed many of the villages. Other than a few other incidents, the Pueblo remained at peace with their Spanish, Mexican, and American neighbors. During much of this time, the Hopi had little contact with the Spanish or the Mexican governments.
In 1821, Mexico gained its independence from Spain and ruled New Mexico and Arizona. In 1848, The United States took possession of New Mexico and Arizona, and thereby had control over the Pueblos. Today, each of the major Pueblo villages is treated as a separate entity. According to the 2000 U.S. census, there are 60,000 Pueblo Indians.
Apache: Uncertain Origins
The Apache people are one of the larger tribal nations in the United States. Their language is one of the Athabascan languages. There are several different dialects. There is debate on the meaning of the Apache. The most accepted theory is that it is a Zuni or Tewa word meaning “enemy.” Their name for themselves is Indé. According to the U.S. census of 2000, there were 57,000 Apaches.
There are six major Apache groups. They are:
Chiricahua (Chíshínin in their language)
Jicarilla (Tinde in their language)
Lipan
Mescalero
Plains Apache (Kiowa-Apache)
Western Apache
Within each of these tribes are many communities. Each has some differences, so it is a bit hard to make generalized statements about the Apache. So, let’s look at the Jicarilla Apache as an example.
The Jicarilla
Jicarilla society is matrilineal. Often, the authority in the family was at the grandparents’ generation. Grandparents were usually responsible for educating the children. Jicarilla custom says it is disrespectful to stand while an elder is in the room.
For puberty-aged children, young girls had the Adolescence Ceremonial Feast (Keesda); young boys had the Ceremonial Relay Race (Go-jii-ya).
Red Clan, White Clan
In the 18th century, the Jicarilla moved throughout their traditional territory. Two groups split apart from each other and took up residence in specific areas. Over time, they came to be known as different communities. The Llaneros (Red Clan) ranged the plains. The Olleros (White Clan) stayed near the mountain valleys. The plains Jicarilla lived a semi-nomadic life. They would hunt the buffalo on the plains in southern Colorado, northern New Mexico, and small parts of western Oklahoma and Texas. This was a good life for them until the Comanche moved into the area in the early 1700s. Conflicts with the well-armed Comanches forced the Jicarilla to move closer to the mountains. Here, some of them took up a more settled, agrarian lifestyle. They raised such crops as corn, beans, squashes, and melons. They picked berries and grew tobacco. Still, they hunted game in the area as well.
They often wore clothes made from buckskins. Their homes were most frequently wickiups. They were constructed into a domed frame made from young saplings. The sides and top were mostly thatch made frombuffalo grasses.
Politics
The Jicarilla practice democracy. Each adult is allowed to have his or her say in a matter. Other than in hunting or war parties, the group consensus was how decisions were made. War or hunting leaders often made decisions for a group, but they could easily be replaced.
The Jicarilla generally faired well under Spanish and Mexican rule. They were far enough away from the populated areas to have much contact. Their lands were considered unsuitable by the Spanish. When the United States took over New Mexico in 1848, this would change. With much of New Mexico under Spanish or Mexican land grants, which the Americans were legally required to honor, Apache “traditional” lands suddenly looked good to settlers. Additionally, lands that had been used by the Jicarilla for many years were land-granted to settlers by the Mexican government.
Encroaching settlers and hunters began to take their toll on the wildlife in the area. The Jicarilla began to engage in raids on American settlers and wagon trains. While they were few in number, they were very resourceful. Their horses were some of the best in the Southwest. They could often easily outrun army pursuers.
War
In the 1850s, the Jicarilla signed a treaty with the United States, and one with the territorial governor. They were to be given title to some land and material so they could take up farming. For their part, they agreed to stop their raids and to stay out of certain territories. Neither treaty was ratified by the U.S. Senate. However, the Jicarilla had already moved to the lands they were offered. When the supplies did not arrive, many of the Jicarilla moved away and started raiding again. On April 10, 1854, the territorial governor declared war. The war ended the next year, but the Jicarillas still had no homeland. This began a series of councils to give the Jicarilla their own land and to have them stop raiding. For various reasons, no land could be found.
By the late 1870s, some estimates placed the Jicarilla population between 400 and 1,000 people. Northern New Mexico settlers did not want the Jicarilla anywhere near them. But Americans from the eastern part of the country were more sympathetic to the Jicarilla’s situation. In 1883, the Jicarilla were placed in the Mescalero Apache reservation in southern New Mexico. The two Apache groups did not get along very well. Still lacking a title to their land, many Jicarilla left the reservation and moved to an area near Santa Fe and in northern New Mexico. This led to renewed protests from the local settlers.
In 1887, President Grover Cleveland established a Jicarilla reservation by executive order. They were given 415,000 acres northwest of Santa Fe, along the Colorado border. Despite finally having some dedicated land, the Jicarilla continued to have problems. Disease, especially tuberculosis, and other hardships reduced their numbers to about 600 people in 1920. An additional piece of land was added to the reservation when it was determined that the Jicarilla needed more fertile land to adequately support themselves.
Around 1930, oil was discovered in parts of the reservation. This has added another resource which has improved the Jicarilla’s economic security.
Iroquois: Call Us Haudenosaunee
As with many American Indian tribes, the name by which they are known was given to them by another group. Iroquois is a French variation of the Algonquian word for rattlesnake or real adders. They call themselves Haudenosaunee. This can be translated as people of the long house, or people of the extended lodge. Their traditional lands stretched from Lake Erie to the Hudson River. This included both the United States and Canada.
There’s a reason that the Haudenosaunee are known as the Six Nations; they are composed of, you guessed it, six nations. They were originally five, until the Tuscarora joined:
Cayuga
Mohawk
Oneida
Onondaga
Seneca
Tuscarora
From west to east, the tribes were the Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, and the Mohawk. The Tuscarora joined the Iroquois Confederacy in 1722 after they were forced out of North Carolina by English settlers. There is considerable disagreement as to how long the Confederacy has been around. Many scientists have dated the beginnings of the Confederacy to the year 1451. Others say it was organized in 1142, or in the 1500s.
Iroquois creation stories often feature Sky Mother and her twin sons. The earth upon which we live is an island on the back of a turtle. It is this story which led some people to call the world “Turtle Island.” Another aspect of Iroquois faith was the False Face Society. They were the Iroquois medicine people. They used masks as an intricate part of their healing process.
The Iroquois way of life
Generally, the Iroquois were matriarchal in nature. The woman had the home, and her children became part of her family and clan. Men were expected to marry someone from another clan. The three clans present in all six nations were
Bear
Turtle
Wolf
Some tribes had other clans as well. Early on the Iroquois hunted the game of the region, they fished, and they raised the standard corn, beans, and squash.
Iroquois traditional homes were their namesakes, the long house. They could be up to 200 feet long. A few were even longer. They were an arching framework of interwoven branches, which were usually covered in birch bark. The Iroquois would usually stay in one area until the fields and the animal had been exhausted. This means a village could be in one place for as many as 20 or30 years. (See Chapter 15 for more on Indian dwellings.)
The women ran the homes and worked the fields. The men did the hunting. They were also warriors. Warfare was a constant situation among the Iroquois and their neighbors. Villages were fortified. Iroquois warriors are noted for their distinctive way of cutting their hair. The Mohawk style was named after them. This usually featured most of their head being shaved, except for a thin ridge running down the middle.
Inspiring the founders
The Iroquois are particularly known for their political structure. Tribal leaders were called sachems. While the sachems were men, they were usually chosen by the clan mothers. The Great Iroquois Council (or Iroquois League) is often thought to have been formed in the middle 1500s. It was a council with 50 of these sachems. They led the Confederacy during peace times. There were usually 10 Cayuga, 9 Mohawk, 9 Oneida, 14 Onondaga, and 8 Seneca. The leader of the Council was usually an Onondaga. Another group of men led the Confederacy during war.
While the Council had many laws, the main one was called the Kainerekowa, or the Great Law of Peace. Each tribe was free to make its own laws, but one of the main principles of the Great Law was that the member tribes should not fight each other. After they stopped fighting each other, they became a powerful force in the area between the Great Lakes and the Atlantic.
The Iroquois would often use diplomacy or force to overpower their neighboring tribes. For example, The Iroquois often had problems with the Lenni Lenape (Delaware) tribe. To insure that the Lenape followed their wishes, the Iroquois sent some of their tribe to live with the Lenape. This group of Iroquois eventually became known by the name Mingo.
The Iroquois Council’s complex system of self-rule was used as a model by the founders of the United States. America’s founding fathers borrowed from the Iroquois Council’s various forms of governmental responsibility to establish the different branches of the American government and the separation of powers.
The meaning of names
The Cayuga (Gweugwehono) were called the “people of the mucky land,” or “those of the great pipe.”
The Mohawk (Kahniakehaka) were the “keepers of the eastern door,” or “people of the flint.”
The Oneida (Onyotaaka or Onayotekaono) were the “people of the standing stone.”
The Onondaga (Onundagaono) were the “keepers of the fire,” “people of the hill,” or the “wampum keepers.”
The Seneca (Nundawaono) were the “keepers of the western door,” or the “great hill people.”
The Tuscarora were the “shirt wearing people.”
Choosing sides
During the Revolutionary War, the Iroquois had to decide who they would support. They remained neutral for some time. Generally speaking, the Mohawk and Cayuga were pro-British. The Oneida were pro-American. Many of the Iroquois sided with the British after some of their towns were attacked by American forces. After the war, many Iroquois moved to Canada in hopes of receiving better treatment from the British government there.
The Iroquois would sign many treaties with the United States, including:
Fort Stanwix Treaty, 1784
Treaty of Fort Harmar, 1789
Agreement With The Five Nations, 1792
Treaty of Canandaigua, 1794
Treaty With The Indians Living In The Country of The Oneidas, 1794
Treaty of Amity, Commerce, and Navigation, 1794
Treaty With The New York Indians, 1838
Today, the six separate tribes are still extant and live in the U.S. mainly in New York, Wisconsin, and Oklahoma. There are also Iroquois in Ontario and Quebec. According to the 2000 United States census, there are 45,000 Iroquois living in the United States.
Alaska: The Tlingit
The Tlingit people live mainly in the northern part of the panhandle of lower Alaska (near Juneau, Sitka, Ketchikan, and so on). Their language is Tlingit, which is one of the Athabascan languages. Raven is an important figure in Tlingit culture. He was there for the creation of the world, on the Nass River in interior Canada. Traditional stories say the Tlingit traveled under the glaciers in boats to come out on the rivers nears the coast. Some estimates place the Tlingit on the Pacific coast as far back as 8,000 years ago.
Traditionally, the Tlingit are matrilineal. Families are built along the mother’s bloodline. Fathers play a relatively minor role in the lives of their children. As is common in most matriarchal societies, a child’s maternal uncle is his or her mentor. A son-in-law would almost never even speak to his mother-in-law.
Two moities
Well, really there are three, but two of them, Wolf and Eagle, are actually combined:
Raven
Wolf
Eagle
The Wolf and Eagle clans are usually listed together as one group. Within the clans are houses. The family house is one of the main areas of Tlingit culture. As many as 50 people could live in one of these large plank board houses. Even though the clans are matrilineal, the oldest male is the head of the house, or “house leader.” A person would usually identify more with their house than their clan.
Usually, the house leader (hít s’aatí, in their language) with the highest status was also the local clan leader. Often, villages did not have an individual leader, this rested in the clan system. When Europeans first encountered the Tlingit, they often found it difficult to deal with a village where each household had a leader.
Dinner’s served
Tribes along the northern Pacific coast enjoyed an abundance of food. A commonly heard local expression is “when the tide goes out the table is set.” There were two basic settings for the Tlingits, the winter village and the summer village. Summer camp was along the many rivers of the Pacific coastline. Each stream is “owned” by a specific clan or family. Fishing was a primary occupation among the Tlingit. Salmon was their most important, and abundant, catch. The Tlingit would also go fishing in the ocean in their large dugout canoes. The canoes could be over 35 feet long. Unlike many other coast tribes, they did not hunt whales. The Tlingit also hunted many of the animals who lived in their forests.
Storytelling was a favorite pastime for the Tlingit. Raven and his exploits as a creator-trickster-teacher make up the bulk of their tales. Some stories were told by all of the Tlingit; others were considered the exclusive property of a specific clan or house. The “Raven Cycle” is the name for many of these stories. Songs could also be “owned” by a specific clan or house.
Potlatches (Koo.éex’ in their language) are a large part of their society as well. The potlatch has many complicated meanings. Potlatches could be held for a variety of different reasons, but they were often ceremonies honoring a significant person who had died. They were used both to honor the dead and to add a certain balance to the community. They often take place a year after a person died. Gifts are given out by the clan or the house of the deceased. Some potlatches could last over a week.
The Tlingit owed slaves. This was considered fairly common for people along the upper Pacific coast. Capitalism (for lack of a better term) was practiced by the Tlingit, and slaves were considered part of a person’s wealth. This practice stopped in the late 1860s.
The Russians
Their first encounters with Europeans were in the middle 1700s. They mostly had encounters with Russians. The Russians set up trading and fishing centers along the coast lines. This led to both beneficial trading and armed conflicts. The last of these conflicts in Alaska was the Battle of Sitka in 1804. Members of the Russian America Company had set up a post near Sitka. The legality of this post was challenged by the Tlingit. Tlingit structures were built in such a way that some cannon fire would bounce off. The Tlingit were outnumbered and outgunned. Despite this, they managed to escape annihilation. Their flight across some mountains to safety is called the “Kiks.ádi Survival March of 1804.” It is considered one of their finest moments.
The Brotherhood
The Alaska Native Brotherhood was the first major organization to try to represent Alaska Natives in the society of the time. Founded in 1912 by two Tlingits, it was designed to make sure that all people were treated equally, and to help preserve Native cultures. A similar group called the Alaska Native Sisterhood was established soon after. These and other groups, along with individuals such as Tlingit Elizabeth Peratrovich, were instrumental in eliminating discrimination against Alaska Natives by European and American governments.
The Tlingits have managed to retain much of their culture and traditions. Interaction with the modern world has changed them as well. As with most American Indian and Alaska Native groups, retaining their language and culture has been a high priority for them. According to the 2000 census, there are an estimated 15,000 Tlingits.