1. The story of drought in the southeastern United States, the border tensions with other states, and the relationship with power plants have been covered by multiple articles, for example: L. Mungin, “Two Off-Line Power Plants Help Region Hit Water Goal,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, December 20, 2007; Theo Emery, “Georgians Want Access to Tenn. Water,” Tennessean, February 8, 2008; and Toluse Olorunnipa and Michael C. Bender, “Florida to Sue Georgia in U.S. Supreme Court over Water,” Bloomberg, August 14, 2013.
2. S. Gottipati, “India Endures World’s Largest Blackout,” New York Times, July 31, 2012, and J. Yardley and G. Harris, “Second Day of Power Failures Cripples Wide Swath of India,” New York Times, July 31, 2012.
3. Brent Kallestad, “Fla. to Sue Army Corps of Engineers over Water,” USA Today, June 20, 2008.
4. Felicity Barringer, “Lake Mead Could Be Within a Few Years of Going Dry, Study Finds,” New York Times, February 13, 2008.
5. “Salt Water Plant Opened in London,” BBC News, June 2, 2010.
6. The points about the hydraulic theory of civilization, the Chinese empires, and the importance of controlling the Yellow River are covered by Fred Pearce in his book When the Rivers Run Dry: Water—The Defining Crisis of the Twenty-First Century (Boston: Beacon, 2006). The comment about the Chinese character for politics is from an article in the Economist titled “Awash in Waste: Tradable Usage Rights Are a Good Tool for Tackling the World’s Water Problems,” April 8, 2009.
7. The background on Roman aqueducts is from A. T. Hodge, Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply, 2nd edition (London: Bristol Classical, 2002).
8. Richard Stone, “Divining Angkor,” National Geographic, July 2009, and Pearce, When the Rivers Run Dry.
9. The San Francisco Public Utilities Commission has a brief write-up of two water temples: the Pulgas Water Temple built in 1934 to celebrate water coming to San Francisco from the Hetch Hetchy reservoir, and the Sunol Water Temple built in 1910 to commemorate a previous water system (www.sfwater.org).
10. See, for example, Jared Diamond, Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed (New York: Viking, 2005), and Brian Fagan, The Great Warming: Climate Change and the Rise and Fall of Civilizations (London: Bloomsbury, 2008).
11. P. Zhang et al., “A Test of Climate, Sun, and Culture Relationships from an 1810-Year Chinese Cave Record,” Science, November 7, 2008.
12. Katherine Unger, “Drought to Blame for Rome’s Decline?” Earth, February 2009.
13. Guy Gugliotta, “The Maya: Glory and Ruin,” National Geographic, August 2007; Heather Pringle, “Did Pulses of Climate Change Drive the Rise and Fall of the Maya?” Science, November 9, 2012; Heather Pringle, “A New Look at the Mayas’ End,” Science, April 24, 2009.
14. Fagan, The Great Warming.
15. See, for example, Peter H. Gleick, “Water, Drought, Climate Change, and Conflict in Syria,” Weather, Climate, and Society 6, no. 3 (July 2014).
16. The story of the discovery of the connection of cholera with contaminated water and the Great Stink in London has been extensively covered. I recommend Bill Bryson’s At Home: A Short History of Private Life (New York: Anchor, 2011) as accessible and interesting to a general audience.
17. David Sedlak, Water 4.0: The Past, Present, and Future of the World’s Most Vital Resource (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014).
18. For information on global access to water and wastewater, the United Nations is a reliable source. For information on global water stress, Vörösmarty’s work is the standard-bearer: C. J. Vörösmarty et al., “Global Threats to Human Water Security and River Biodiversity,” Nature, September 30, 2010. In addition, the Pacific Institute produces a series of biennial reports on freshwater resources with convenient summaries of water data and in-depth analyses on water topics, including availability, access, policies, and technologies: Peter Gleick et al., The World’s Water, volume 8 (Washington, D.C.: Island, 2014, and previous volumes). For 100 million people in China: Richard Stone and Hawk Jia, “Going Against the Flow,” Science, August 25, 2006. For 2.6 billion people: Alan Fenwick, “Waterborne Infectious Diseases—Could They Be Consigned to History?” Science, August 25, 2006. For 1.8 billion people by 2025: United Nations, “Water Scarcity Factsheet,” 2013 (www.unwater.org/publications/publications-detail/en/c/204294, accessed August 22, 2015).
19. For statistics on asthma and air quality impacts, see American Lung Association (www.lung.org/associations/states/colorado/asthma/stats.html, accessed December 29, 2014); U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; World Health Organization; and Fabio Caiazzo et al., “Air Pollution and Early Deaths in the United Sates, Part I: Quantifying the Impact of Major Sectors in 2005,” Atmospheric Environment 79 (2013).
20. Edward Wong, “Air Pollution Linked to 1.2 Million Premature Deaths in China,” New York Times, April 1, 2013.
21. For global statistics on energy consumption, see the International Energy Agency’s databases and reports (www.iea.org).
22. For statistics on water use by sector, the U.S. Geological Survey provides information for the United States, and the World Bank gives global information. Jill Boberg’s report Liquid Assets (Santa Monica: Rand Corporation, 2005) is a convenient overview and summary of some of the key underlying issues.
23. World Health Organization, “Burden of Disease from Household Air Pollution for 2012,” (www.who.int/phe/health_topics/outdoorair/databases/FINAL_HAP_AAP_BoD_24March2014.pdf).
24. S. R. Kirshenbaum and M. E. Webber, “Liberation Power: What Do Women Need? Better Energy,” Slate, November 4, 2013.
25. “Facts About Global Poverty and Microcredit,” To Our Credit: A Two-Part Program for PBS (www.pbs.org/toourcredit/facts_one.htm, downloaded May 25, 2015).
26. For a discussion of appliances and women, see Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Global History Network, “Household Appliances and Women’s Work,” 2012; and “Fridges and Washing Machines Liberated Women, Study Suggests,” ScienceDaily, March 13, 2009.
Epigraph: Richard P. Feynman, Robert B. Leighton, Matthew Sands, The Feynman Lectures on Physics, volume 1, 4-2 (Addison-Wesley, 1963).
1. For a good review of the history of thermodynamics, see Bruce Hunt, Pursuing Power and Light: Technology and Physics from James Watt to Albert Einstein (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010). For a good introduction to the fundamentals of thermodynamics, see Michael E. Webber, Thermo 101: Introduction to Engineering Thermodynamics (Austin: University of Texas Press, Tower Book Imprints, 2015).
2. Hunt, Pursuing Power and Light.
3. M. E. Webber, “Redefining Humanity Through Energy Use,” Earth, March 2010.
4. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory publishes new estimates each year of energy consumption in the United States, including the relative fractions for end-uses and waste.
5. For a list of conversions and their typical efficiencies, see J. Tester et al., Sustainable Energy: Choosing Among Options, 2nd edition (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2012).
6. Vaclav Smil, Energy: A Beginner’s Guide (Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2006).
7. W. Cronon, Nature’s Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York: W. W. Norton, 1992).
8. For global statistics on energy consumption, see the International Energy Agency’s databases and reports, for example the World Energy Outlook, published annually.
9. For an interesting anecdote about the U.S. secretary of energy Stephen Chu discussing the excellent technical performance of petroleum-based fuels, see Russell Gold, The Boom: How Fracking Ignited the American Energy Revolution and Changed the World (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2014), chapter 3.
10. For global statistics on energy consumption, see the International Energy Agency’s databases and reports, for example the World Energy Outlook, published annually. For information on United States energy consumption, see the U.S. Energy Information Administration’s databases and reports, such as the Annual Energy Review.
11. Cronon, Nature’s Metropolis.
12. Alexander Starbuck, History of the American Whale Fishery (New York: Argosy-Antiquarian, 1878).
13. R. Chernow, Titan: The Life of John D. Rockefeller, Sr. (New York: Random House, 1998).
14. M. E. Webber, “The Bright Future for Natural Gas in the United States,” Earth, December 2012.
Epigraph: Loren Eiseley, The Immense Journey (New York, 1957), 15.
1. Jeremy Narby, The Cosmic Serpent (New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Putnam, 1998).
2. “America’s Sewage System and the Price of Optimism,” Time, August 1, 1969.
3. The exact contribution from water vapor to atmospheric temperature is difficult to estimate, and the scientific community does not have consensus on the exact value. Vaclav Smil estimates that water vapor is responsible for approximately 20 degrees of the 35-degree increase in temperature: Vaclav Smil, Energy: A Beginner’s Guide (Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2006). For an introduction to the underlying science of climate change, see Mark Maslin, Global Warming: A Very Short Introduction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004).
4. United States Geological Survey, “The Water Cycle,” USGS: Science for a Changing World (http://water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycle.html, accessed December 31, 2014).
5. Smil, Energy.
6. Water values are from United States Geological Survey, “The Water Cycle.” The original source for the estimates is Igor Shiklomanov’s chapter “World Fresh Water Resources,” in Peter H. Gleick, editor, Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World’s Fresh Water Resources (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).
7. The GRACE experiment has been widely covered. For two general interest sources, see NASA Mission Pages (www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/Grace, accessed December 31, 2014), and T. Green, “The Gravity of Water,” University of Texas News Features, October 7, 2011 (www.utexas.edu/features/2011/10/07/grace, accessed December 31, 2014).
8. Ibid.
9. Global Water Intelligence, Desalination Markets 2010: Global Forecast and Analysis, technical report, Desal Data, 2010.
10. B. D. Lutz, A. N. Lewis, and M. W. Doyle, “Generation, Transport, and Disposal of Wastewater Associated with Marcellus Shale Gas Development,” Water Resources Research 49 (2013).
11. Peter H. Gleick, Bottled and Sold: The Story Behind Our Obsession with Bottled Water (Washington, D.C.: Island, 2010).
12. Shiklomanov, “World Fresh Water Resources.”
13. Ibid.
14. J. McBride, The Color of Water: A Black Man’s Tribute to His White Mother (New York: Riverhead Trade, 1995).
15. A. Y. Hoekstra, A. K. Chapagain, M. M. Aldaya, and M. M. Mekonnen, Water Footprint Manual: State of the Art, 2009, technical report, Water Footprint Network, 2009; and Water Footprint Network (www.waterfootprint.org, accessed October 16, 2012).
16. The impact of drought has been covered and reported in multiple sources: John Holland, “Report: Droughts Drains $2.2 Billion from Farm Economy,” Modesto Bee, July 15, 2014 (www.modbee.com/news/local/article3167892.html, accessed December 27, 2014); U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Climatic Data Center (www.ncdc.noaa.gov/billions/events); and Associated Press, “U.S. Drought: Half of All Counties Disaster Areas,” CBS News, August 1, 2012.
17. The U.S. Drought Monitor is produced through a partnership between the National Drought Mitigation Center at the University of Nebraska, Lincoln, the United States Department of Agriculture, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (http://droughtmonitor.unl.edu).
18. Jill Boberg, Liquid Assets (Santa Monica: Rand Corporation, 2005).
19. U.S. Geological Survey reports.
20. U.S. Department of Energy, The Transportation Energy Data Book, 2012, technical report; Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, “Freight Facts and Figures, 2011,” technical report FHWA-HOP-12–002.
21. Doris Kearns Goodwin, Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2005).
22. Sardar Sarovar Narmada Nigam Ltd., “Project at a Glance” (www.sardarsarovardam.org, downloaded May 24, 2015).
23. Marc Reisner, Cadillac Desert (New York: Viking, 1986).
24. Modern Marvels, The Manhattan Project, History Channel, 2004.
25. Reisner, Cadillac Desert.
26. Ibid.
27. Bobby Magill, “Methane Emissions May Swell from Behind Dams,” Scientific American, October 29, 2014 (www.scientificamerican.com/article/methane-emissions-may-swell-from-behind-dams, accessed January 1, 2015); and Siyue Li and X. X. Lu, “Uncertainties of Carbon Emission from Hydroelectric Reservoirs,” Natural Hazards 62 (2012).
28. A. Lugg and C. Copeland, “Review of Cold Water Pollution in the MurrayDarling Basin and the Impacts on Fish Communities,” Ecological Management and Restoration, 15: 71–79 (2014); Daniel B. Hayes, Hope Dodd, and JoAnna Lessard, “Effects of Small Dams on Cold Water Stream Fish Communities,” American Fisheries Society Symposium, 2006.
29. Boberg, Liquid Assets.
30. Xtankun Yang and X. X. Lu, “Ten Years of the Three Gorges Dam: A Call for Policy Overhaul,” Environmental Research Letters 8 (2013).
31. For an excellent overview of water infrastructure throughout history, see David Sedlak, Water 4.0: The Past, Present, and Future of the World’s Most Vital Resource (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014).
32. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Department of the Interior, The Clean Water and Drinking Water Infrastructure Gap Analysis, technical report, EPA-816-R-02-020, 2002.
33. Ibid.
34. Ibid.
35. Texas Water Development Board, The 2012 State Water Plan, technical report, 2012.
1. International Energy Agency, World Energy Outlook, 2012, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2013.
2. International Energy Agency, World Energy Outlook, 2013, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2014.
3. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, The Institute for Water Resources, Hydropower: Value to the Nation, Fall 2001.
4. Cutler Cleveland, “China’s Monster Three Gorges Dam Is About to Slow the Rotation of the Earth,” Business Insider.com, June 18, 2010 (www.businessinsider.com/chinas-three-gorges-dam-really-will-slow-the-earths-rotation-2010-6).
5. R. Sternberg, “Hydropower’s Future, the Environment, and Global Electricity Systems,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 14 (2010); Jim Carlton, “Deep in the Wilderness, Power Companies Wade In,” Wall Street Journal, August 21, 2009; Boualem Hadjerioua, Yaxing Wei, and Shih-Chieh Kao, An Assessment of Energy Potential at Non-Powered Dams in the United States, prepared for the U.S. Department of Energy Wind and Water Power Program, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, April 2012.
6. Toby Sterling, “Dutch Seek to Harness Energy from Salt Water Mix,” Phys-Org, November 26, 2014 (http://phys.org/news/2014-11-dutch-harness-energy-salt.html); Sonal Patel, “Statkraft Shelves Osmotic Power Project,” PowerMag, March 1, 2014.
7. P. Torcellini, N. Long, and R. Judkoff, Consumptive Water Use for U.S. Power Production, technical report, NREL-TP-550-33905, National Renewable Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, 2003; M. M. Mekonnen and A. Y. Hoekstra, “The Blue Water Footprint of Electricity from Hydropower,” Hydrology and Earth Systems Sciences 16 (2012).
8. M. A. Maupin, J. F. Kenny, S. S. Hutson, J. K. Lovelace, N. L. Barber, and K. S. Linsey, Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 2010, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1405, 2014.
9. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Department of the Interior, “History of the Clean Water Act” (www.epa.gov/lawsregs/laws/cwahistory.html, accessed October 27, 2012); and Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Department of the Interior, Summary of the Clean Water Act (1972), 33 U.S.C. §1251 et seq. (www.epa.gov/lawsregs/laws/cwa.html, accessed October 27, 2012).
10. C. W. King, A. S. Stillwell, K. T. Sanders, and M. E. Webber, “Coherence Between Water and Energy Policies,” Natural Resources Journal, 2013; and Estimating Freshwater Needs to Meet Future Thermoelectric Generation Requirements, technical report, DOE/NETL-400/2008/13391, National Energy Technology Lab, U.S. Department of Energy, September 30, 2008.
11. Proposed Resolution by the California State Lands Commission Regarding Once-Through Cooling in California Power Plants, technical report, California State Lands Commission, 2006.
12. C. Kutscher et al., “Hybrid Wet-Dry Cooling for Power Plants,” Parabolic Trough Technology Workshop, Incline Village, Nevada, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2006.
13. The hybrid power plant cooling system by Johnson Controls is one notable example of a hybrid design that reduces water use; see “Thermosyphon Cooler Hybrid System for Water Savings in Power Plants,” Technology Insights: A Report from EPRI’s Innovation Scouts, November 2012.
14. K. M. Twomey, C. M. Beal, C. W. King, and M. E. Webber, “Biofuels: An Energy and Water Conundrum,” World Energy Monitor, March 2012; C. W. King and M. E. Webber, “Water Intensity of Transportation,” Environmental Science and Technology 42 (September 24, 2008).
15. King and Webber, “Water Intensity of Transportation.”
16. Twomey et al., “Biofuels”; King and Webber, “Water Intensity of Transportation.”
17. B. D. Lutz, A. N. Lewis, and M. W. Doyle, “Generation, Transport, and Disposal of Wastewater Associated with Marcellus Shale Gas Development,” Water Resources Research 49 (2013).
18. For an excellent technical assessment of the water needed for extracting fossil fuels, see the work by the Bureau of Economic Geology at the University of Texas at Austin, including J.-P. Nicot and B. R. Scanlon, “Water Use for Shale-Gas Production in Texas, U.S.,” Environmental Science and Technology 46 (2012): 3580–3586; and J.-P.Nicot, R. C. Reedy, R. A. Costley, and Y. Huang, Oil and Gas Water Use in Texas: Update to the 2011 Mining Water Use Report, 2012.
19. Matt Mantell, Chesapeake Corporation, personal communication; Modern Shale Gas Development in the United States: A Primer, U.S. Department of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, April 2009.
20. “A Lady Comes to Burkburnett,” Cosmopolitan, August 1939.
21. Mike Soraghan, “Shaken More Than 560 Times, Okla. Is Top State for Quakes in 2014,” EnergyWire, January 5, 2015 (www.eenews.net/energywire/stories/1060011066).
22. Eric Hand, “Oil and Gas Operations Could Trigger Large Earthquakes,” Science, April 23, 2015.
23. Margaret Cook and Michael E. Webber, “Food, Fracking, and Freshwater: The Potential for Markets and Cross-Sectoral Investments to Enable Water Conservation,” Water (in review).
24. C. W. King, A. S. Stillwell, K. T. Sanders, and M. E. Webber, “Coherence Between Water and Energy Policies,” Natural Resources Journal, 2013.
25. C. M. Beal, R. E. Hebner, M. E. Webber, R. S. Ruoff, F. Seibert, and C. W. King, “Comprehensive Evaluation of Algal Biofuel Production: Experimental and Target Results,” Energies 5 (special issue: Algal Fuel), no. 6 (2012); and C. M. Beal, A. S. Stillwell, C. W. King, S. M. Cohen, H. Berberoglu, R. P. Bhattarai, R. Connelly, M. E. Webber, and R. E. Hebner, “Energy Return on Investment for Algal Biofuel Production Coupled with Wastewater Treatment,” Water Environment Research 84, no. 9 (2012).
26. British Petroleum, Statistical Review of Energy, updated annually, and the U.S. Energy Information Administration.
27. Union of Concerned Scientists, How It Works: Water for Coal, 2010.
28. William J. Broad, “Nuclear Option on Gulf Oil Spill? No Way, U.S. Says,” New York Times, June 2, 2010.
29. For a discussion of the history of hydraulic fracturing, including the Nixonera projects related to nuclear weapons for oil and gas production, see Russell Gold, The Boom: How Fracking Ignited the American Energy Revolution and Changed the World (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2014).
30. P. Rogers and S. Gonzalez, “San Francisco Bay Spill Largest Since ’96,” San Jose Mercury News, November 7, 2007; and A. Price, “City Sleuths Solve Mystery of Oil Tank Owner,” Austin American-Statesman, March 12, 2008.
31. Dina Cappiello, Frank Bass, and Cain Burdeau, “AP Investigation: Ike Environmental Toll Apparent,” USA Today, October 6, 2008.
32. “Significant Pipeline Incidents,” U.S. Department of Transportation, Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (http://primis.phmsa.dot.gov/comm/reports/safety/SigPSI.html, accessed May 8, 2013).
33. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Department of the Interior, “EPA’s Response to the Enbridge Oil Spill” (www.epa.gov/enbridgespill, accessed May 9, 2013); Lisa Song, “Cleanup of 2010 Mich. Dilbit Spill Aims to Stop Spread of Submerged Oil,” InsideClimateNews, March 27, 2013.
34. Lutz et al., “Generation, Transport, and Disposal of Wastewater Associated with Marcellus Shale Gas Development”; and Thomas H. Darrah, Avner Vengosh, Robert B. Jackson, Nathaniel R. Warner, and Robert J. Poreda, “Noble Gases Identify the Mechanisms of Fugitive Gas Contamination in Drinking-Water Wells Overlying the Marcellus and Barnett Shales,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111, no. 39 (2014).
35. Darrah et al., “Noble Gases Identify the Mechanisms.”
36. Thomas W. Simpson, A. N. Sharpley, R. W. Howarth, H. W. Paerl, and K. R. Makin, “The New Gold Rush: Fueling Ethanol Production While Protecting Water Quality,” Journal of Environmental Quality, 2008; Richard Alexander et al., “Differences in Phosphorus and Nitrogen Delivery to the Gulf of Mexico from the Mississippi River Basin,” Journal of Environmental Quality, 2008; Simon D. Donner and Christopher J. Kucharik, “Corn Based Ethanol Production Compromises Goal of Reducing Nitrogen Export by the Mississippi River,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2008; Charlotte de Fraiture, Mark Giordano, and Yongsong Liao, “Biofuels and Implications for Agricultural Water Use: Blue Impacts of Green Energy,” Water Policy Supplement, 2008; James Owen Alexander, “World’s Largest Dead Zone Suffocating Sea,” National Geographic News, March 25, 2010; K. M. Twomey, A. S. Stillwell, and M. E. Webber, “The Unintended Energy Impacts of Increased Nitrate Contamination from Biofuels Production,” Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 2010; King et al., “Coherence Between Water and Energy Policies.”
1. K. T. Sanders and M. E. Webber, “Evaluating the Energy Consumed for Water Use in the United States,” Environmental Research Letters 7 (2012).
2. Marc Reisner, Cadillac Desert (New York: Viking, 1986).
3. Peter H. Gleick and Heather S. Cooley, “Energy Implications of Bottled Water,” Environmental Research Letters, 2009; Peter H. Gleick, Bottled and Sold: The Story Behind Our Obsession With Bottled Water (Washington, D.C.: Island, 2010).
4. A. S. Stillwell, C. W. King, M. E. Webber, I. J. Duncan, and A. Hardberger, “The Energy-Water Nexus in Texas,” Ecology and Society (special feature The Energy-Water Nexus: Managing the Links Between Energy and Water for a Sustainable Future), 16, no. 1 (2011).
5. Ronnie Cohen, Barry Nelson, and Gary Wolff, Energy Down the Drain: The Hidden Costs of California’s Water Supply, National Resources Defense Council and Pacific Institute, August 2004.
6. Global Water Intelligence, Desalination Markets 2010: Global Forecast and Analysis, technical report, Desal Data, 2010.
7. R. George, The Big Necessity: The Unmentionable World of Human Waste and Why It Matters (New York: Metropolitan, 2008).
8. Stillwell et al., “The Energy-Water Nexus in Texas.”
9. For more information, PUB, Singapore’s national water agency (www.pub.gov.sg/about/historyfuture/Pages/NEWater.aspx, accessed January 3, 2015).
10. Norman Chan, “What SpaceX’s Dragon Brought to the International Space Station,” Tested, May 25, 2012 (www.tested.com/science/space/44509-what-spacexs-dragon-brought-to-the-international-space-station, accessed January 3, 2015).
11. M. E. Webber, D. S. Baer, and R. K. Hanson, “Ammonia Monitoring Near 1.5 μιη with Diode Laser Absorption Sensors,” Applied Optics 40, no. 12 (2001).
12. M. E. Webber, R. Claps, F. V. Englich, F. K. Tittel, J. B. Jeffries, and R. K. Hanson, “Measurements of NH3 and CO2 with Distributed-Feedback Diode Lasers Near 2 μm in Bioreactor Vent Gases,” Applied Optics 40, no. 24 (2001).
13. Sanders and Webber, “Evaluating the Energy Consumed for Water Use in the United States.”
14. Cohen et al., Energy Down the Drain.
Epigraph: Poor Richard’s Almanack, January 1746, in the Oxford Dictionary of American Quotations, 2nd edition, edited by Hugh Rawson and Margaret Miner (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 68.
1. “European Heat Wave: August 16, 2003,” Earth Observatory, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, image by Reto Stockli and Robert Simmon, based on data provided by the MODIS Land Science Team (http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=3714, accessed November 17, 2012).
2. Jean-Marie Robine et al., “Death Toll Exceeded 70,000 in Europe During the Summer of 2003,” Comptes Rendus Biologies 331 (2008); M. Poumadère, C. Mays, S. L. Mer, and R. Blong, “The 2003 Heat Wave in France: Dangerous Climate Change Here and Now,” Risk Analysis 25 (2005); and P. Lagadec, “Understanding the French 2003 Heat Wave Experience: Beyond the Heat, a Multi-Layered Challenge,” Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management 12, no. 4 (December 2004).
3. Julio Godoy, “Environment: European Heat Wave Shows Limits of Nuclear Energy,” Inter Press Service News Agency, July 27, 2006 (www.ipsnews.net/2006/07/environment-heat-wave-shows-limits-of-nuclear-energy, accessed September 16, 2015).
4. H. Forster and J. Lilliestam, “Modeling Thermoelectric Power Generation in View of Climate Change,” Regional Environmental Change 10 (2010); M. Poumadère, C. Mays, S. L. Mer, and R. Blong, “The 2003 Heat Wave in France: Dangerous Climate Change Here and Now,” Risk Analysis 25 (2005); M. Hightower and S. A. Pierce, “The Energy Challenge,” Nature, March 20, 2008.
5. Illinois Environmental Protection Agency, “Illinois EPA Grants Exelon Quad Cities Station Provisional Variance from Discharge Requirements,” Press Release, May 25, 2012.
6. Associated Press, “Conn. Nuclear Plant Unit Closed Due to Too-Warm Seawater Reopens,” Christian Science Monitor, August 27, 2012.
7. “Outages and Curtailments During the Southwest Cold Weather Event of February 1–5, 2011,” technical report, Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, August 2011; E. Souder, S. Gwynne, and G. Jacobson, “Freeze Knocked Out Coal Plants and Natural Gas Supplies, Leading to Blackouts,” Dallas Morning News, February 6, 2011; E. Souder, G. Jacobson, and S. Gwynne, “Texas Electric Grid Operator’s Rolling Blackouts During Freeze Bring Political Scrutiny,” Dallas Morning News, February 12, 2011.
8. K. Galbraith, “The Rolling Chain of Events Behind Texas Blackouts,” Texas Tribune, February 3, 2011.
9. “Outages and Curtailments During the Southwest Cold Weather Event.”
10. “A Guide to the 2011 Texas Blackouts,” Energy and Environment Reporting for Texas, State Impact: A Reporting Project of NPR Member Stations (http://stateimpact.npr.org/texas/tag/2011-blackouts, accessed November 26, 2012).
11. “Outages and Curtailments During the Southwest Cold Weather Event.”
12. “In Pictures: Niagara Falls Freeze over on U.S. Side,” Telegraph, January 10, 2014.
13. Christie Bleck, “Coal Shortage: WE Energies Buys BLP Coal After Heavy Ice on Lake Delays Ships,” Marquette Mining Journal, 2014.
14. Rob Thomas, “Where’s the Salt?” Snow Magazine, September 15, 2014; Brian Resnick, “America Is Running Low on Road Salt. Thanks, Winter,” National Journal, February 5, 2014; “Midwest Experiences Propane Shortage Due to High Demand,” WFIU, National Public Radio, January 24, 2014; Amy Wilson, “As Temps Dip, Propane Prices Heat Up,” Carthage Press, January 21, 2014; “Propane Use for Crop Drying Depends on Weather and Corn Markets as Well as Crop Size,” Today in Energy, Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of Energy, October 2, 2014.
15. J. Gertner, “The Future Is Drying Up,” New York Times, October 21, 2007; F. Proteger, “The Uruguay River, Its Dams, and Its People Are Running Out of Water,” International Rivers, February 1, 2008; Scripps Institute of Oceanography, “Lake Mead Could Be Dry by 2021,” Press Release (http://scrippsnews.ucsd.edu/Releases/?releaseID=876, February 12, 2008).
16. “Electricity Monthly Update,” April 2012, technical report, Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of Energy, June 2012.
17. S. Gottipati, “India Endures World’s Largest Blackout,” New York Times, July 31, 2012; J. Yardley and G. Harris, “Second Day of Power Failures Cripples Wide Swath of India,” New York Times, July 31, 2012; Hindustan Times, “Power Grid Failures: FAQs” (www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Power-grid-failure-FAQs/Article1-905428.aspx, accessed January 4, 2015); BBC, “Power Cut Causes Major Disruption in Northern India” (www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-19043972, July 30, 2012, accessed January 4, 2015).
18. Associated Press, “Drought Could Shut Down Nuclear Power Plants,” MSNBC, January 23, 2008.
19. “Water Levels Are Rising Here on Lake Lanier!” (www.lakelanier.com/about/water-levels, accessed November 22, 2012); L. Mungin, “Two Off-Line Power Plants Help Region Hit Water Goal,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, December 20, 2007.
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25. Ibid.
26. M. A. Cook and M. E. Webber, “Food, Fracking, and Freshwater: The Potential for Markets and Cross-Sectoral Investments to Enable Water Conservation,” Water (in review).
27. B. D. Lutz, A. N. Lewis, and M. W. Doyle, “Generation, Transport, and Disposal of Wastewater Associated with Marcellus Shale Gas Development,” Water Resources Research 49 (2013).
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29. Lutz et al., “Generation, Transport, and Disposal of Wastewater.”
30. Ibid.
31. W.-Y. Kim, “Induced Seismicity Associated with Fluid Injection into a Deep Well in Youngstown, Ohio,” Journal of Geophysical Research Solid Earth 118 (2013), doi:10.1002/jgrb.50247.
32. Kuwayama et al., “Water Quality and Quantity Impacts of Hydraulic Fracturing.”
33. Dina Cappiello, Frank Bass, and Cain Burdeau, “AP Investigation: Ike Environmental Toll Apparent,” USA Today, October 6, 2008.
34. Michael Schwirtz, “Sewage Flows After Storm Expose Flaws in System,” New York Times, November 29, 2012; “Raw Sewage Still Plagues Long Island Homes Five Weeks After Sandy,” CBS New York, December 4, 2012 (http://newyork.cbslocal.com/2012/12/04/raw-sewage-still-plagues-long-island-homes-5-weeks-after-sandy, accessed December 8, 2012).
1. Jill Boberg, Liquid Assets (Santa Monica: Rand Corporation, 2005); Peter H. Gleick, editor, Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World’s Fresh Water Resources (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); Energy Information Administration and International Energy Agency reports.
2. U.S. Geological Survey, “Water-Level Changes in the High Plains Aquifer, Predevelopment to 2007, 2005–06, and 2006–07,” technical report, 2009, Scientific Investigations Report 20095019.
3. Boberg, Liquid Assets; C. J. Vörösmarty et al., “Global Threats to Human Water Security and River Biodiversity,” Nature, September 30, 2010.
4. Y. Pokhrel, N. Hanasaki, P.-F. Yeh, T. Yamada, S. Kanae, and T. Oki, “Model Estimates of Sea-Level Change Due to Anthropogenic Impacts on Terrestrial Water Storage,” Nature Geoscience 5 (June 2012).
5. Kai Ryssdal, “California’s Snowpack Has Run Out,” Marketplace, APM Radio, May 29, 2015.
6. U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, “Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States” (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009).
7. Felicity Barringer, “Troubling Interdependency of Water and Power,” New York Times, April 22, 2015.
8. B. Boehlert et al., “Climate Change Impacts and Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Effects on U.S. Hydropower Generation,” Environmental Research Letters, 2015.
9. C. W. King and M. E. Webber, “Water Intensity of Transportation,” Environmental Science and Technology 42 (September 24, 2008).
10. C. W. King, M. E. Webber, and I. J. Duncan, “The Water Needs for LDV Transportation in the United States,” Energy Policy 38, no. 2 (2010).
11. David Sedlak, Water 4.0: The Past, Present and Future of the World’s Most Vital Resource (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014).
12. K. M. Twomey, A. S. Stillwell, and M. E. Webber, “The Unintended Energy Impacts of Increased Nitrate Contamination from Biofuels Production,” Journal of Environmental Monitoring 12 (2010).
13. Lutz et al., “Generation, Transport, and Disposal of Wastewater.”
14. Peter Gleick et al., The World’s Water, volume 8 (Washington, D.C.: Island, 2014), chapter 7.
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18. David Mildenberg, “Pickens Water-to-Riches Dream Unravels as 11 Texas Cities Scoop Up Rights,” Bloomberg News, July 13, 2011.
19. Global Water Intelligence, Desalination Markets 2010: Global Forecast and Analysis, technical report, Desal Data, 2010; International Desalination Association, “Desalination by the Numbers” (http://idadesal.org/desalination-101/desalination-by-the-numbers, accessed August 15, 2015).
20. Isabel Kershner, “Aided by the Sea, Israel Overcomes an Old Foe: Drought,” New York Times, May 29, 2015.
21. Global Water Intelligence, Desalination Markets 2010.
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1. Emily A. Grubert, Fred C. Beach, and Michael E. Webber, “Can Switching Fuels Save Water? A Life Cycle Quantification of Freshwater Consumption for Texas Coal- and Natural Gas–Fired Electricity,” Environmental Research Letters 7 (2012).
2. A. S. Stillwell and M. E. Webber, “Water Conservation and Reuse: A Case Study of the Energy-Water Nexus in Texas,” conference paper, World Environmental and Water Resources Congress, 2010, Providence, Rhode Island.
3. H. Li, S.-H. Chien, M.-K. Hsieh, D. A. Dzombak, and R. D. Vidic, “Escalating Water Demand for Energy Production and the Potential for Use of Treated Municipal Wastewater,” Environmental Science and Technology 45 (2011): 4195–4200.
4. A. S. Stillwell, K. M. Twomey, R. Osborne, D. M. Greene, D. W. Pedersen, and M. E. Webber, “An Integrated Energy, Carbon, Water, and Economic Analysis of Reclaimed Water Use in Urban Settings: A Case Study of Austin, Texas,” Journal of Water Reuse and Desalination, 2011.
5. “Water Reuse: Potential for Expanding the Nation’s Water Supply Through Reuse of Municipal Wastewater,” National Research Council, 2012.
6. Ibid.
7. U.S. Geological Survey, “Alternative Water Use,” presentation by Melissa Harris to the Third Energy-Water Nexus Partnership Meeting, November 29, 2012; “Use of Reclaimed Water for Power Plant Cooling,” technical report ANL/EVS/R-07/3, Argonne National Laboratory for the National Energy Technology Lab, U.S. Department of Energy, August 2007.
8. “Palo Verde Nuclear Generating Station Water Reclamation Facility,” technical report, Electric Power Research Institute, June 26, 2008.
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11. Ibid.
12. L. Macmillan, “Resort’s Snow Won’t Be Pure This Year; It’ll Be Sewage,” New York Times, September 26, 2012.
13. “Use of Reclaimed Water for Power Plant Cooling.”
14. U.S. Geological Survey, “Alternative Water Use.”
15. P. F. Scholander, “How Mangroves Desalinate Seawater,” Physiologia Plantarum 21 (1968): 251–261.
16. Sam Lemonick, “Harvesting Fog Could Bring Water to Millions,” Earth Magazine, February 2014.
17. A. S. Stillwell and M. E. Webber, “A Novel Methodology for Evaluating Economic Feasibility of Low-Water Cooling Technology Retrofits at Power Plants,” Water Policy 15 (2013).
18. Ibid.; “Oyster Creek to Close 10 Years Early, in 2019,” Asbury Park Press (Neptune, N.J.), December 8, 2010.
19. Grubert, Beach, and Webber, “Can Switching Fuels Save Water?”
20. Kate Galbraith, “Waterless Fracking Makes Headway in Texas, Slowly,” Texas Tribune, March 27, 2013.
21. U.S. Department of Energy, “Variable Speed Pumping: A Guide to Successful Applications,” technical report DOE/GO-102004-1913, May 2004.
22. Ibid.
23. E. M. Keys and M. E. Webber, “Variable Speed Drives for Power Factor Correction in the Water Sector,” Fifth International Symposium on Power Electronics for Distributed Generation (PEDG) Systems, IEEE, June 24–27, 2014, Galway, Ireland.
24. K. T. Sanders and M. E. Webber, “Evaluating the Energy and Carbon Dioxide Emissions Impacts of Shifts in Residential Water Heating in the United States,” Energy, 2015.
25. Eric Lajoie-Mazenc, “Which Technologies for Hot Water in France for 21st Century?” ACEEE Hot Water Forum, Berkeley, California, May 2012.
26. Mark Tran, “WaterWheel to Ease Burden on Women,” Guardian, December 29, 2013.
27. A. S. Stillwell, D. C. Hoppock, and M. E. Webber, “Energy Recovery from Wastewater Treatment Plants in the United States: A Case Study of the Energy-Water Nexus,” Sustainability 2 (2010), no. 4 (special issue: Energy Policy and Sustainability).
28. Y. R. Glazer, J. B. Kjellsson, K. T. Sanders, and M. E. Webber, “The Potential for Using Energy from Flared Gas for On-Site Hydraulic Fracturing Wastewater Treatment in Texas,” Environmental Science and Technology Letters, 2014.
29. M. E. Clayton, A. S. Stillwell, and M. E. Webber, “Implementation of Brackish Groundwater Desalination Using Wind-Generated Electricity: A Case Study of the Energy-Water Nexus in Texas,” Sustainability 6 (2014), no. 2 (special issue: The Energy-Sustainability Nexus).
30. M. E. Clayton, J. B. Kjellsson, and M. E. Webber, “Wind-Solar-Desalination: How Integrated Systems Can Solve Our Water and Energy Issues,” Earth, November 2014.
31. E. A. Grubert, A. S. Stillwell, and M. E. Webber, “Where Does Solar-Aided Seawater Desalination Make Sense? A Method for Identifying Sustainable Sites,” Desalination 339 (2014).
32. Communication from the Department of Economic Development, United Arab Emirates, 2010.
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