This painting shows a busy Phoenician port, where merchants and traders from around the world bought and sold goods and exchanged information.

Chapter 2

Foundations and Explorations

Phoenicia was one of the most influential civilizations of its time. Despite this, our understanding of the Phoenicians is largely determined by others’ descriptions, such as writings by the Greeks. These writings are a testament to the importance of Phoenician trade. And this trade shaped both the Phoenicians and the empires with which they traded. Without trade, the small civilization could have disappeared in history and the empires bound for fame could have looked very different. Trade allowed the Phoenicians to spread culture and ideas along with goods and materials. Their importance as merchants is reflected in their role in the cultures they helped shape. From the iconic purple dye they provided to the Greeks to the metals needed to make copper, the impact of Phoenician traders is still relevant today. Even the name “Phoenicia” speaks to their role as traders. It comes from the Greek word Phoinikes, a reference to the purple dye Phoenician traders brought to the empire.

In this chapter, we will learn how the Phoenicians became a trading power. We will read about the rise of Phoenicia and the evolution of their trade routes. We will also discuss the role of technology in the spread of trade, what trade meant to their civilization, and the ways in which the Phoenicians carried out trade with differing communities, including imports and exports.

The Rise of Phoenicia

The civilization we now know as Phoenicia, called Canaan during its own time, was a collection of Semitic city-states that had some independence in politics and culture. Phoenicia was centered around modern Lebanon, sitting on the northern coast of the Middle East. There is evidence that the city of Sidon, which became one of the most powerful cities in Phoenicia, was established around 4000 BCE. Other Phoenician cities followed afterward. By 3200 BCE, these cities were stable enough to begin forming the alliances that would become Phoenicia. Some had already established trade relations with other civilizations by that point. The city-states retained their hereditary monarchies. However, the merchant classes were very powerful, and many city-states followed similar policies to maintain cooperation. Cultural and religious similarities were the true binding powers between city-states, rather than formal political ties.

Phoenicia was fully established by 2750 BCE, with the cities of Tyre and Sidon as the centers of power and trade. Byblos and Baalbek served as religious centers. Tyre eventually replaced Sidon as the economic power of Phoenicia, partially because it was the home of Tyrian dye. For most city-states, their role in trade determined their size and importance.

In 1200 BCE, the Sea Peoples are believed to have invaded or migrated into the area. The Sea Peoples are a little understood group of possibly European or Anatolian tribes that began attacking Egypt in the fourteenth century BCE. The name “Sea Peoples” originated in the 1800s, when Egyptian tablets were found detailing war with attackers described as being of or from the sea. Although little is known about them, evidence of interaction between the Phoenicians and the Sea Peoples was found at Byblos. Around 1200 BCE, the Sea Peoples are believed to have destroyed other Levant cities while sparing those city- states that were part of Phoenicia. The reason for this isn’t known, but it is believed to have given rise to a sharing of maritime technology and corresponds to the rise of Phoenician trade posts and colonies.

In 1200 BCE, Phoenicia’s position as a leading trade civilization was bolstered by a mysterious disaster that befell many neighboring empires. Between 1200 and 1150, the Egyptians, Anatolians, Hittites, and Mycenaeans in Greece suffered near or complete destruction. Numerous cities were destroyed, economies floundered, and trade was disrupted. A dark age of sorts followed, lasting for a few centuries as civilizations recovered. This downturn is called the Late Bronze Age Collapse. It is believed to have been caused by climate change, natural disaster, or war that led to the failure of systems and institutions that had been holding up those civilizations. Phoenicia did not suffer this collapse. Through trade its people helped revive the regional economy.

In the 800s BCE, Phoenicia was conquered by a series of larger empires, which caused its influence to decline. Beginning in 883 BCE with the invasion of the Assyrians, Phoenicia was never again independent. Control of the area—and the seafaring tradition the people had developed—passed from Assyria to Babylon to Persia before moving into the Classical period, with Greek and Roman dominance. The area that was Phoenicia would remain under imperial and colonial rule until 1943, when it was granted independence from France as modern-day Lebanon.

The Spread of Trade

Trade was already a key part of the regional economy when the Phoenicians were developing their routes. But prior to the Phoenicians, trade was largely regional and did not stretch so far as the trade routes eventually would. The Phoenicians tapped into established routes and expanded them through innovation. They also used the lack of a central trade leader in the aftermath of the Late Bronze Age Collapse to their advantage. The Phoenicians had outposts throughout the Mediterranean and strong trade relations with empires in the ancient world. Thus, they positioned themselves as the sole source of key goods, including wood, glass, and cloth. The trade routes made Phoenician merchants wealthy and powerful. The routes also shaped and strengthened the cultures and economies of the empires with which they traded.

The Phoenicians began establishing their trade networks around 1500 BCE. At that point, trade was primarily with the Greeks, to whom the Phoenicians sold Tyrian dye used in the clothing of elites. It was this exchange that eventually led to the association of the color purple with royalty, as it was a rare and valuable pigment favored by leadership. Following the Egyptian decline of 1200 BCE, the Phoenicians expanded their westward trading. They established colonies and trade ports along northern Africa and opened trade relations with more far-flung allies.

Phoenician trade routes spread from the eastern coast of the Mediterranean to the Atlantic. There is some evidence that trade ships made the journey to Britain and the Canary Islands. However, it is still unclear if these kinds of long-haul journeys took place. Routes stayed close to the coast, running north along Asia Minor to Crete and southwest along the entire coast of North Africa. Routes also cut north to Sardinia and Sicily, as well as Iberia, or modern Spain. Although known best for their sea trade, Phoenicians also traded with India and Asian civilizations via land routes that connected China to the Mediterranean.

Between 1500 BCE and 300 BCE, Phoenician trade is believed to have been at its height. The Phoenicians set up cities along the Mediterranean, including Carthage in 814 BCE and Tingis at the Strait of Gibraltar in the fifth century BCE. The exact date that many of these city-states were established is debated. This is due in part to the fact that many started as way stations for traders. They were set up roughly a one-day journey from one another. Some had more sophisticated facilities, and others were little more than stopping-off points. Phoenicians also established secondary production sites for dye and other valued goods, cutting the amount of time it took to get these goods to the farther reaches of their trade network.

These ports played multiple roles in maintaining Phoenician trade dominance. By cutting the journey into smaller, more easily managed increments, sailors and traders could make journeys safely and stop off without using non-Phoenician ports. Phoenicians also used these city-states as production sites, as they did with their Tyrian dye in modern-day Morocco. Additionally, ports served as a way to ensure Phoenician traders were not caught off guard by rivals. Ports potentially served as military outposts should enemies attempt to take control of the trade routes.

Some of the trading posts the Phoenicians established went on to become major cities, including Tripoli in Libya. Carthage is today known as Tunis (the capital of Tunisia) and played a significant role in the ancient world after the fall of Phoenician dominance. The Phoenician system of city-states with loose affiliation meant that these outposts grew and evolved independently. Therefore, when Phoenicia was conquered, these city-states continued to exist— separate from the civilization that founded them.

Technology and Trade

Technology played a significant role in Phoenician trade strength, including their uniquely designed ships and the goods they made that were sold around the ancient world. Given the lack of primary source evidence available about the Phoenicians, we don’t have a full understanding of how many innovations are original to their culture. But we do know that they made expert use of mathematics, navigation, and new ship designs. Their use of existing technology and their improvements to that technology made it possible for them to develop advanced trade routes.

Phoenician goods, like this bowl, were highly prized for their quality and artistry. This one shows a hunting scene with Egyptian and Mesopotamian elements.

Trade Ships and Coastal Navigation

Ships were among the most important technological advancements for the Phoenicians. Their ships were stronger, sturdier, and more developed for trade. Phoenicians also designed specialized warships, which featured multiple sails and a narrower build than their trade ships. The bow of warships was outfitted with bronze so that the ship itself could be used as a weapon by ramming enemy ships.

But it was Phoenician trade ships that were truly revolutionary and let this small civilization become the maritime power of its age. Trading ships were called galloi by the Greeks and were round in shape. The hulls and sides were curved, and the ship itself was squat, allowing it to rest high in the water rather than sinking low. An oar on the left side of the ship was used to steer, while a sail that hung loosely enough to change direction allowed the ship to catch the wind as needed. The storage space near the rear of the ship weighted it for stability and featured insulation that protected delicate goods like glass or ceramic from the rough journey on the Mediterranean’s choppy waters.

Navigation was another area where the Phoenicians developed huge innovations. On short journeys, they used coastal navigation, which was made possible by the design of their trade ships. By keeping the coast in sight, Phoenicians could track progress and maintain a sense of position. They were safer there, too, due to the difficult-to-navigate, rockier terrain nearer the coast. The Phoenicians also made use of the night sky when navigating on longer journeys. In fact, the North Star was once called the Phoenician Star because of the star’s role in their navigation. Celestial navigation would become one of the standard methods for deep-sea navigation. It helped the Phoenicians safely explore the west Mediterranean and the Atlantic.

Innovating the Alphabet

The alphabet invented by the Phoenicians also played a significant role in their trade, providing uniform documentation and measures for goods. Around 1200 BCE the alphabet was developed. At that time, most forms of writing were hieroglyphics, which use symbols to stand for whole words rather than sounds. The phonetic nature of the alphabet made it simple to learn and use across languages. The Phoenician alphabet was eventually the basis of other alphabets that followed, such as Hebrew and Arabic. In addition to letters, the Phoenicians developed numerals similar to Roman numerals up to the number 9. Glyphs were used to denote higher values. This simple glyph system also used multiplication to signify values beyond 10, 20, and 100 (which each had its own symbol). This made it possible to easily track payment and inventory.

The Nature of Phoenician Trade

Trade in the ancient world was a difficult undertaking, but it also served many purposes. For civilizations like Phoenicia, with no agriculture, it served as the basis of their economies. But it also solidified alliances and provided routes of cross-cultural communication. Some exchanges were comprised of gifts designed to reinforce demand for products or to pay tribute to foreign city-states and leaders. Phoenician trade involved all of these motivations. It drove the business and culture of its region for centuries.

Most trade conducted by the Phoenicians was established by agreements that set prices and goods that were to be traded between states. Agreements included setting up trade centers. State officials were likely involved in all areas of trade. Yet trade was often conducted by merchants and traders, a class that was influential and high ranking in Phoenician society.

Phoenician city-states were ruled by kings. This crown belonged to the ruler of an unknown regional city in the tenth century BCE.

While the value of goods was fixed, trade wasn’t necessarily done with money in the ancient world. Gold and silver were common forms of payment, but so were in-kind goods. This meant that in exchange for a decided amount of any given product, the buyer would provide a decided amount of another product or many products. For example, an Egyptian trade agreement provided seven cedar logs in exchange for gold, silver, linen, rope, lentils, fish, papyrus, and cow hides.

Phoenician trade routes were used for a variety of imports and exports. The routes were used to trade goods between trade partners, such as between Greece and Egypt or Iberia and Mesopotamia. Phoenicians were master craftsmen and used the routes to bring their own goods to their partners. Routes were also used to import products that the mainland city-states and colonies or outposts needed.

The scope of Phoenician trade, stretching from Asia to the Atlantic, made it possible to use supply and demand to its advantage. For example, papyrus or fine linen, which was available in abundance in Egypt, was of higher value in other parts of the world. This made trade a very lucrative industry for the Phoenicians. They made large financial gains on most products. Each long journey meant that trade could be conducted on both legs of the trip.

Ancient Entrepreneurs

The Phoenicians became the leading maritime traders of the ancient world for many reasons. The Phoenicians’ skills at sea played a large role in their growth, but it doesn’t alone explain their rise. The Late Bronze Age Collapse provided an opportunity not just for trade but also for expansion. This allowed the Phoenicians to create a network of city-states and outposts that aided their trading vessels to safely journey through the Mediterranean. The expansive nature of their trade routes also played a role. Phoenicians were vitally important to many empires that otherwise did not have access to the goods the Phoenicians were able to reliably provide. Finally, technology and innovation helped them develop new, efficient practices that kept their trade ships safe on journeys and made tracking of cargo or payment reliable.

The Phoenicians also demonstrated the relationship between trade and culture. Because of the Phoenicians, the alphabet developed and some of the most iconic symbolism of the ancient world—such as purple representing royalty—was solidified. The cross-cultural influence the Phoenicians made possible can be seen in architecture, literature, and archaeological finds. The importance of the Phoenicians in the ancient world is also demonstrated in their depictions in the works of Homer, the Bible, Egyptian tombs, and frescoes across Mesopotamia and Greece. Despite our lack of first- hand accounts, these depictions give us a sense of the role this ancient civilization played in its own world and allows its influence to live on among the many cultures it touched and shaped.

Cities like Jericho, the ruins of which are shown here, would have done frequent trade with nearby Phoenicia.

James B. Pritchard

One of the greatest challenges to understanding the Phoenicians is our lack of primary evidence about their way of life. We rely largely on Greek, Egyptian, or Mesopotamian writings about the civilization’s role in ancient history. These sources have provided us with a lot of information but left a lot of gaps in our knowledge. However, we do have some first-hand knowledge of the way Phoenicians lived, traded, and worshipped, thanks in large part to American archaeologist James B. Pritchard. Pritchard specialized in excavating and studying Jordan, Israel, and Lebanon, where Phoenician city-states were most heavily clustered.

From 1964 to 1967, Pritchard worked in the Jordan Valley. There he discovered connections between the Phoenicians and the Sea Peoples, as well as Tell es- Sa’idiyeh’s role as a meeting place of cultures. From 1969 to 1974, Pritchard’s last excavation took place at Sarafand in Lebanon, where he discovered Sarepta, a large Phoenician city. The city is mentioned in numerous ancient texts, including the Bible under the name Zarepeth. Although not one of the major trade centers, it is one of the largest former Phoenician city sites that is not currently inhabited. This made it possible to excavate large stretches of space without disrupting an existing city. Pritchard’s discoveries at Sarepta expanded our understanding of Phoenician religion, pottery work, and day-to-day life. The excavation was cut short by the Lebanese Civil War. Similarly, his excavation at Tell es-Sa’idiyeh was cut short by the Six Days’ War. Yet his discoveries broadened our understanding of ancient Phoenicia.