Introduction
1. See Michael Crummey, “The Circus Comes to Charlottetown: The Accidental Birth of a Nation,” The Walrus (September 25, 2014).
2. Parliamentary Debates on the Subject of the Confederation of the British North American Provinces, 3rd Session, 8th Provincial Parliament of Canada (Ottawa: Parliamentary Printers, 1865), 44.
3. For a description of the evolution of colonial self-government see John Manning Ward, Colonial Self-Government: The British Experience, 1759–1856 (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 1976).
Chapter One: Background to a New Nation
1. Trevor B. McCrisken, “Exceptionalism: Manifest Destiny” in Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy, vol. 2 (New York: Scribner, 2002), 68.
Chapter Two: The Victorian Outlook
1. See Goldwin Smith, “Lectures on the Study of History,” delivered in Oxford 1859–61 (Toronto: Adam, Stevenson & Co., 1873).
Chapter Four: The Regions and First Peoples: Quebec
1. Cole Harris, The Reluctant Land (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2008), 44.
2. John A. Dickinson and Brian Young, A Short History of Quebec (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2008), 84–92.
3. Paul-André Linteau, René Durocher, and Jean-Claude Robert, Quebec: A History 1867‒1929 (Toronto: James Lorimer & Company, 1983), 85.
4. Yvon Desloge, “Behind the Scene of the Lachine Canal Landscape,” Journal of the Society for Industrial Archeology, 2013, 7–13.
5. An Act to Amend and Consolidate the Laws Respecting Indians, assented to 12 April 1876, www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/DAM/DAM-INTER-HQ/STAGING/texte-text/1876c18_1100100010253_eng.pdf.
Chapter Five: The Regions and First Peoples: Ontario
1. Census Canada, 1880‒1881, vol. 1, www.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/census/1881/pages/search-help.aspx.
2. John E.C. Brierley, “The Co-Existence of Legal Systems in Quebec: Free and Common Socage in Canada’s pays de droit civil” in Les Cahiers de droit, vol. 20, no. 1–2, 1979, 277–87, www.erudit.org/revue/cd/1979/v20/n1-2/042317ar.pdf.
3. John McCallum, Unequal Beginnings: Agricultural and Economic Development in Quebec and Ontario until 1870 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1980), 45–46.
4. Ibid., 45–54.
5. See John Douglas Belshaw, Canadian History: Pre-Confederation (B.C. Open Textbook Project), Chapter 9, https://opentextbc.ca/preconfederation.
6. John H. Taylor, Ottawa: An Illustrated History (Toronto: James Lorimer & Co., 1986), 25–27.
7. Olive Patricia Dickason, Canada’s First Nations: A History of Founding Peoples from Earliest Times (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1992), 247.
8. Ibid., 237.
9. John S. Milloy, A National Crime: The Canadian Government and the Residential School System (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 1999), 3.
Chapter Six: The Regions and First Peoples: The Atlantic Provinces
1. For an excellent overview of this period see Eric W. Sager and Gerald Panting, Maritime Capital: The Shipping Industry in Atlantic Canada, 1820–1914 (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1990).
2. Joseph Beete Jukes, Excursions in and About Newfoundland: During the Years 1839 and 1840, vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011).
Chapter Seven: The Regions and First Peoples: The West and the North
1. Robert Baker, “Creating Order in the Wilderness: Transplanting the English Law to Rupert’s Land, 1835–51,” Law and History Review (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999).
2. For a good overview of life on the Prairies, see Gerald Friesen, The Canadian Prairies: A History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1984).
3. Dickason, Olive Patricia, A Concise History of Canada’s First Nations, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 192–96.
4. James A. Daschuk, Clearing the Plains: Disease, Politics of Starvation, and the Loss of Aboriginal Life (Regina: University of Regina Press, 2013), 42.
5. Carl Waldman, Atlas of the North American Indian (New York: Checkmark Books, 2009), 206.
6. Stephen Schneider, Iced: The Story of Organized Crime in Canada (Toronto: John Wiley & Sons, 2009), 65–69.
7. For the best summary of the issues facing Plains First Nations in Canada during the Confederation decades see Daschuk, Clearing the Plains.
8. For an overview of this issue see Robert Boyd, The Coming of the Spirit of Pestilence: Introduced Infectious Diseases and Population Decline Among Northwest Coast Indians 1774–1874 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1999). For the impact of the bubonic plague, its effects and mortality rates, see John Kelly, The Great Mortality: An Intimate History of the Black Death (New York: Harper-Collins, 2005).
9. F.W. Howay, W.N. Sage, and H.F. Angus, British Columbia and the United States: The North Pacific Slope from Fur Trade to Aviation (Toronto: Ryerson Press, 1942), 235–36.
10. See David A. Morrison and Germain Georges-Hebert, Inuit: Glimpses of an Arctic Past (Ottawa: Canadian Museum of Civilization, 1995).
Chapter Eight: The Immigrant Peoples: The Irish
1. W.J. Patterson, The Dominion of Canada (Montreal: D. Bentley and Company, 1883), 67, with particulars as to its extent, climate, agricultural resources, fisheries, mines, manufacturing, and other industries; also, details of home and foreign commerce, including a summary of the census of 1881.
2. Paul Gallagher, “How British Free Trade Starved Millions During Ireland’s Potato Famine: A Schiller Institute Paper,” last modified May 1995, www.schillerinstitute.org/economy/nbw/pot_famine95.html.
3. For a good examination of the response provided at Grosse Isle see James Magnan, The Voyage of the Naparima (Dublin: Carraig Books, 1982).
4. For a general overview of the famine see Cecil Woodham-Smith, The Great Hunger — Ireland, 1845‒1849 (London: Penguin Books, 1991).
5. For example, see W. Scott, “The Orange Order and Social Violence in Mid-Nineteenth Century Saint John,” Acadiensis: Journal of the History of the Atlantic Region, vol. 13, no. 1, autumn 1983, 68–92.
Chapter Nine: The Immigrant Peoples: The Scots
1. See Stanford W. Reid, The Scottish Tradition in Canada (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1976).
2. For an overview of the nature of the Scottish Enlightenment see Tom Devine, Scotland’s Empire, 1600–1815 (London: Allen Lane, 2003).
3. H. Pelling, Social Geography of British Elections, 1885–1910 (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 1967), 373.
4. Ken McGoogan, Celtic Lightning: How the Scots and the Irish Created a Canadian Nation (Toronto: Harper-Collins, 2015).
Chapter Ten: The Immigrant Peoples: The French
1. Claude Bélanger, “The Roman Catholic Church and Quebec,” Department of History, Marianopolis College, http://faculty.marianopolis.edu/c.belanger/quebechistory/readings/church.htm.
2. “The History of Acadia,” in The Canadian Encyclopaedia, www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/history-of-acadia.
Chapter Twelve: The Immigrant Peoples: The Era’s New Minorities
1. John Baker, “The Last of Those Who Had Been Born in Slavery in Canada,” in J.F. Pringle, Judge County Court, Lunenburgh, or the Old Eastern District, 1890, ch. 36, 1890, http://my.tbaytel.net/bmartin/jbaker.htm.
Chapter Fourteen: Urban Life
1. Joel Tarr and Clay McShane, “The Horse & the Urban Environment,” in The Environmental Literacy Council, http://enviroliteracy.org/environment-society/transportation/the-horse-the-urban-environment.
2. Shannon Kyles, Ontario Architecture Website, www.ontarioarchitecture.com/gothicrevival.html.
Chapter Fifteen: Domestic Life
1. Jonathan Hart, Empires and Colonies (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2008), 251.
2. Richard Gwyn, “Sir John A. Macdonald, the Greatest PM of All,” Toronto Star, Insight, January 9, 2015, www.thestar.com/news/insight/2015/01/09/sir_john_a_macdonald_the_greatest_pm_of_all.html.
3. Heather Come Murray, Bright Improvement! The Literary Societies of Nineteenth-Century Ontario (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002), 108.
4. Eric W. Sager, “The Transformation of the Canadian Domestic Servant, 1871–1931, Social Science History,” in Cambridge Journals Online, http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=10038872.
5. Françoise Noël, Family Life and Sociability in Upper and Lower Canada, 1780–1870: A View from Diaries and Family Correspondence (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2003), 273–77.
6. See Catharine Parr Strickland Traill, The Canadian Settler’s Guide (Charleston, NC: Biblio Life, 2014), 28.
7. Lorna F. Hurl, “Restricting Child Factory Labour in Late Nineteenth Century Ontario,” in Labour / Le Travail, vol. 21, 1988, Athabaska University Press, https://journals.lib.unb.ca/index.php/LLT/article/view/4675.
8. Ibid., 103.
9. Paul Axelrod, The Promise of Schooling: Education in Canada, 1800–1914 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, ebook, 1997).
10. For a good overview of this topic, see Una Abrahamson, God Bless Our Home: Domestic Life in Nineteenth Century Canada (Toronto: Burns & MacEachern, 1966).
11. Several good essays describing the nature of alcohol use in nineteenth-century Canada can be found in Cheryl Krasnick Warsh, Drink in Canada: Historical Essays (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1993).
12. Wendy Moss, Elaine Gardner-O’Toole, Aboriginal People: History of Discriminatory Laws, Law and Government Division, Library of Parliament, Parliament of Canada, 1991, www.bdp.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/ResearchPublicationsArchive/bp1000/bp175-e.asp.
13. Jack S. Blocker, David M. Fahey, and Ian R. Tyrrell, Alcohol and Temperance in Modern History: An International Encyclopedia (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2003).
14. Cynthia Simpson, “The Treatment of Halifax’s Poorhouse Dead During the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries,” MA Thesis (Halifax: St. Mary’s University, 2011), 69.
Chapter Sixteen: Attitudes and Beliefs
1. 1871 Census, Statistics Canada, Population tables, 1871‒1941, www66.statcan.gc.ca/eng/1943-44/194301780108_p.%20108.pdf.
2. John Henry Newman, The Idea of a University (London: Aeterna Press, 2005), 10.
3. Charles Kingsley, The Works of Charles Kingsley, vol. 19 (London: Macmillan, 1880), 308.
4. Wilson J. Brent, “Military Aid to the Civil Authority in Mid-19th Century New Brunswick,” in Canadian Military History, vol. 17, no. 2, April 2012, http://scholars.wlu.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1484&context=cmh.
5. William Smyth, Toronto, the Belfast of Canada: The Orange Order and the Shaping of Municipal Culture (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2015), 136.
6. Elinor Kyte Senior, “The Gavazzi Riot of 1853,” in British Regulars in Montreal: An Imperial Garrison, 1834‒1854 (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1981), 109–33.
7. Owen Carrigan, “The Evolution of Juvenile Justice in Canada,” for the Canadian Department of Justice, 2, www.justice.gc.ca/eng/rp-pr/csj-sjc/ilp-pji/jj2-jm2/jj2-jm2.pdf.
8. Ibid., 11.
9. Ibid., 7.
10. Marc Alain and Julie Desrosiers, “A Fairly Short History of Youth Criminal Justice in Canada,” in Implementing and Working with the Youth Criminal Justice Act across Canada, Marc Alain, Raymond R. Corrado, Susan Reid, eds. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2016).
11. Christopher Moore, “That’s History: Inventing the Court of Appeal,” in Law Times Digital Editions, www.lawtimesnews.com/200806092422/commentary/thats-history-inventing-the-court-of-appeal.
Chapter Seventeen: Institutional Life
1. The British North America Act, Section 92, paragraph 16.
2. John Haligan, Civil Service Systems in Anglo American Countries (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2003), 31–32.
3. For an overview of the last decade of the era, see also Geoffrey Reaume, Remembrance of Patients Past: Life at the Toronto Hospital for the Insane, 1870–1940 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2000).
4. Kathleen Kendall, “Criminal Lunatic Women in 19th Century Canada,” School of Medicine, University of Southampton, www.csc-scc.gc.ca/research/forum/e113/113l_e.pdf.
5. Janet Miron, Prisons, Asylums, and the Public: Institutional Visiting in the Nineteenth Century (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2011), 32.
6. Michael Welch, Corrections: A Critical Approach (London: Routledge, 2013), 42.
7. Peter Oliver, Terror to Evil-Doers: Prisons and Punishment in Nineteenth-Century Ontario (Toronto: Osgoode Society for Canadian Legal History, 1998), 350.
8. See Greenhous Brereton, “Paupers and Poorhouses: The Development of Poor Relief in Early New Brunswick,” in Histoire Sociale / Social History, no. 1, Avril/April 1968 (Ottawa: Université d’Ottawa / Carleton University), 162.
9. See James E. Moran, Committed to the State Asylum: Insanity and Society in Nineteenth-Century Quebec and Ontario (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2001).
10. J.L. Granatstein, Canada’s Army: Waging War and Keeping the Peace (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002), 18–27.
11. For a concise overview history of Canada’s banking systems, see James Powell, A History of the Canadian Dollar (Ottawa: Bank of Canada, 2005), www.bankofcanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/dollar_book.pdf.
Chapter Eighteen: Education, Media, and the Popular Arts
1. To get a good sense of the writing styles of the period, the most accessible source of Confederation-era documents, with several million documents digitized, is at Early Canadiana Online, http://eco.canadiana.ca.
2. Suzanne de Castell, Allan Luke, Kieran Egan, Literacy, Society, and Schooling: A Reader (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986).
3. See Alison Prentice, The School Promoters: Education and Social Class in Mid-Nineteenth Century Upper Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2004).
Chapter Nineteen: Characteristics and Identity
1. The impact of white society on aboriginal peoples was well-known and clearly understood from the earliest days of the era. For example, Susanna Moodie wrote in the early 1850s: “It is a melancholy truth and deeply to be lamented that the vicinity of European settlers has always produced a very demoralizing effect on the Indians.” For the full context of this see Susanna Moodie, Roughing it in the Bush: Or, Life in Canada (Toronto: Prospero Books, 2000), 36.