accountability 9, 13, 99, 100, 102, 108, 114, 204
activism 14, 98, 104, 109–110, 113, 121–123, 138, 183; political 120–123, 116–117, 138, 183; women’s collective 79, 86, 116, 184
Africa 35, 64, 87, 105, 182–198, 199–217; sub-Saharan 182–185, 187, 190, 193, 196; and technology 87, 90
age 42
agency 7–8, 11–12, 17, 41, 43, 46, 48–50, 110; internet 84–87; Janus faced 46–47; political 84, 122; techno- 79, 84
Asia 22, 24, 25, 27, 34, 41–60, 64, 184
authority 6
Beijing (Fourth World) Conference on Women 23, 104, 134; aftermath of 23, 104, 124, 199; meeting 69, 74, 85–86; and other UN women’s conferences 85, 113, 218; Platform for Action 11
bodies 6–7, 122, 149, 186, 226; and power 6–7, 186
Bolivia 34
Bombay 218–235
Cairo International Conference on Population and Development 202, Declaration 67–69; post- 199, 208
Cameroon 182–198
Canadian International Development Agency 11, 86
capabilities, human 9; see also Sen, Amartya
Chambers, Robert 8, 166–169, 171
children 100, 105, 108, 173–174, 196, 223–224; childcare 115; girls 196, 223; rights of 65, 69
Chile 112–119, 132; women’s movement 115–116, 119
citizens 117, 120, 219–220; cyber- 85; empowered 12, 14, 116
civil society 5; global 241; see also NGOs
class 14, 26, 42, 48–50, 52, 56–7, 113, 116–117, 120, 122, 126, 137–139, 142–144, 168, 177, 186, 229, 241–242; and development 135, 177, 229; and non-governmental organisations 26, 229, 242; and politics 142–144, 242
collective action 4, 13, 29–30, 32–33, 126–127, 176, 244; see also mobilization
colonialism 149
communication 79–92; newsletter 86
communities 9–10, 41–42, 48, 55, 64, 169; development 12, 41, 108; and internet 82; and politics 135–136; religious 221; romanticizing 41
conflict 29
consciousness raising 17, 22, 27–28
culture 10, 15–16, 41, 43, 46, 48, 54–55, 63, 74, 125, 148–149, 154, 157, 184, 221–223, 225, 242; and access to land 147–162; and gender stereotypes 63, 171, 176, 184, 240, 242; and law 147–162; and politics 140–141; and social change 35, 223; and ‘tradition’ 149–150, 175, 242; and women’s human rights 63–64, 68, 74; and women’s subordination 125, 148–149, 171, 174–176, 221–222
cyberspace 16, 79–94, 241; and access 88–92, 241; and development 87–91; and internet 79–94
decision-making by women 118, 123, 183, 221
deconstruction 137
democracy 5, 9, 14, 102, 104–105, 116–117, 119, 139, 175, 232; democratization 15; and the internet 79
demographic agendas 199–201, 205, 208–209
dependency 8
development 3, 8–10, 13, 15, 97–98, 41, 43; agencies 97–111; alternative 8–11; community 12, 41, 108; discourse of 8–9, 15, 57, 97–111, 199, 201–203, 212–213; evaluation 101; and internet 87–91; knowledge-based 9; people-centred 98, 165; practices 4; practitioners 8, 168–169, 171, 207; praxis 166–174, 207; projects 8, 97, 100–101, 169–174, 199–217, 225; theorists 8; theory 8–9, 165–166, 177–176; top-down 11, 97, 126, 167–169, 194
difference 137, 144–145, 168; among women 135; politics of 135
discourse of development 8–9, 15, 57, 97–111, 122, 199, 201–203, 212–213; and power 6–8, 176
donors 97–111, 184, 186, 194, 196, 199, 201, 203, 218–219, 230; bilateral 97–99, 102, 105, 109–110; multilateral 99, 102, 105, 109–110
economic growth 183; sustainability 183
economy, global 113, 221, 226; decline 184, 202; discipline 182, 192–197; gendered 184, 190–191; resources 33, 153
education 5, 10, 22–38, 47–51, 91, 98, 101, 108, 120, 133, 223, 226, 240; and empowerment 17, 133, 223; formal 23–25, 240, 243; and gender gap 100; and human rights 68, 73–74; informal 26–34, 240, 243; and literacy 27, 34, 100, 203; popular 10
efficiency 101, 166, 182, 187, 190–192, 196; women’s 190–191
elites 142–144, 170, 175, 207, 229, 242; local westernized 122, 207; and politics 142–144, 242; western 7
employment 106–108, 116, 118, 120, 183, 222
empowerment bottom-up 112; collective action and 4, 10, 220; definitions 3–4, 11–13, 22–23, 97–98, 133–134, 182–184, 200–201, 220, 239; economics 158, 185–186, 195–197; language of 9–11, 57, 98–100, 109, 134, 243; limitations on 148, 184–185, 223; measurement of 12, 17–18, 200; outcome of 17–18, 97, 109, 239; and participation 165–178; process 4, 17–18, 89, 97, 100, 109, 197, 223, 239–240; and self-reliance 184–185; top-down 112; zone (EZ) 107–108
equality 64–65, 67, 71, 73–75, 121, 133, 124, 141–142, 195, 204; equity 101
Europe 44, 47, 80, 99, 102, 105
family 47–53, 55, 667–668, 72, 126, 151–153, 157, 224; daughter 49, 151, 156; fathers 73; motherhood 47–48, 55, 68, 73, 120, 126; and rights 63–64, 66–67, 71–72; sons 51, 55, 151, 156; wife 152
family planning 68, 199–217, 243; male preference 151
female circumcision 72
feminist agendas 199–202, 205, 209–213
feminists 22, 225; and activism 33, 104; Black 7; and empowerment 134; Islamist 122–123; Kurdish 122–123; and power 6, 15, 176; and technology 84; and theory 16; Third World 6–7; western feminist discourse 64
Foucault, Michel 4, 6, 7, 11, 16, 47, 176, 182, 186, 188–189, 243; on disciplinary power 182, 186–189; feminist critiques of 6–7; 186
gender 14; awareness 26; and development (GAD) 10–11, 16, 100, 103, 165; GAD specialists 100; data 101; empowerment index (GEM) 104; equality 8, 11, 120–121; hierarchy 8, 125, 185; ideology 113, 116, 126, 185; inequality 64, 100, 101, 103, 115, 174, 183–185, 241; mainstreaming 15; planning 101, 117; and politics 124, 136–138; power relations 239; socialization 30; subordination 127, 185
global 3, 4, 13, 16, 41, 174–175, 244; inequality 100; networks 89; organizations 14; structures 175
globalization 9, 13–14, 32, 36, 226, 240, 244; and competitiveness 115; and internet 86–87; and inequality 107, 221; protests 14, 79; and women’s activism 113
grassroots 9–12, 79, 165, 184, 190–193, 204, 219, 229–31
harassment, sexual 121
Haraway, Donna 84–85
health 68, 98, 200–216, 223, 226, 232
Hindu 7, 138, 147–63, 221; law 147–162, 242; Succession Act 147–148, 150–151, 154, 155–158, 242
household 33, 68, 100, 221–222, 225; female heads of 117, 221
Human Development Index 103–104
Human Development Report 100, 103–104, 106
human rights 41, 61–78, 241; and law 62, 65, 70–75; Western-based 64; women’s 30, 61–78, 116, 241
identity 13–14, 30, 32, 64, 83, 119, 122, 127, 177, 224; collective 33; and internet 83; multiple 177; and women’s rights 64–65
income generating projects 125, 227
India 15, 26, 133–162, 218–235, 242
inequalities 10, 100, 174; gender 64, 100, 101, 103, 115, 174, 183–185, 241
institutions 10–12, 97–11; international 242; see also organizations
INSTRAW 103
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 61
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 61
International Monetary Fund (IMF) 99, 106–107
Islam 7, 14, 61, 65–78, 121–123, 221; and women’s rights 61–78, 224, 241
knowledge 30; access 83; and development 90–91, 172–173, 176, 223; global 86; indigenous 41, 171, 176; and internet 83–84; local 8, 48, 167, 172, 174, 176; and power 172, 176, 223
labour 13, 41–60, 147; casualization 13; feminization 113; intensification 113; migrant 41–60; value of 153; see also workers
land 147–162, 242; and women’s empowerment 15, 147–162, 242
Latin America 22–23, 25–26, 29–30, 32–34, 102, 104, 114, 115, 184; Council for Adult Education in 34, 35
law 4, 61–78, 102, 104, 121, 133–146, 147–162, 242; customary 149–160, 242; and empowerment for women 16–17, 118, 120, 135–136, 147–162, 184, 241; Hindu 147–162, 242; Islamic 65–66, 69, 70, 242; and land 15, 147–162; and land rights 5; and migration 53–54; personal 150; and social change 148–149; and women’s human rights 62, 65, 70–75
leadership and women’s empowerment 30–31
liberalization, economic 9
livelihoods 42–43
local 3, 9, 12–13, 15–16, 41, 45, 56, 83, 135–136, 170–171, 175, 199–200, 204–208, 212–213, 232, 244; and collective action 243–244; and global 56, 83, 175, 244; and internet 83, 90; knowledge 8, 48, 167, 172, 174, 176; structure 171–172
Lukes, Steven 5
mainstream development agencies 5, 8–9, 11–12, 42, 97–111, 165, 174, 242
Malaysia 27; Women’s Development Collective (WDC) 27
marginalized communities 3, 4; people 5, 8, 116, 174; women 72
markets 9, 13, 98, 183, 185, 187, 188, 191–193, 195–197; discipline 191–192; and free trade 13
marriage 55, 67, 70, 120, 147, 152, 221; across religions 221; arranged 120; divorce 70, 124, 147, 224, 152, 225; and dowry 148, 224; polygamy 70–71, 120; and treatment of women 152, 224
Marxism 28
masculinity 10, 25, 120; and male breadwinner 74
micro-credit 125, 182–198, 226–227, 243
micro-enterprises 125
Middle East 44, 48–49, 50, 65–66, 70
migrants 41–43, 45–48, 50–52, 54, 56
migration 41–60, 240; narratives of 41, 240; remittances 48
military rule 113, 116, 120, 127; and women 113, 127
Ministry for Women 117–118, 124
mobilization 32–33
modernity 41, 120–122, 149, 165
modernization 5, 64, 120, 127, 187
national 13, 16, 241; identity 120; power structures 175–176
nationalism 120
neo-liberalism 9, 98, 112, 184, 197, 226, 232; and structural adjustment 98, 100, 112, 184, 187, 190, 197, 202, 218, 232; and women’s activism 113
Nepal 24, 34; Girls’ Access to Education (GATE) 24; Women’s Economic Empowerment and Literacy Project (WEEL) 34
Netherlands 102–103
networking 116, 221; church based 51–52; fax 86; global 15; with internet 79–92; national 30
NGOs (non-governmental organisations) 3, 8, 26–34, 57, 74, 90, 98, 100–103, 105–106, 114, 116–119, 123, 165–166, 183, 187–191, 199–217, 218–235, 240, 243–244; staff 228–229
North(ern) 5, 8, 16, 80, 99, 165–167, 196
North America 80
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) 99, 108
Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD) 102
organizations 32; international 99–101; local 32; for social justice 107; women’s 15–17, 26, 92, 112–132, 240, 242; see also collective action; NGOs
participation 6–7, 9, 11, 17, 165–181, 206–208, 227–228; collective 7; grassroots 9, 166–169; 227–228, 231–232; individual 7; and internet 79; and politics 134
participatory rural appraisal (PRA) 8, 16, 166–178, 243
patriarchy 10, 112–113, 120, 126, 144, 200, 227, 231; and states 14, 126–127, 144
peasants 147–162; movements 171
Philippines 31, 33, 41–60; Filipina 17, 44–45; Women in Enterprise (WED) 34
policy 12, 102, 105, 108, 202; gap between policy and practice 12; policy making 15, 105, 138; poverty reduction 105, 108–110, 183, 228–231
politics 9, 12, 29–30, 33, 45–46, 97, 102, 109–110, 120–121, 133–146, 225, 242; and class 137–138; cultural 48–50; global 13; informal 15, 218–234; and internet 79–81, 83–87; local 226; and micro-credit 195–196; migrant 45–46; national 13, 14, 134–136, 144; and social change 101, 134, 242; and working class 57
(the) poor 7, 9, 102, 119, 125, 168, 183, 218–235; and internet 91; listening to 9, 168, 174
population 199–217; and Cairo meeting 199, 202, 208–209, 212–214, 243; and women’s reproductive health 202–203
post-structuralism 43; see also Foucault, Michel
power 4–8, 11, 15–16, 98, 134, 176–178, 188–189, 239–240; between sexes 183; and discipline 182, 186–189, 243; Janus-faced 47; and knowledge 176; and land 147; over 4–8, 11, 15, 134, 176, 239–240, 243; and state 134; structures of 4, 29–30; to 4, 8, 11, 15–16, 134, 176, 189, 239–240; with 4, 8, 11, 15–16, 97–98, 134, 176, 239–240; within 4, 8, 11, 15–16, 176, 239–240, 242, 244
practical gender needs 200–201
press 120
public/private 68, 71–72, 108, 113, 116, 120–121, 150, 213, 244
quotas, for women 124, 133–146
race 64
reform 98
religion 7, 104, 148; and access to resources 148–151; Catholic 29, 56; and law 148–151; and women’s human rights 61–78; see also Hindu; Islam
representation, women’s 14–15, 17, 69, 100, 102, 118, 123–124, 133–146, 231, 242
resistance 188–189; to globalization 244
results-based management 174
Rotating Savings and Credit Associations (ROSCAs) 193–195
Rowlands, Jo 3, 11, 891, 200–201, 207, 210
self-confidence 224; self-reliance 183, 225; of women 125, 224
Servicio Nacional de la Mujer (SERNAM) 117–119
sex education 23; sterotypes 23–24
sexuality 25, 47, 48, 119, 125, 226; and rights 70–71
skills of public speaking 32; and training 31, 34, 43, 223, 232; and women’s empowerment 29–30, 34, 173
social capital 218
South 5, 8, 10, 80, 99, 165–166
space 13–14; and migration 41; and time compression 82, 85
state 6, 14, 16, 83, 98–101, 104, 106, 112–129, 154, 230–231; capacity 9; and CEDAW 64, 66; and development 125, 212–213; downsizing 98, 99; feminism 113, 124, 127; feminist theories of 114–115; and internet 83; Islamic 72–73, 66; and patriarchy 100, 112, 115, 118, 123; power 6, 16; reform 118; and society relations 112–132, 154–155; Western 73; and women’s empowerment 112, 116–119, 123–124, 126, 134–135, 140–142, 212–213, 228–231
structure 8, 12, 43, 176, 229–231; material 176; political 176
Tanzania 199–217; Integrated Project 199–213; Women’s Media Association (TAWMA) 81
technology 13–14, 79–92; access to 88–92; and development 87–91; and male domination 84, 88, 91
time 41–42, 48; and internet 82
transformation social 4, 10, 43, 148, 166, 195–197, 210, 221, 226–231; and internet 83, 89
Turkey 113–115, 119–127; women’s movement 119, 121, 126
UMATI 203–214
United Nations (UN) 14, 61, 65–69, 72–74, 85–86, 98–99, 103, 106; Convention on the Elimination of All forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) 30, 61–78, 114, 241; Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW) 103; International Decade for Women 218; Population Fund 203; UNESCO 80, 241; UNDP 14, 87–88, 90–103, 106; UNIFEM 103, 106
United States 14, 22, 25, 28, 44, 87–88, 97, 99, 107–109
Universal Declaration of Human Rights 30, 61, 65–67, 74
Universal Islamic Declaration of Human Rights 67–69
USAID 169
violence 6, 68; against women 24, 68, 72, 102, 104, 113, 117, 119, 121, 173, 224–225, 230, 243; and the state 6, 113; symbolic 56
voice 79, 101, 102, 121, 168, 172–173, 176, 220, 239, 243; and personal narratives 41–59, 218–235
volunteers 212
wages 153–154; and gender gap 108, 153
womanhood 122, 141; see also identity
women and decision-making 14; and family planning 68, 199–217, 243; and political organizations 116, 121, 133–146; in politics 14–15; working class 7
Women in Development (WID) 100, 103
Women on the Net (WoN) 80, 82–84, 86, 88–89, 91–92, 241
Women’s Development Collective (Malayasia) 27
women’s movement 17, 28, 32 112–132, 136, 138–144
Women’s Studies 25
work 108, 153–155, 222, 229; domestic 13, 41–60, 222; gender and value of 153–154; professional 123; women and 88
World Bank 9, 14, 86, 91, 99–101, 103, 109, 125, 165, 169, 183, 190
World Court 14
world system 8