[FDR’s message to Hitler]: in The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt, Samuel I. Rosenman, comp. (Random House, 1938-50), vol. 8, pp. 201-5, quoted at pp. 201, 202, 203, 204; see also Cordell Hull, Memoirs (Macmillan, 1948), vol. 1, p. 620.
[Göring and Mussolini on FDR]: William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany (Simon and Schuster, 1960), p. 470.
[“Contemptible a creature”]: quoted in Robert Dallek, Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932-1945 (Oxford University Press, 1979), p. 186.
[Pressure on Latvia]: Shirer, pp. 470-71.
[Hitler’s response]: April 28, 1939, in Louis L. Snyder, Hitler’s Third Reich: A Documentary History (Nelson-Hall, 1981), pp. 311-26, quoted at pp. 317, 313, 318, 324-25, 326, respectively; Shirer, pp. 471-75, quoted on Hitler’s speech at p. 471; see also Shirer, The Nightmare Years (Little, Brown, 1984), pp. 397-404.
151 [“Hitler had all the better”]: quoted in Dallek, p. 187; see also C. A. MacDonald, The United States, Britain and Appeasement, 1936-1939 (St. Martin’s Press, 1981), p. 153.
[“Sympathy with President Roosevelt”]: quoted in James MacGregor Burns, Roosevelt: The Lion and the Fox (Harcourt, 1956), p. 184.
The Zigzag Road to War
152 [FDR’s pre-presidential foreign policy background]: see Dallek, Prologue; Geoffrey C. Ward, Before the Trumpet (Harper, 1985).
[FDR’s criticism of Coolidge]: quoted in Dallek, p. 17.
153 [Isolationism]: Wayne S. Cole, Roosevelt and the Isolationists, 1932-45 (University of Nebraska Press, 1983), p.9 and passim; Dallek; Wayne S. Cole, Charles A. Lindbergh and the Battle Against American Intervention in World War II (Harcourt, 1974); Cole, America First: The Battle Against Intervention, 1940-1941 (University of Wisconsin Press, 1953); Manfred Jonas, Isolationism in America, 1935-1941 (Cornell University Press, 1966); Sheldon Marcus, Father Coughlin: The Tumultuous Life of the Priest of the Little Flower (Little, Brown, 1973), chs. 7-8 passim; Michele Flynn Stenehjem, An American First: John T. Flynn and the America First Committee (Arlington House, 1976).
153 [Opinion polls, 1937]: Harvey Cantril and Mildred Strunk, eds., Public Opinion, 1935-1946 (Princeton University Press, 1951), pp. 966 (item 2), 967 (item 20); see also Jerome S. Bruner, Mandate from the People (Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1944), pp. 18-20.
[Elements in equation of world power]: see Burns, Lion, p. 248.
54 [“Groping for a door”]: quoted in ibid.
[FDR’s prewar foreign policy leadership]: ibid., pp. 262-63; James MacGregor Burns, Roosevelt: The Soldier of Freedom (Harcourt, 1970), pp. 65-66, 119-20; Gloria J. Barron, Leadership in Crisis: FDR and the Path to Intervention (Kennikat Press, 1973); Mark M. Lowenthal, “Roosevelt and the Coming of War: The Search for United States Policy, 1937-1942,” Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 16 (1981), pp. 413-40; Bruce M. Russett, No Clear and Present Danger: A Skeptical View of the U.S. Entry into World War II (Harper, 1972); Robert A. Divine, Roosevelt and World War II (Johns Hopkins Press, 1969), chs. 1-2; Divine, The Reluctant Belligerent: American Entry into World War II (Wiley, 1965); Richard W. Steele, “Franklin D. Roosevelt and His Foreign Policy Critics,” Political Science (Quarterly, vol. 94, no. 1 (Spring 1979), pp. 15-32; Steele, “The Great Debate: Roosevelt, the Media, and the Coming of the War, 1940-1941,”Journal of American History, vol. 71, no. 1 (June 1984), pp. 69-92; Warren F. Kimball, ed., Franklin D. Roosevelt and the World Crisis, 1937-1945 (D. C. Heath, 1973), part 1; Charles C. Tansill, Back Door to War (Henry Regnery, 1952); Arnold A. Offner, American Appeasement: United States Foreign Policy and Germany, 1933-1938 (Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1969).
[Divisions within isolationist camp]: Cole, Roosevelt, pp. 6-7, quoted at p. 7.
155 [“The blame for the danger”]: December 28, 1933, in Public Papers, vol. 2, pp. 544-49, quoted at p. 546.
[Nye committee]: Wayne S. Cole, Senator Gerald P. Nye and American Foreign Relations (University of Minnesota Press, 1962), esp. chs. 5-6; Cole, Roosevelt, ch, 11; John E. Wiltz, In Search of Peace: The Senate Munitions Inquiry, 1934-1936 (Louisiana State University Press, 1963); Burns, Lion, pp. 253-54.
[Hull on Administration marking time]: Cole, Roosevelt, p. 147.
156 [Curtiss-Wright]: U.S. v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp., 299 U.S. 304 (1936), quoted at 320; Erik M. Erikson, The Supreme Court and the New Deal (Rosemead Review Press, 1940), pp. 197-200; Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Imperial Presidency (Houghton Mifflin, 1973), pp. 100-4.
[Neutrality legislation and FDR’s foreign policy]: see Dallek, ch. 5; Cole, Roosevelt, chs. 12, 15; Richard P. Traina, American Diplomacy and the Spanish Civil War (Indiana University Press, 1968); Robert A. Divine, The Illusion of Neutrality (University of Chicago Press, 1962); Burns, Lion, pp. 255-59; Divine, Roosevelt, pp. 10-14.
[“A hat and a rabbit”]: quoted in Dallek, p. 144.
157 [FDR’s 1937 Chicago address]: October 5, 1937, in Public Papers, vol. 6, pp. 406-11, quoted at p. 408; see also Dorothy Borg, “Notes on Roosevelt’s ‘Quarantine’ Speech,” in Robert A. Divine, ed., Causes and Consequences of World War II (Quadrangle, 1969), pp. 47-70.
[Response to Chicago address and FDR’s response]: Burns, Lion, pp. 318-19; Cole, Roosevelt, pp. 246-48; Dorothy Borg, The United States and the Far Eastern Crisis of 1933-1938 (Harvard University Press, 1964), pp. 382-98, 538-39; Divine, Reluctant Belligerent, p. 45.
[“A terrible thing”]: quoted in Samuel I. Rosenman, Working with Roosevelt (Harper, 1952), p. 167.
[Hitler’s domestic power]: see Edward N. Peterson, The Limits of Hitler’s Power (Princeton University Press, 1969); Shirer, Rise and Fall.
[Rhineland]: Shirer, Rise and Fall, pp. 290-96, Hitler quoted at p. 293; James T. Emmerson, The Rhineland Crisis, 7 March 1936: A Study in Multilateral Diplomacy (Maurice Temple Smith, 1977); William L. Shirer, The Collapse of the Third Republic: An Inquiry into the Fall of France in 1940 [Simon and Schuster, 1969), ch. 16.
158 [Sudeten crisis]: Shirer, Rise and Fall, ch. 12, Churchill quoted at p. 423; Telford Taylor, Munich: The Price of Peace (Doubleday, 1979); Burns, Lion, pp. 384-88; Shirer, Collapse, chs. 19-21 ; Larry W. Fuchser, Neville Chamberlain and Appeasement: A Study in the Politics of History (Norton, 1982), chs. 6-7; Offner, pp. 245-71; Joseph Alsop and Robert Kintner, American White Paper: The Story of American Diplomacy and the Second World War (Simon and Schuster, 1940), ch. 2; MacDonald, chs. 6-7.
158 [Czech dismemberment]: Shirer, Rise and Fall, pp. 428-30, 437-54.
[“Never in my life”]: letter to Gertrude Ely, March 25, 1939, in F.D.R.: His Personal Letters, 1928-1945, Elliott Roosevelt, ed. (Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1950), vol. 2, p. 872.
[Efforts toward arms embargo repeal]: see David L. Porter, The Seventy-sixth Congress and World War II, 1939-1940 (University of Missouri Press, 1979), ch. 3; Betty Glad, Key Pittman: The Tragedy of a Senate Insider (Columbia University Press, 1986), ch. 22.
[Pittman]: Fred L. Israel, Nevada’s Key Pittman (University of Nebraska Press, 1963), pp. 166-67; see also Glad, pp. 217-19 and chs. 20-24; Wayne S. Cole, “Senator Pittman and American Neutrality Policies, 1933-1940,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review, vol. 46, no. 4 (March 1960), pp. 644-62.
[FDR meeting with Senate leaders]: quoted in Burns, Lion, pp. 392-93.
159 [FDR on prospective Axis aggression]: memorandum by Carlton Savage, May 19, 1939, quoted in William L. Langer and S. Everett Gleason, The Challenge to Isolation, 1937-1940 (Harper, 1952), pp. 138-39.
[Stalin to Churchill on Soviet turn to Germany]: Lord Beaverbrook Papers, Cabinet Papers, House of Lords.
[Nazi-Soviet Pact]: Shirer, Rise and Fall, ch. 15, Stalin quoted at p. 540; Shirer, Collapse, chs. 22, 24; Vojtech Mastny, Russia’s Road to the Cold War: Diplomacy, Warfare, and the Politics of Communism, 1941-1945 (Columbia University Press, 1979), pp. 23-35; David J. Dallin, Soviet Russia’s Foreign Policy, 1939-1942, Leon Dennen, trans. (Yale University Press, 1942), chs. 2-3; Raymond J. Strong and James S. Beddie, eds., Nazi-Soviet Relations, 1939-1941: Documents from the Archives of the German Foreign Office (U.S. Department of State, 1948), chs. 1-3.
[Start of World War II]: Nicholas Bethell, The War Hitler Won: The Fall of Poland, September 1939 (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972); Shirer, Rise and Fall. chs. 16-17; Shirer, Collapse, chs. 25-26.
160 [“I sit in one of the dives”]: “September 1, 1939,” in The English Auden: Poems, Essays, and Dramatic Writings, 1927-1939, Edward Mendelson, ed. (Random House, 1977), pp. 245-47, quoted at p. 245.
[“The end of the world”]: quoted in Michael R. Beschloss, Kennedy and Roosevelt: The Uneasy Alliance (Norton, 1980), p. 190.
[Arms embargo repeal and “cash and carry”]: Porter, ch. 4; Divine, Illusion, chs. 8-9; Cole, Roosevelt, pp. 320-30; Burns, Lion, pp. 395-97; Langer and Gleason, pp. 218-35.
[Noninterventionist mail campaign]: Dallek, p. 200.
[“One single hard-headed thought”]: message to Congress, September 2 1, 1939, in Public Papers, vol. 8, pp. 512-22, quoted at p. 521.
[“Dreadful rape”]: FDR to Lincoln MacVeagh, letter of December 1, 1939, in Personal Letters, vol. 2, p. 961.
161 [Anglo-American relations]: see MacDonald, passim; Warren K. Kimball, The Most Unsordid Act: Lend-Lease, 1939-1941(Johns Hopkins Press, 1969); Kimball, “Lend-Lease and the Open Door: The Temptation of British Opulence, 1937-1942,” Political Science Quarterly, vol. 86, no. 2 (June 1971), pp. 232-59; Fuchser, pp. 97-99.
[“Much public criticism”]: letter of February 1, 1940, in Francis L. Loewenheim et al., eds., Roosevelt and Churchill: Their Secret Wartime Correspondence (Saturday Review Press/ E. P. Dutton, 1975), p. 93.
[“The country as a whole”]: quoted in Dallek, p. 211.
[German invasion of Denmark and Norway]: Shirer, Rise and Fall, ch. 20; J. L. Moulton, The Norwegian Campaign of 1940: A Study of Warfare in Three Dimensions (Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1960); Richard Petrow, The Bitter Years (Morrow, 1974), chs. 1-7.
[“Can have no illusions”]: April 15, 1940, in Public Papers, vol. 9, p. 161.
162 [German invasion of the Netherlands, Belgium, France]: Shirer, Rise and Fall, ch. 21; Shirer, Collapse, chs. 28-29; John Williams, The Ides of May: The Defeat of France, May-June 1940 (Knopf, 1968).
[“Decide the destiny”]: quoted in Burns, Lion, p. 419.
162 [“Scene has darkened swiftly”]: in Loewenheim, pp. 94-95, quoted at p. 94. [“Nazified Europe”]: ibid., p. 94.
[Reynaud’s appeal to FDR]: quoted in Dallek, p. 230; see also Eleanor M. Gates, End of the Affair: The Collapse of the Anglo-French Alliance, 1939-40 (University of California Press, 1981), Appendix D. [Walsh threat]: Burns, Lion, pp. 421-22.
[Opinion polls on aid]: poll of May 23, 1940, in Cantril and Strunk, p. 973 (item 67).
163 [Isolationist defections]: Justus D. Doenecke, “Non-interventionism of the Left: The Keep America Out of the War Congress, 1938-41,”Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 12, no. 2 (1977), pp. 221-36, esp. pp. 231-32.
[FDR as Sphinx]: see Burns, Lion, p. 410.
[FDR’s maneuverings to preserve options]: ibid., pp. 408-15; James A. Farley, Jim Farley’s Story (McGraw-Hill, 1948), chs. 20-24; Bascom N. Timmons, Garner of Texas (Harper, 1948), chs. 15-16; Herbert S. Parmet and Marie B. Hecht, Never Again: A President Runs for a Third Term (Macmillan, 1968), chs. 1, 2.
163-4 [Republican convention]: Robert E. Burke, “The Election of 1940,” in Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., ed., History of American Presidential Elections, 1789-1968 (Chelsea House, 1971), vol. 4, pp. 2928-31; Steve Neal, Dark Horse: A Biography of Wendell Willkie (Doubleday, 1984), ch. 10; Parmet and Hecht, ch. 6; James T. Patterson, Mr. Republican: Robert A. Taft (Houghton Mifflin, 1972), chs. 14-15.
164 [“Could not in these times refuse”]: quoted in Farley, p. 251.
[Democratic convention]: Burns, Lion, pp. 426-30; Burke, pp. 2933-36; Farley, chs. 25-29; Parmet and Hecht, ch. 8.
[“Destroyer deal”]: Philip Goodhart, Fifty Ships That Saved the World (Doubleday, 1965); Mark L. Chadwin, The Hawks of World War II (University of North Carolina Press, 1968), ch. 4; Dallek, pp. 243-48; Kimball, Unsordid Act, pp. 67-71; Ronald Steel, Walter Lippmann and the American Century (Atlantic Monthly/Little, Brown, 1980), pp. 384-86; Public Papers, vol. 9, pp. 376-407; Thomas A. Bailey and Paul B. Ryan, Hitler vs. Roosevelt: The Undeclared Naval War (Free Press, 1979), ch. 7.
[“Whole fate of the war”]: letter of July 31, 1940, in Loewenheim, pp. 107-108, quoted at p. 107.
[Hitler’s thwarted invasion of Britain]: see Shirer, Rise and Fall, ch. 22.
165 [Selective Service]: J. Garry Clifford and Samuel R. Spencer, Jr., The First Peacetime Draft (University Press of Kansas, 1986); Porter, chs. 6-7; Dallek, pp. 248-50; Public Papers, vol. 9, pp. 473-75.
[Willkie campaign]: Neal, ch. 12; Burke, pp. 2937-43; Parmet and Hecht, chs. 9-12; Muriel Rukeyser, One Life (Simon and Schuster, 1957), ch. 4; Donald Bruce Johnson, The Republican Party and Wendell Willkie (University of Illinois Press, 1960), ch. 4; Cole, Roosevelt, p. 396.
[“A temporary alliance”]: Neal, pp. 158-59, quoted at p. 159.
[FDR’s campaign]: Burns, Lion, pp. 442-51; Burke, pp. 2943-45; Parmet and Hechl, chs. 9-12.
[“An old campaigner”]: in Public Papers, vol. 9, pp. 485-95, quoted at p. 488,.
[“Ma-a-a-rtin”]: see ibid., pp. 506, 523; Rosenman, Working, pp. 240-41.
[“Mothers and fathers of America”]: October 30, 1940, in Public Papers, vol. 9, pp. 514-24, quoted at p. 517.
[“Very ominous”]: campaign address at Brooklyn, N.Y., November 1, 1940, in ibid., vol. 9, pp. 530-39, quoted at p. 531; see also Burns, Lion, p. 449.
[Election results]: Schlesinger, vol. 4, p. 3006; Burns, Lion, pp. 454-55.
[“Happy I’ve won but”]: quoted in James Roosevelt and Bill Libby, My Parents: A Differing View (Playboy Press, 1976), p. 164.
[FDR-Willkie meeting]: see James Roosevelt and Sidney Shalett, Affectionately, F.D.R.: A Son’s Story of a Lonely Man (Harcourt, 1959), p. 325; Grace Tully, F.D.R., My Boss (Scribner, 1949), p. 58.
The War of Two Worlds
166 [Hitler’s address at Rheinmetall-Borsig]: New York Times, December 11, 1940, pp. 1, 4-5, quoted at p. 4.
166 [FDR’s reply]: fireside chat of December 29, 1940, in Public Papers, vol. 9, pp. 633-44, quoted at pp. 634, 639, 640, 643; Burns, Soldier, pp. 27-28.
[Hitler on global strategy]: quoted in Shirer, Rise and Fall, p. 821; see also Joachim C. Fest, Hitler, Richard and Clara Winston, trans. (Vintage, 1975), p. 643.
[Churchill’s letter to FDR]: December 8, 1940, in Winston S. Churchill, Their Finest Hour (Houghton Mifflin, 1949), pp. 558-67, quoted at pp. 561, 564, 566.
[“One of the most important”]: ibid., p. 558.
[FDR’s conception of Lend-Lease]: quoted in Robert E. Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins: An Intimate History (Harper, 1950), p. 224.
[Lend-Lease]: Kimball, Unsordid Act; John Morton Blum, From the Morgenthau Diaries: Years of Urgency, 1938-1941 (Houghton Mifflin, 1965), ch. 6; William L. Langer and S. Everett Gleason, The Undeclared War, 1940-1941 (Harper, 1953), chs. 8-9; Dallek, pp. 255-60; Cole, Roosevelt, ch. 28; Burns, Soldier, pp. 43-49; Kimball, “Lend-Lease and the Open Door”; William A. Klingaman, 1941 (Harper, 1988), ch. 3.
[Britain’s financial straits]: Dallek, p. 255.
[FDR’s garden-hose analogy]: press conference 702, December 17, 1940, in Public Papers, vol. 9, pp. 604-15, quoted at p. 607; see also Kimball, Unsordid Act, p. 77.
169 [Taft on Lend-Lease]: Patterson, Mr. Republican, pp. 242-44.
[Wheeler on Lend-Lease and FDR’s reply]: quoted in Burns, Soldier, p. 44; and press conference 710, January 14, 1941, in Public Papers, vol. 9, pp. 710-12, quoted at pp. 711-12.
[Tribune on Lend-Lease]: quoted in Burns, Soldier, p. 45.
[Coughlin on Lend-Lease]: see Charles J. Tull, Father Coughlin and the New Deal (Syracuse University Press, 1965), p. 228.
[Lindbergh’s testimony]: Cole, Roosevelt, pp. 416-17; Kimball, Unsordid Act, p. 190.
[Smith’s threat]: Kimball, Unsordid Act, pp. 162-63; see also Gerald L. K. Smith, Besieged Patriot (Christian Nationalist Crusade, 1978).
[Beard on Lend-Lease]: Kimball, Roosevelt and the World Crisis, p. 10.
[Pressure on FDR to convoy ships]: Dallek, pp. 260-62; Burns, Soldier, pp. 80-92.
[FDR’s “undeclared naval war”]: Bailey and Ryan; Shirer, Rise and Fall, pp. 878-83; H. L. Trefousse, Germany and American Neutrality, 1939-1941 (Bookman Associates, 1951).
170 [German invasion of the Soviet Union]: G. Deborin, The Second World War (Progress Publishers, Moscow, n.d.), chs. 7-8.
[U.S.-Japanese relations in 1930s]: John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire, 1936-1945 (Random House, 1970), chs. 1-2; Armin Rappaport, Henry L. Stimson and Japan, 1931-1933 (University of Chicago Press, 1963); Dorothy Borg and Shumpei Okamoto, eds., Pearl Harbor as History: Japanese-American Relations, 1931-1941 (Columbia University Press, 1973); Howard Jaslon, “Cordell Hull, His ‘Associates,’ and Relations with Japan, 1933-1936,” Mid-America, vol. 56, no. 3 (July 1974), pp. 160-74; Frederick C. Adams, “The Road to Pearl Harbor: A Reexamination of American Far Eastern Policy, July 1937-December 1938,” Journal of American History, vol. 63, no. 1 (June 1971), pp. 73-92.
171 [Atlantic-Pacific links]: see Burns, Soldier, p. 106.
[“Knock-outfight”]: letter of July 1, 1941, in Personal Letters, vol. 2, pp. 1173-74, quoted at p. 1174.
[FDR-Churchill summit]: Theodore A. Wilson, The First Summit: Roosevelt and Churchill at Placentia Bay, 1941 (Houghton Mifflin, 1969); Langer and Gleason, Undeclared War, ch. 21.
[“Final destruction of the Nazi tyranny”]: quoted in Wilson, p. 206.
171-2 [Greer and Kearny incidents]: Bailey and Ryan, chs. 12-14; Langer and Gleason, Undeclared War, pp. 742-60.
172 [“Very simply and very bluntly”]: Navy and Total Defense Day Address, October 27, 1941, in Public Papers, vol. 10, pp. 438-44, quoted at p. 441.
[“United States has attacked”]: quoted in Bailey and Ryan, p. 202.
[Approach of war in the Pacific]: Dallek, ch. 11 passim; Toland, Rising Sun, chs. 4-5; Burns, Soldier, ch.4; Shirer, Rise and Fall, ch. 25; Herbert Feis, The Road to Pearl Harbor: The Coming of the War Between the United States and Japan (Princeton University Press, 1950); Kimball, Roosevelt and the World Crisis, pp. 90-103; Winston S. Churchill, The Grand Alliance (Houghton Mifflin, 1950), ch. 11; Christopher Thorne, The Issue of War: States, Societies, and the Far Eastern Conflict of 1941-1945 (Oxford University Press, 1985), part 1; Thorne, Allies of a Kind: The United States, Britain, and the War Against Japan, 1941-1945 (Oxford University Press, 1978), ch. 2; Jonathan G. Utley, Going to War with Japan, 1937-1941 (University of Tennessee Press, 1985); Akira Iriye, Power and Culture: The Japanese-American War (Harvard University Press, 1981), ch. 1; Iriye, Across the Pacific: An Inner History of American-East Asian Relations (Harcourt, 1967), ch. 8; Kimilada Miwa, “Japanese Images of War with the United States,” in Akira Iriye, ed., Mutual Images: Essays in American-Japanese Relations (Harvard University Press, 1975), ch.6.
[ U.S. gasoline and scrap iron embargo]: see Burns, Soldier, pp. 21, 107, 109-10.
[“Within the hour”]: note from Churchill to Eden, December 2, 1941, in Churchill, Grand Alliance, pp. 600-1, quoted at p. 601.
[“Strongest fortress”]: quoted in Gordon W. Prange, At Dawn We Slept: The Untold Story of Pearl Harbor (McGraw-Hill, 1981), p. 122.
[“This means war”]: ibid., p. 475.
[Pearl Harbor]: ibid., chs. 61-67; Ronald H. Spector, Eagle Against the Sun: The American War with Japan (Free Press, 1985), pp. 1-7; Toland, Rising Sun, pp. 211-20; Klingaman, ch. 27.
[Mitsuo on concentration of U.S. ships]: Spector, p. 4.
175 [Controversy as to foreknowledge of Pearl Harbor attack]: see Spector, pp. 95-100; Prange, At Dawn, esp. ch. 81 and Appendix (“Revisionists Revisited”), pp. 839-50; Prange et al., Pearl Harbor: The Verdict of History (McGraw-Hill, 1986); John Toland, Infamy: Pearl Harbor and Its Aftermath (Doubleday, 1982); Charles A. Beard, President Roosevelt and the Coming War, 1941: A Study in Appearances and Realities (Yale University Press, 1948); Robert A. Theobald, The Final Secret of Pearl Harbor: The. Washington Contribution to the Japanese Attack (Devin-Adair, 1954); Roberta Wohlstetter, Pearl Harbor: Warning and Decision (Stanford University Press, 1962); Telford Taylor, “Day of Infamy, Decades of Doubt,” New York Times Magazine, April 29, 1984, pp. 107, 113, 120.
[Washington reaction to attack]: Toland, Rising Sun, pp. 216, 223-24, Knox quoted at p. 223.
[Tokyo reaction to attack]: ibid., pp. 227-28, song quoted at p. 228.
[Churchill’s reaction to attack]: Churchill, Grand Alliance, pp. 604-8.
175-6 [Hitler’s reaction to attack]: Shirer, Rise and Fall, pp. 875-76, 883-902; Fest, pp. 655-56.
176 [FDR on Germany and Italy at war with U.S.]: Public Papers, vol. 10, pp. 522-30, quoted at p. 530.
[Hitler’s declaration of war upon U.S.]: Shirer, Rise and Fall, pp. 897-900; Burns, Soldier, pp. 67-68, 173-74; Bailey and Ryan, ch. 17; John Toland, Adolf Hitler (Doubleday, 1976), pp. 692-97; Robert G. L. Waite, The Psychopathic God: Adolf Hitler (New American Library, 1978), pp. 489-99; James V. Compton, The Swastika and the Eagle: Hitler, the United States, and the Origins of World War II (Houghton Mifflin, 1967), chs. 1-2, 15; Gerhard L. Weinberg, “Hitler’s Image of the United States,” American Historical Review, vol. 69, no. 4 (July 1964), pp. 1006-21.
[Japanese attack at Philippines]: William Manchester, American Caesar: Douglas MacArthur, 1880-1964 (Little, Brown, 1978), ch. 5; Toland, Rising Sun, pp. 232-35; Spector, pp. 106-8; Louis Morton, The Fall of the Philippines (U.S. Department of the Army, 1953); Daniel F. Harrington, “A Careless Hope: American Air Power and Japan, 1941,” Pacific Historical Review, vol. 48 (1979), pp. 217-38.
177 [FDR-Churchill conference]: Robert Beitzell, The Uneasy Alliance: America, Britain, and Russia, 1941-1943 (Knopf, 1972), ch. 1; Richard W. Steele, The First Offensive: Roosevelt, Marshall and the Making of American Strategy (Indiana University Press, 1973), ch. 3; W. G. F. Jackson, “Overlord”: Normandy 1944 (Davis-Poynter, 1978), pp. 41-53; Forrest C. Pogue, George C. Marshall: Ordeal of Hope, 1939-1942 (Viking, 1966), ch. 12; Churchill, Grand Alliance, chs. 14-15; see also Russell F. Weigley, The American Way of War: A History of United States Military Strategy and Policy (Macmillan, 1973), ch. 7.
[Religious freedom in Declaration]: Sherwood, pp. 448-49.
[“To defend life, liberty”]: quoted in Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 684.
179 [Battle of the Coral Sea]: Spector, pp. 158-63; Ronald Lewin, The American Magic: Codes, Ciphers and the Defeat of Japan (Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1982), pp. 90-96.
179 [Guadalcanal]: Spector, chs. 9-10 passim; Toland, Rising Sun, part 4; Samuel B. Griffith II, The Battle for Guadalcanal (Lippincott, 1963); John Hersey, Into the Valley: A Skirmish of the Marines (Knopf, 1944); S. E. Morison, The Struggle for Guadalcanal (Little, Brown, 1949).
[“Green hell”]: Toland, Rising Sun, ch. 15.
[“Loathsome crawling things”]: Weigley, p. 276.
[Doolittle’s feat]: Spector, pp. 153-55; Toland, Rising Sun, pp. 304-10; Quentin Reynolds, The Amazing Mr. Doolittle (Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1953), chs. 8-9. [Midway]: Spector, pp. 166-78; Toland, Rising Sun, pp. 325-42; Gordon Prange, Miracle at Midway (McGraw-Hill, 1982); Lewin, pp. 96-111; Mitsuo Fuchida and Masatake Okumiya, Midway, the Battle That Doomed Japan: The Japanese Navy’s Story (U.S. Naval Institute, 1955).
180 [Public pressure for shift to Pacific first]: Steele, pp. 81-92; Manchester, pp. 307-12; Burns, Soldier, pp. 210-11.
[Debate over European strategy]: see Jackson, chs. 3-4; Steele, chs. 4-8; John Grigg, 1943: The Victory That Never Was (Hill and Wang, 1980), part 1 passim; Herbert Feis, Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin: The War They Waged and the Peace They Sought (Princeton University Press, 1957), chs. 5-10; Joseph L. Strange, “The British Rejection of Operation SLEDGEHAMMER, An Alternative Motive,” Military Affairs, vol. 46, no. 1 (February 1982), pp. 6-14; Pogue, chs. 12, 14-15; Beitzell, chs. 2-3. For a Soviet view of the strategic background, see Genrikh Trofimenko, The U.S. Military Doctrine (Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1986), pp. 1-56.
[Eisenhower on cross-Channel attack]: quoted in Steele, p. 79.
181 [North Africa]: Arthur Layton Funk, The Politics of TORCH: The Allied Landings and the Algiers Putsch (University Press of Kansas, 1974); William L. Linger, Our Vichy Gamble (Knopf, 1947); Stephen E. Ambrose, The Supreme Commander: The War Years of General Dwight D. Eisenhower (Doubleday, 1970), book 1, chs. 7-10; Burns, Soldier, ch. 9; Shirer, Rise and Fall, pp. 919-25; Pogue, ch. 18,
[“Walk with the Devil”]: quoted in Burns, Soldier, p. 297.
[“The freedom of your lives”]: ibid., p. 292.
[“I salute again”]: November 7, 1942, in Public Papers, vol. 11, pp. 451-52, quoted at p. 451.
The Production of War
182 [“Proper application of overwhelming force”]: Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 607.
[Soldiers as production workers]: Burns, Soldier, p. 470; William Manchester, The Glory and the Dream: A Narrative History of America, 1932-1972 (Little, Brown, 1974), pp. 267-68, 280-83; Bill Mauldin, Up Front (Henry Holt, 1944), pp. 143-44 and passim.
[Press on soldiers]: Burns, Soldier, p. 470; John Morton Blum, V Was for Victory: Politics and American Culture During World War II (Harcourt, 1976), pp. 53-64.
[Slow conversion to war production]: see Richard Polenberg, War and Society: The United States, 1941-1945 (Lippincott, 1972), pp. 10-11; see generally David Brinkley, Washington Goes to War (Knopf, 1988), esp. chs. 3-5.
[FDR’s production goals for 1942]: address on the State of the Union, January 6, 1942, in Public Papers, vol. 11, p. 37.
[Sample conversions]: Manchester, Glory and Dream, p. 293; John R. Graf, A Survey of the American Economy, 1940-1946 (North River Press, 1946), p. 33.
183 [American military output]: A. Russell Buchanan, The United States and World War II (Harper, 1964), vol. 1, p. 140; Manchester, Glory and Dream, p. 296; Alan S. Milward, War, Economy and Society, 1939-1945 (University of California Press, 1977), pp. 69 (Table 15), 70.
[Technology as pacing production]: Milward, pp. 188-91; Graf, p. 41; Allan Nevins and Frank K. Hill, Ford: Decline and Rebirth, 1933-1962 (Scribner, 1962), p. 191.
[Wartime shipping tonnage]: Donald M. Nelson, Arsenal of Democracy: The Story of American War Production (Harcourt, 1946), p. 243.
[Rate of ship production]: Manchester, Glory and Dream, p. 295.
[Hull 440]: Bernard Taper, “Life with Kaiser,” Nation, vol. 155, no. 24 (December 12, 1942), pp. 644-46; Russell Bookhout, “We Build Ships,” Atlantic, vol. 171, no. 4 (April 1943), pp. 37-42; Richard R. Lingemann, Don’t You Know There’s a War On?: The American Home Front, 1941-1945 (Putnam, 1970), pp. 130-31; A. A. Hochling, Home Front, U.S.A. (Crowell, 1966), pp. 51-52; Augusta Clawson, “Shipyard Diary of a Woman Welder,” Radical America, vol. 9, nos. 4-5 (July-August 1975), pp. 134-38.
184 [“But where is the ship?”]: quoted in Bookhout, p. 38.
[Laborforce, workweek, wage increases]: Buchanan, vol. 1, p. 138; Joel Seidman, American Labor from Defense to Reconversion (University of Chicago Press, 1953), p. 270.
[Income redistribution]: Geoffrey Perrett, Days of Sadness, Years of Triumph (Coward, McCann & Geoghegan, 1973), p. 354.
[Consumer spending]: Combined Production and Resources Board, The Impact of the War on Civilian Consumption in the United Kingdom, the United States and Canada (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1945), p. 17 (Table 11).
[Spending on nondurables]: ibid., pp. 3, 23-25; Lingemann, pp. 241-42, 281, 295, 319; Perrett, pp. 239, 381-82.
185 [“Rest Faster Here”]: quoted in Lingemann, p. 241.
[Migration in wartime]: Francis E. Merrill, Social Problems on the Homefront: A Study of War-time Influences (Harper, 1948), pp. 15, 61 (Table 4).
[Migrant children]: Agnes E. Meyer, Journey through Chaos (Harcourt, 1943), pp. 152, 204-5, and passim; see also Merrill, ch. 3.
[Migrant housing]: Blair Bolles, “The Great Defense Migration,” Harper’s, vol. 183 (October 1941), p. 463; see also Meyer, p. 100; William H. Jordy, “Fiasco at Willow Run,” Nation, vol. 156, no. 19 (May 8, 1943), pp. 655-58; Polenberg, pp. 140-42; Lingemann, pp. 82-84, 107-10.
[Beaumont dump]: Meyer, pp. 174-75.
[Nelson and the WPB]: Nelson; Eliot Janeway, The Struggle for Survival: A Chronicle of Economic Mobilization in World War II (Yale University Press, 1951), esp. ch. 11; Bruce Catton, The War Lords of Washington (Harcourt, 1948); Calvin L. Christman, “Donald Nelson and the Army: Personality as a Factor in Civil-Military Relations during World War II,” Military Affairs, vol. 27, no. 3 (October 1973), pp. 81-83.
[“Final authority”]: see Perrett, p. 256. [“We must have down here”]: quoted in Catton, p. 117.
[“Replacing New Dealers”]: quoted in Polenberg, pp. 90-91.
[Dollar-a-year men]: ibid., p. 91.
185-6 [Truman on dollar-a-year men]: quoted in Catton, pp. 119, 118, respectively; see also Donald H. Riddle, The Truman Committee: A Study in Congressional Responsibility (Rutgers University Press, 1964), pp. 41-43, 65-66, 71-73.
186 [Industry incentives]: Lingemann, p. 111; Blum, p. 122.
[“Of course it contributes to waste”]: quoted in Meyer, p. 5.
[Corporate profits and assets]: Polenberg, p. 13; Perrett, p. 403.
[“You have to let business make money”]: quoted in Blum, p. 122.
[Small business in the war]: Jim F. Heath, “American War Mobilization and the Use of Small Manufacturers, 1939-1943,” Business History Review, vol. 46, no. 3 (August 1972), pp. 295-319; Polenberg, pp. 218-19; Lingemann, p. 65; Riddle, pp. 63-64; Blum, pp. 124-31.
[Union membership]: Lingemann, p. 161; Craf, pp. 181-82.
[NWLB]: Seidman, pp. 81-86, 272-74; Burns, Soldier, p. 192; Public Papers, vol. 11, pp. 42-48.
[Maintenance of membership]: see Seidman, ch. 6.
187 [Labor’s junior status in war]: see Paul A. C. Koistinen, “Mobilizing the World War II Economy: Labor and the Industrial-Military Alliance,” Pacific Historical Review, vol. 42 (1973), pp. 443-78.
[Reuther’s plan]: Jean Gould and Lorena Hickok, Walter Reuther: Labor’s Rugged Individualist (Dodd, Mead, 1972), pp. 188-95, William Knudsen on “socialism” quoted at p. 193; Irving Howe and B. J. Widick, The UAW and Walter Reuther (Random House, 1949), pp. 108-10; Janeway, pp. 220-25.
[Murray on rank and file]: quoted in Koistinen, p. 468.
[Labor conditions]: Meyer, passim; Ed Jennings, “Wildcat! The Wartime Strike Wave in Auto,” Radical America, vol. 9, nos. 4-5 (July-August 1975), pp. 77-105. [“Little Steel” and inflation]: Seidman, ch. 7; Koistinen, p. 468.
187 [Work stoppages]: Seidman, p. 135 (Table); Jennings, p. 89.
[Lewis in early war years]: Melvyn Dubofsky and Warren VanTine, John L. Lewis (Quadrangle/New York Times Book Co., 1977), ch. 17.
[“When the mine workers’ children cry”]: quoted in ibid., p. 419.
[Mine workers’ conflict]: ibid., ch. 18; Seidman, pp. 136-40; Burns, Soldier, pp. 335-37.
188 [“Damn your coal black soul”]: quoted in Burns, Soldier, p. 337. [“Insurrection against the war”]: quoted in Seidman, p. 144.
[FDR on resignation and suicide]: see Dubofsky and Van Tine, p. 424.
[Women as percentage of war work force]: International Labour Office, The War and Women’s Employment: The Experience of the United Kingdom and the United States (International Labour Office, 1946), pp. 172-74.
[Sample women’s jobs]: ibid., p. 195; Lingemann, p. 152; Meyer, p. 46; Studs Terkel, “The Good War”: An Oral History of World War Two (Pantheon, 1984), p. 10. [Numbers of women employed, 1944]: ILO, p. 166; Susan M. Hartmann, The Home Front and Beyond: American Women in the 1940s (Twayne, 1982), pp. 77-78.
[Women’s wages, 1944]: ILO, pp. 199-200, 207.
[Women workers and unions]: ibid., pp. 237-47; Hartmann, pp. 64-69; Karen Anderson, Wartime Women: Sex Roles, Family Relations, and the Status of Women During World War II (Greenwood Press, 1981), pp. 55-60.
[Rosie the Riveter]: see Paddy Quick, “Rosie the Riveter: Myths and Realities,” Radical America, vol. 9, nos. 4-5 (July-August 1975), pp. 115-31, esp. pp. 115-16; Maureen Honey, Creating Rosie the Riveter: Class, Gender, and Propaganda during World War II (University of Massachusetts Press, 1984); Sherna B. Gluck, Rosie the Riveter Revisited: Women, the War, and Social Change (Twayne Publishers, 1987). [Defense contractors’ hiring policies]: see Lingemann, p. 162.
[Blacks as percentage of war workers, 1944]: ibid.
188-9 [Black-white wage differential]: ibid., pp. 164-65.
189 [NAACP and CORE in the war]: Warren D. St. James, The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People: A Case Study in Pressure Groups (Exposition Press, 1958), pp. 52, 54 (Table 1); August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, CORE: A Study in the Civil Rights Movement, 1942-1968 (Oxford University Press, 1973), ch. 1; Richard M. Dalfiurne, “The ‘Forgotten Years’ of the Negro Revolution,” in Bernard Sternsher, ed., The Negro in Depression and War: Prelude to Revolution, 1930-1945 (Quadrangle, 1969), pp. 298-316; Lee Finkle, “The Conservative Aims of Militant Rhetoric: Black Protest during World War II,” Journal of American History, vol. 60, no. 3 (December 1973), pp. 692-713; Blum, pp. 182-99.
[Race riots, 1943]: Alfred M. Lee and Norman D. Humphrey, Race Riot (Detroit, 1943) (Octagon Books, 1968); Carey McWilliams, North from Mexico: The Spanish-Speaking People of the United States (Lippincott, 1949), chs. 12-13.
[Employment of black women]: ILO, pp. 184-85; Karen T. Anderson, “Last Hired, First Fired: Black Women Workers during World War II,” Journal of American History, vol. 69, no. 1 (June 1982), pp. 82-97.
[St. Louis electric company]: Anderson, “Last Hired,” p. 84.
[Black women’s jobs]: Hartmann, p. 87; Anderson, Wartime Women, p. 39.
[Japanese internment]: Audrie Girdner and Anne Loftis, The Great Betrayal: The Evacuation of Japanese-Americans during World War II (Macmillan, 1969); Bill Hosokawa, Nisei: The Quiet Americans (Morrow, 1969), part 2 passim: Carey McWilliams, Prejudice: Japanese-Americans, Symbol of Racial Intolerance (Little, Brown, 1945); Charles Kikuchi, The Kikuchi Diary: Chronicle from an American Concentration Camp, John Modell, ed. (University of Illinois Press, 1973); Yoshiko Uchida, Desert Exile: The Uprooting of a Japanese American Family (University of Washington Press, 1982); Terkel, pp. 28-35; Michi Weglyn, Years of Infamy (Morrow, 1976); Thomas James, Exile Within: The Schooling of Japanese-Americans, 1942-1945 (Harvard University Press, 1987).
[“When I first entered our room”]: Letters of Stanley Shimabukuro, Joseph Goodman Collection, box 1, folder 1, California Historical Society, San Francisco. 190 [“When can we go back to America?”]: quoted in Girdner and Loftis, p. 148.
[Political leaders and commentators and relocation]: Morton Grodzins, Americans Betrayed: Politics and the Japanese Evacuation (University of Chicago Press, 1949), pp. 254-73, and passim: Girdner and Loftis; Weglyn, p. 72; Burns, Soldier, p. 216; Graham White and John Maze, Harold Ickes of the New Deal (Harvard University Press, 1985), pp. 224-25; Ronald Steel, Walter Lippmann and the American Century (Atlantic Monthly/Little, Brown, 1980), pp. 394-95; Korematsu v. U.S., 323 U.S. 214 (1944); Francis Biddle, in Brief Authority (Doubleday, 1962), ch. 13; Ted Morgan, FDR (Simon and Schuster, 985), pp. 275-76.
190 [“Politics is out”]: quoted in Burns, Soldier, p. 273.
[“When a country is at war”]: press conference 803, February 6, 1942, in Public Papers, vol. 11, p. 80.
[FDR’s involvements in 1942 campaign]: Robert E. Ficken, “Political Leadership in Wartime: Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Election of 1942,” Mid-America, vol. 57, no. 1 (January 1975), pp. 20-37; Burns, Soldier, pp. 273-80; Farley, ch. 35.
191 [“If this be treason”]: quoted in Burns, Soldier, p. 279.
[Election results, 1942]: ibid., pp. 280-81; Polenberg, pp. 187-92.
[Commentator on 1918 and 1942]: Burns, Soldier, p. 281.
[Congressional makeup, 1943]: Polenberg, pp. 192-93.
[Congressional action against New Deal agencies]: ibid., pp. 79-86; Blum, pp. 234-40.
[Wagner-Murray-Dingell]: Polenberg, pp. 86-87.
[Smith-Connally]: Seidman, pp. 188-91.
[“Dr. New Deal” and “Dr. Win-the-War”]: quoted in Burns, Soldier, p. 423.
[1942 tax legislation]: Randolph E. Paul, Taxation in the United States (Little, Brown, 1954), pp. 294-326.
[1943 government spending, national debt, consumer savings]: Burns, Soldier, pp. 362-63, 433-34; Craf, p. 122 (Table 15); Paul, pp. 349-51.
191-2 [Morgenthau’s 1943 tax proposal and Congress’s substitute]: Paul, pp. 353-70; Blum, p. 243.
192 [“Vicious piece of legislation”]: quoted in Polenberg, p. 198.
[“Tax relief bill”]: February 22, 1944, in Public Papers, vol. 13, pp. 80-83, quoted at pp. 80, 82; see also Paul, pp. 371-72.
[“Calculated and deliberate assault”]: quoted in Burns, Soldier, pp. 435-36.
[Barkley’s “resignation”]: ibid., pp. 435-37; Paul, pp. 373-75; Public Papers, vol. 13, pp. 85-86.
[FDR on “Republican” Congress]: see Polenberg, p. 199.
[Opinion polls on war’s purpose, 1942]: Cantril and Strunk, pp. 1077-78 (item 41), 1083 (items 5-6, 8); see also Richard W. Steele, “American Popular Opinion and the War Against Germany: The Issue of Negotiated Peace, 1942,” Journal of American History, vol. 65, no. 3 (December 1978), pp. 704-23.
193 [Civilian participation in war effort]: see Perrett, ch. 19, p. 394; Lingemann, ch. 2, pp. 251-52; Manchester, Glory and Dream, p. 303; Burns, Soldier, pp. 158-59; Anna W. M. Wolf and Irma S. Black, “What Happened to Younger People,” in Jack Goodman, ed., While You Were Gone: A Report on Wartime Life in the United States (Simon and Schuster, 1946), p. 75.
[Eighty-six-year-old Connecticut sentinel]: Interview with Ann Hoskins, in Roy Hoopes, Americans Remember the Home Front: An Oral Narrative (Hawthorn Books, 1977), pp. 281-82.
[“Private and personal concerns”]: Polenberg, p. 137.
[OWI]: Allan M. Winkler, The Politics of Propaganda: The Office of War Information, 1942-1945 (Yale University Press, 1978), chs. 1-2; Catton, pp. 186-95; Blum, pp. 21-45.
[OWI and the military]: Winkler, pp. 44-51.
[OWI split between “writers” and “advertisers”]: Blum, pp. 36-39; Polenberg, pp. 52-53.
[“Encourage discussion”]: MacLeish, quoted in Blum, p. 33.
[“All levels of intelligence”]: quoted in Polenberg, p. 53.
[“Step right up”]: quoted in Blum, p. 39.
[This Is War!]: quoted in Sherman H. Dyer, Radio in Wartime (Greenberg Publisher, 1942), p. 245.
193-4 [Benny-Livingston routine]: quoted in Winkler, p. 61.
194 [Hollywood goes to war]: Bernard F. Dick, The Star-Spangled Screen: The American World War II Film (University Press of Kentucky, 1985); Clayton R. Koppes and Gregory D. Black, “What to Show the World: The Office of War Information and Hollywood, 1942-1945,” Journal of American History, vol. 64, no. 1 (June 1977), pp. 87-105; David Culbert, “‘Why We Fight’: Social Engineering for a Democratic Society at War,” in K. R. M. Short, Film & Radio Propaganda in World War II (University of Tennessee Press, 1983), pp. 173-91; Bosley Crowther, “The Movies,” in Goodman, pp. 511-32; Lingemann, pp. 168-210.
194 [“Her spies never sleep”]: Peter Lorre, quoted in Lingemann, p. 195.
[“He dies for freedom”]: Robert Taylor, quoted in ibid., p. 200.
[“STUDIOS SHELVE WAR STORIES”]: ibid., p. 206.
[Tin Pan Alley’s efforts]: ibid., pp. 210-23; Perrett, pp. 241-43.
[War advertisements]: Raymond Rubicam, “Advertising,” in Goodman, pp. 433-34; Life, March 30, 1942, p. 90; Life, March 23, 1942, p. 111; Life, March 16, 1942, p. 60; see also Lingemann, pp. 291-97.
[Coke as essential war product]: Blum, pp. 107-8.
[“Who’s Afraid”]: Rubicam, p. 432.
[The GI ideology]: Samuel Stouffer et al., The American Soldier: Adjustment During Army Life (Princeton University Press, 1949), vol. 1, chs. 5, 8, 9, and vol. 2, chs. 2, 3, and passim; Mauldin; Blum, pp. 64-70; Burns, Soldier, pp. 470-72; Mina Curtiss, ed., Letters Home (Little, Brown, 1944); Manchester, Glory and Dream, pp. 282-83; Ralph G. Martin, The GI War, 1941-1945 (Little, Brown, 1967), p. 55 and passim.
[“Born housewife”]: quoted in Blum, p. 65.
195 [“Wish to hell they were someplace else”]: Mauldin, p. 16.
[“Blueberry pie”]: quoted in Blum, p. 66.
[Soldiers’ talk of creature comforts]: ibid., p. 67.
[Warphoto]: Arthur B. Tourtellot, ed., Life’s Picture History of World War II (Simon and Schuster, 1950), p. 207.
[“…the slow, incessant waves”]: Sergeant Charles E. Butler, “Lullaby,” quoted in Martin, p. 240.
The Rainbow Coalition Embattled
[FDR’s trip to Casablanca]: Burns, Soldier, pp. 316-17.
[Casablanca Conference]: Grigg, pp. 59-79; Dallek, pp. 368-72; Feis, Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin, ch. 11; Winston S. Churchill, The Hinge of Fate (Houghton Mifflin, 1950), pp. 674-95; Burns,Soldier, pp. 317-24; Raymond G. O’Connor, Diplomacy for Victory: FDR and Unconditional Surrender (Norton, 1971); Forrest C. Pogue, George C. Marshall: Organizer of Victory, 1941-1945 (Viking, 1973), ch. 2.
197 [Stalin’s response to Churchill’s warning]: quoted in Burns, Soldier, p. 327. [Possibility of Nazi-Soviet deal]: see Mastny, pp. 73-85.
[Stalin’s suspicions]: see Burns, Soldier, p. 373; Mastny, chs. 2-4 passim; Jackson, ch. 2; Feis, chs. 7-8, 15 passim; Churchill, Hinge, pp. 740-61 passim; Keith Sainsbury, The Turning Point (Oxford University Press, 1985), ch. 2; see also Mark A. Stoler, “The ‘Second Front’ and American Fears of Soviet Expansion, 1941-1943,” Military Affairs, vol. 39, no. 3 (October 1975), pp. 136-41.
198 [Quebec Conference]: Dallek, pp. 408-21; Feis, ch. 16; Pogue, ch. 13; Winston S. Churchill, Closing the Ring (Houghton Mifflin, 1951), pp. 80-97; Jackson, pp. 101-8; Burns, Soldier, pp. 390-94.
[FDR’s trip to Cairo]: Keith Eubank, Summit at Teheran (Morrow, 1985), ch. 6; Burns, Soldier, pp. 402-3,
[Cairo Conference]: Eubank, ch. 7; Churchill, Closing, pp. 325-41; Sainsbury, ch. 7; Barbara W. Tuchman, Stilwell and the American Experience in China, 1911-45 (Macmillan, 1970), ch. 16; Burns, Soldier, pp. 403-5.
[FDR on Stalin]: quoted in Burns, Soldier, p. 407.
[Teheran Conference]: ibid., pp. 406-14; Dallek, pp. 430-40; Eubank; Feis, chs. 25-28 passim; F. P. King, The Sew Internationalism: Allied Policy and the European Peace, 1939-1945 (Archon Books, 1973); Sainsbury, ch. 8; Beitzell, part 5; W. Averell Harriman and Elie Abel, Special Envoy to Churchill and Stalin, 1941-1946 (Random House, 1975), ch. 12; Mastny, pp. 122-33; Churchill, Closing, pp. 342-407.
[Churchill on FDR’s drifting]: Sainsbury, p. 231.
199 [Birthday toasts and FDR on the rainbow coalition]: Burns, Soldier, p. 411. [Sword of Stalingrad]: ibid., p. 410.
[General strategic, background, European war]: see Weigley, American Way, ch. 14.
199 [Preparations for D-Day]: Burns, Soldier, pp. 473-74; Ambrose, Supreme Commander, book 2, part 1; Russell F. Weigley, Eisenhower’s Lieutenants: The Campaign of France and Germany, 1944-1945; (Indiana University Press, 1981), part1; Jackson, ch. 6; Pogue, ch. 19 passim.
200 [“O.K., let’s go”]: quoted in Ambrose, Supreme Commander, p. 417, and see footnote.
[Normandy invasion]: ibid., book 2, part 2; Weigley, Lieutenants, ch. 5; Max Hastings, Overlord: D-Day and the Battle for Normandy (Simon and Schuster, 1984); Shirer, Rise and Fall, pp. 1036-42; Jackson, ch. 8; Burns, Soldier, pp. 475-77.
[Intelligence and deception at Normandy]: see Ralph Bennett, Ultra in the West: The Normandy Campaign, 1944-45; (Hutchinson, 1979), esp. chs. 1-3; Weigley, Lieutenants, pp. 53-55; Jackson, ch. 7; Stephen E. Ambrose, Ike’s Spies: Eisenhower and the Espionage Establishment (Doubleday, 1981), chs. 6-7. [FDR’s prayer]: June 6, 1944, in Public Papers, vol. 13, pp. 152-53, quoted at p. 152.
201 [General strategic background, Pacific war]: see Weigley, American Way, ch. 13.
[Stilwell-Chiang relations]: Tuchman, ch. 12 and part 2 passim.
[MacArthur’s opposition to direct Pacific thrust]: see Weigley, American Way, pp. 283-84; Spector, pp. 255-56, 276-80. 201-2 [Pacific campaign]: Toland, Rising Sun, parts 5-6 passim: Spector, chs. 12-14, 19-20; Thorne, Allies of a Kind, parts 4-5 passim; Samuel Eliot Morison, History of United States Naval Operations in World War II (Atlantic Monthly/Little, Brown, 1947-62), vols. 7-8, 12-13; Philip A. Crowl and Edmund G. Love, Seizure of the Gilberts and Marshalls (U.S. Department of the Army, 1955); Philip A. Crowl, Campaign in the Marianas (U.S. Department of the Army, 1960); M. Hamlin Cannon, Leyte: The Return to the Philippines (U.S. Department of the Army, 1954); Robert R. Smith, Triumph in the Philippines (U.S. Department of the Army, 1963); Manchester, American Caesar, pp. 339-55, 363-73, and ch. 7.
202 [Popular support for Russia after Pearl Harbor]: Ralph B. Levering, American Opinion and the Russian Alliance, 1939-1945 (University of North Carolina Press, 1976), p. 61 (Figure 2); see also Melvin Small, “How We Learned to Love the Russians: American Media and the Soviet Union During World War II,” Historian, vol. 36, no. 3 (May 1974), pp. 455-78.
[Time’s revised view of Stalin]: Time, vol. 35, no. 1 (January 1, 1940), pp. 14-17; and Time, vol. 41, no. 1 (January 4, 1943), pp. 21-24.
[Tribune on communists]: quoted in Levering, p. 76.
[Herald Tribune on Stalin]: ibid., p. 89.
[Reynolds’s defense of Soviet purge]: Reynolds, … Only the Stars Are Neutral (Random House, 1942).
[“‘Don’t say a word against Stalin’”]: Eastman, “We Must Face the Facts About Russia,” Reader’s Digest, vol. 43, no. 255 (July 1943), pp. 1-14, quoted at p. 3.
[Hitler’s exploitation of freedom as symbol]: Burns, Soldier, pp. 386-87; see also James MacGregor Burns, “The Roosevelt-Hitler Battle of Symbols,” Antioch Review, vol. 2, no. 3 (Fall 1942), pp. 407-21; transcripts of translated Nazi broadcasts at the Franklin D. Roosevelt Library at Hyde Park, N.Y.; Z. A. B. Zeman, Nazi Propaganda (Oxford University Press, 1964); Alexander L. George, Propaganda Analysis (Row, Peterson, 1959); Paul M. A. Linebarger, Psychological Warfare (Infantry Journal Press, 1948); Ralph K. White, “Hitler, Roosevelt, and the Nature of War Propaganda,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, vol. 44, no. 2 (April 1949), pp. 157-74; Ernest K. Bramsted, Goebbels and National Socialist Propaganda (Michigan State University Press.
[“Essence of our struggle”]: address to the Delegates of the International Labour Organization, November 6, 1941, in Public Papers, vol. 10, pp. 474-80, quoted at p. 476.
203 [Economic bill of rights]: see Annual Message to the Congress, January 6, 1941, in ibid., vol. 9, pp. 663-72, esp. pp. 670-71.
[“Second bill of rights”]: Message on the State of the Union, January 11, 1944, in ibid., vol. 13, pp. 32-42, quoted at p. 41, as modified by comparison with tapes of the speech.
[FDR’s vice-presidential manipulations]: Burns, Soldier, pp. 503-7; Blum, V Was for Victory, pp. 288-92; John Morton Blum, ed., The Price of Vision: The Diary of Henry A. Wallace (Houghton Mifflin, 1973), pp. 360-72; Leon Friedman, “Election of 1944,” in Schlesinger, vol. 4, pp. 3023-28; James F. Byrnes, All in One Lifetime (Harper, 1958), ch. 13.
203 [GOP road to nomination]: Richard N. Smith, Thomas E. Dewey and His Times (Simon and Schuster, 1982), pp. 385-405; Manchester, American Caesar, pp. 355-63; Neal, chs. 17-18; Friedman, pp. 3017-23; Patterson, Mr. Republican, pp. 268-72.
[“Sinister drama”]: quoted in Friedman, p. 3019.
204 [Risk to Dewey of denouncing FDR’s postwar plans]: see Richard E. Darilek, A Loyal Opposition in Time of War: The Republican Party and the Politics of Foreign Policy from Pearl Harbor to Yalta (Greenwood Press, 1976), ch. 7.
[GOP rumor campaign]: Perrett, pp. 292-93.
[Hillman-Browder billboards]: Manchester, Glory and Dream, p. 330; see also Smith, pp. 409-10.
[FDR’s Teamster address]: September 23, 1944, in Public Papers, vol. 13, pp. 284-92, quoted at p. 290, as modified by comparison with tapes of the speech. [“Keep the record straight”]: quoted in Smith, p. 422.
[Dewey on FDR’s “indispensability”]: ibid., p. 424.
[Dewey on Democratic party takeover by Hillman-Browder]: Friedman, p. 3033. [“Bricker could have written it”]: Smith, pp. 433-34, quoted at p. 433.
204-5 [Resurgent antagonism to Russia]: see Levering, ch. 6 and pp. 169-84.
205 [Lippmann’s reluctant vote for FDR]: see Steel, pp. 412-14.
[“I can’t talk about my opponent”]: campaign remarks at Bridgeport, Conn., November 4, 1944, in Public Papers, vol. 13, pp. 389-91, quoted at p. 391.
[Election results, 1944]: Schlesinger, vol. 4, p. 3096; Smith, pp. 435-36.
[Trend toward “privatization”]: see Polenberg, p. 137.
[“Son of a bitch”]: quoted in Burns, Soldier, p. 530.
[FDR’s arrival at Yalta]: ibid., p. 564.
206 [Yalta Conference]: Diane Shaver Clemens, Yalta (Oxford University Press, 1970); King, ch. 10 and passim; Dallek, pp. 506-20; Harriman and Abel, ch. 17; James F. Byrnes, Speaking Frankly (Harper, 1947), ch. 2; Burns, Soldier, pp. 564-80; Mastny, ch. 7; Winston S. Churchill, Triumph and Tragedy (Houghton Mifflin, 1953), book 2, chs. 1-4; Feis, chs. 51-57; Charles E. Bohlen, Witness to History, 1929-1969 (Norton, 1973), ch. 11; Robert A. Divine, Second Chance: The Triumph of Internationalism in America During World War II (Atheneum, 1967); Athan G. Theoharis, The Yalta Myths: An Issue in U.S. Politics, 1945-1955 (University of Missouri Press, 1970); Russell D. Buhite, Decisions at Yalta: An Appraisal of Summit Diplomacy (Scholarly Resources, 1986); Deborin, ch. 17.
[Battle of the Bulge]: John Toland, Battle: The Story of the Bulge (Random House, 1959); John S. D. Eisenhower, The Bitter Woods (Putnam, 1969); Shirer, Rise and Fall, pp. 1089-96; Weigley, Lieutenants, chs. 25-29.
[FDR on Polish-Americans]: quoted in Burns, Soldier, p. 569.
[Stalin on Poland]: quoted in Harriman and Abel, p. 407.
[“Pre-eminent interests”]: quoted in ibid., p. 399.
[Leahy-FDR exchange]: quoted in Burns, Soldier, p. 572.
208-9 [FDR’s health]: ibid., pp. 448-51, 573-74, 594-95, and sources cited therein.
210 [FDR’s address on Yalta]: in The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt, Samuel I. Rosenman, comp. (Random House, 1938-50), vol. 13, pp. 570-86, quoted at pp. 570, 586; see also James MacGregor Burns, Roosevelt: The Soldier of Freedom (Harcourt, 1970), pp. 581-82.
210-11 [Deterioration of Allied relations]: Robert Dallek, Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932-1945 (Oxford University Press, 1979), pp. 521-27; Winston S. Churchill, Triumph and Tragedy (Houghton Mifflin, 1953), book 2, chs. 6-8; W. Averell Harriman and Elie Abel, Special Envoy to Churchill and Stalin, 1941-1946 (Random House, 1975), ch. 18; Francis L. Loewenheim et al., eds., Roosevelt and Churchill: Their Secret Wartime Correspondence (Saturday Review Press/E. P. Dutton, 1975), pp. 660-709; Robert Lovett Diary and Daily Log Sheet, July 1, 1947-Jan. 27, 1949, New-York Historical Society, New York, N.Y.
211 [Stalin-FDR exchange over surrender talks]: quoted in Dallek, pp. 526-27; see also Allen Dulles, The Secret Surrender (Harper, 1966).
[Jefferson Day draft]: in Public Papers, vol. 13, pp. 613-16, quoted at pp. 615, 616.
The Death and Life of Franklin D. Roosevelt
212 [FDR’s death and return to Hyde Park]: Burns, Soldier, Epilogue; Bernard Asbell, When FDR Died (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1961); Turnley Walker, Roosevelt and the Warm Springs Story (A. A. Wyn, 1953), ch. 7.
[“A lonesome train”]: Millard Lampell, “The Lonesome Train,” quoted in Burns, Soldier, p. 604.
212-13 [FDR’s lasting influence]: see William E. Leuchtenburg, In the Shadow of FDR (Cornell University Press, 1983), Preface and ch. 1.
213 [Berlin on FDR]: Isaiah Berlin, Personal Impressions, Henry Hardy, ed. (Viking, 1981), p.3.
[“Great men have two lives”]: quoted in Leuchtenburg, pp. viii-ix.
214 [Hawley on New Deal policies]: Ellis Hawley, The New Deal and the Problem of Monopoly (Princeton University Press, 1966), pp. 15, 270.
[“Fiscal drift”]: Stein, The Fiscal Revolution in America (University of Chicago Press, 1969), ch. 4.
[“Helterskelter” planning]: entry of April 11, 1938, in Morgenthau Presidential Diaries, book 1, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, Hyde Park, N.Y.
[“Read it a little bit”]: entry of April 25, 1939, in ibid.
[Third New Deal]: Barry D. Karl, The Uneasy State (University of Chicago Press, 1983), esp. chs. 7-8.
216 [Dualism in FDR as war leader]: see Burns, Soldier, pp. 607-9; Daniel Yergin, Shattered Peace: The Origins of the Cold War and the National Security State (Houghton Mifflin, 1977), ch. 2; Isaiah Berlin, The Hedgehog and the Fox (Simon and Schuster, 1970).
[FDR’s articulation of freedom]: see Burns, “Battle of Symbols.”
[FDR and the military]: Burns, Soldier, pp. 490-96, Stimson quoted at p. 493; see also Kent Roberts Greenfield, American Strategy in World War II: A Reconsideration (Johns Hopkins Press, 1963), ch. 3; William Emerson, “Franklin Roosevelt as Commander-in-Chief in World War II,” Military Affairs, vol. 22 (1958), pp. 181-207.
216-17 [FDR’s insistence upon unconditional surrender]: Raymond G. O’Connor, Diplomacy for Victory: FDR and Unconditional Surrender (Norton, 1971), esp. ch. 3; Russell F. Weigley, The American Way of War (Macmillan, 1973), pp. 281, 325; Gaddis Smith, American Diplomacy During the Second World War, 1941-1945 (Wiley, 1967), ch. 3; Anne Armstrong, Unconditional Surrender: The Impact of the Casablanca Policy upon World War II (Rutgers University Press, 1961).
217 [Dallek on FDR as “principal architect”]: Dallek, p. 532.
[FDR’s refusal to share atomic secrets with Soviets]: see ibid., pp. 416-18, 470-72, 534; Barton J. Bernstein, “Roosevelt, Truman, and the Atomic Bomb: A Reinterpretation,” Political Science Quarterly, vol. 90, no. 1 (Spring 1975), pp. 24-32.
[De Gaulle on FDR]: De Gaulle, War Memoirs: Unity, 1942-1944 (Simon and Schuster, 1959), p. 270.
[“Once-born” and “divided selves”]: William James, The Varieties of Religious Experience (Longmans, Green, 1935), p. 199, as cited and interpreted in Erik H. Erikson, Young Man Luther (Norton, 1962), pp. 41, 117.
218 [FDR and the Holocaust]: David S. Wyman, The Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust, 1941-1945 (Pantheon, 1984); Henry L. Feingold, The Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt Administration and the Holocaust, 1938-1945 (Rutgers University Press, 1970); Martin Gilbert, Auschwitz and the Allies (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1981); Richard Breitman and Allan M. Kraut, American Refugee Policy and European Jewry, 1933-1945 (Indiana University Press, 1987); Martin Gilbert, The Holocaust: The Jewish Tragedy (Collins, 1986); Deborah E. Lipstadt, Beyond Belief The American Press and the Coming of the Holocaust, 1933-1945 (Free Press, 1986); Michael R. Marcus, The Holocaust in History (University Press of New England, 1987), ch. 8.
218 [“Final solution”]: Hermann Goring to Reinhard Heydrich, July 31, 1941, quoted in Gilbert, Holocaust, p. 176.
219 [Berlin on Eleanor Roosevelt]: Personal impressions, p. 31.
The Long Telegram
220 [Origins of the cold war]: D. F. Fleming, The Cold War and Its Origins, 1917-1960, 2 vols. (Doubleday, 1961), esp. vol. 1, ch. 11, and vol. 2, ch. 24; Charles S. Maier, “Revisionism and the Interpretation of Cold War Origins,” Perspectives in American History, vol. 4 (1970), pp. 313-47; John Lewis Caddis, The Long Peace (Oxford University Press, 1987), esp. chs. 1-3, 8; Caddis, “The Emerging Post-Revisionist Synthesis on the Origins of the Cold War,” Diplomatic History, vol. 7, no. 3 (Summer 1983), pp. 171-90; Thomas G. Paterson, On Every Front: The Making of the Cold War (Norton, 1979); Alexander Werth, Russia: The Post-War Years (Taplinger, 1971), ch. 3; Barton J. Bernstein, “American Foreign Policy and the Origins of the Cold War,” in Bernstein and Allen J. Malusow, eds., Twentieth-Century America: Recent Interpretations, 2nd ed. (Harcourt, 1972), pp. 344-94; Lloyd C. Gardiner, Architects of Illusion: Men and Ideas in American Foreign Policy, 1941-1949 (Quadrangle, 1970), ch. 11; Gardiner, Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr.. and Hans J. Morgenthau, The Origins of the Cold War (Ginn and Co., 1970); Thomas T. Hammond, ed., Witnesses to the Origins of the Cold War (University of Washington Press, 1982); Eduard Mark, “American Policy toward Eastern Europe and the Origins of the Cold War,” Journal of American History, vol. 68, no. 2 (September 1981), pp. 313-36; Robert J. Maddox, The New Left and the Origins of the Cold War (Princeton University Press, 1973); Vojtech Mastny, Russia’s Road to the Cold War, 1941-1945 (Columbia University Press, 1979); Thomas G. Paterson, Soviet-American Confrontation: Postwar Reconstruction and the Origins of the Cold War (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973); Lovett Diary and Log Sheet, 1947-1949; Hugh Thomas, Armed Truce: The Beginnings of the Cold War, 1945-46 (Atheneum, 1987), esp. pp. 541-50; Frederick L. Schuman, The Cold War: Retrospect and Prospect (Louisiana State University Press, 1962); John P. Diggins, The Proud Decades: America in War and in Peaces 1941-1960 (Norton, 1988), ch. 2 passim.
[“Deep, mournful”]: quoted in Edward Crankshaw, Russia and the Russians (Viking, 1948), p. 21.
[Crankshaw on Russian temperament]: ibid., p. 23.
221 [Truman on German-Russian fight]: quoted in New York Times, June 24, 1941, p. 7. Copy of newspaper page now displayed in Museum of the Red Army, Moscow.
[Polk on Soviet postwar cooperation]: Gary J. Buckley, “American Public Opinion and the Origins of the Cold War: A Speculative Reassessment,” Mid-America, vol. 60, no. 1 (January 1978), pp. 35-42, esp. pp. 37-38 (Table 1).
222 [NSC-68]: Yergin, pp. 401-4, quoted at p. 401; Gaddis, Long Peace, pp. 114-15; Richard A. Melanson, “The Foundations of Eisenhower’s Foreign Policy: Continuity, Community, and Consensus,” in Melanson and David Mayers, eds., Reevaluating Eisenhower: American Foreign Policy in the 1950s (University of Illinois Press, 1987), pp. 31-64, esp. pp. 36-40.
[“The President is dead”]: quoted in Harry S. Truman, Memoirs: Year of Decisions (Doubleday, 1955), p. 5.
[“Riding a tiger”]: Truman, Memoirs: Years of Trial and Hope (Doubleday, 1956), p. 1.
222-3 [Truman’s background and character]: Alfred Steinberg, The Man from Missouri (Putnam, 1962); Cabell Phillips, The Truman Presidency (Macmillan, 1966); Robert L. Miller, Truman: The Rise to Power (McGraw-Hill, 1986); Robert H. Ferrell, Harry S. Truman and the Modern American Presidency (Little, Brown, 1983); Bert Cochran, Harry Truman and the Crisis Presidency (Funk & Wagnalls, 1973); Deborah Welch Larson, Origins of Containment: A Psychological Explanation (Princeton University Press, 1985), ch. 3; John Lewis Caddis, “Harry S. Truman and the Origins of Containment,” in Frank J. Merli and Theodore A. Wilson, eds., Makers of American Diplomacy: From Benjamin Franklin to Henry Kissinger (Scribner, 1974), pp. 493-522; Paterson, On Every Front, ch. 5; Arnold A. Offnner, “The Truman Myth Revealed: From Parochial Nationalist to Cold Warrior,” paper presented at the annual meeting of the Organization of American Historians, Reno, Nev., March 1988.
223 [FDR’s divided legacy]: see Gardner, Architects, pp. 307-8; see also Warren F. Kimball, ed., Franklin D. Roosevelt and the World Crisis, 1937-1945 (D. C. Heath, 1973), part 2; Thomas, ch. 10.
[UN organizational meeting]: Robert A. Divine, Second Chance: The Triumph of Internationalism in America During World War II (Atheneum, 1967), ch. 11.
[Truman’s address to UN]: April 25, 1945, in Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Harry S. Truman (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1961-66), vol. 1, pp. 20-23, quoted at pp. 20, 21.
[Hopkins in Moscow]: Robert E. Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins (Harper, 1948), ch. 35; Herbert Feis, Between War and Peace: The Potsdam Conference (Princeton University Press, 1960), chs. 15-18.
[End of European war]: John Toland, The Last 100 Days (Random House, 1965); Cornelius Ryan, The Last Battle (Simon and Schuster, 1966); William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany (Simon and Schuster, 1960), chs. 30-31.
[Truman and FDR’s cabinet]: see Truman to Jonathan Daniels (unsent), February 26, 1950, in Robert H. Ferrell, ed., Off the Record: The Private Papers of Harry S. Truman (Harper, 1980), p. 174.
224 [Okinawa]: Roy E. Appleman, James M. Burns, Russell A. Gugeler, and John Stevens, Okinawa: The Last Battle (U.S. Department of the Army, 1948); John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire, 1936-1945, (Random House, 1970), ch. 30.
[Potsdam]: Feis, part 4; Robert J. Donovan, Conflict and Crisis: The Presidency of Harry S. Truman, 1945-1948 (Norton, 1977), chs. 8-9; Mastny, pp. 292-304; Truman, Decisions, chs. 21-25; Charles E. Bohlen, Witness to History, 1929-1969 (Norton, 1973), ch. 13; Charles L. Mee*, Jr., Meeting at Potsdam (M. Evans & Co., 1975); Churchill, Triumph, book 2, chs. 19-20.
[“Open the gates”]: quoted in Thomas, p. 252.
[Debate over political role of atomic bomb and its use against Japan]: Toland, Rising Sun, chs. 31-32; Truman, Decisions, pp. 4, 14-20; Donovan, chs. 5, 7, 10; Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, On Active Service in Peace and War (Harper, 1948), chs. 22-23; Gregg Herken, The Winning Weapon: The Atomic Bomb in the Cold War, 1945-1950 (Knopf, 1980), ch. 1 and passim; Gardiner, Architects, ch. 7; Fleming, vol. 1, pp. 296-308; Martin J. Sherwin, A World Destroyed: The Atomic Bomb and the Grand Alliance (Knopf, 1975), esp. part 3; Herbert Feis, Japan Subdued: The Atomic Bomb and the End of the War in the Pacific (Princeton University Press, 1961), parts 1, 4, and passim; Barton J. Bernstein, “Roosevelt, Truman, and the Atomic Bomb, 1941-1945: A Reinterpretation,” Political Science Quarterly, vol. 90, no. 1 (Spring 1975), pp. 23-69; Maddox, ch. 3; Gar Alperovitz, Atomic Diplomacy: Hiroshima and Potsdam (Simon and Schuster, 1965); Yergin, pp. 1 15-16, 120-22, and 433-34 n. 19; Stephen Harper, Miracle of Deliverance: The Case for the Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (Sidgwick & Jackson, 1985).
[Bernstein on atomic bomb legacy]: “Roosevelt, Truman,” p. 24.
[“Most terrible weapon”]: quoted in Stimson and Bundy, p. 635.
[“Royal straight flush”]: quoted in Herken, p. 17.
224-5 [“American cards”]: ibid.
225 [Truman-Stalin exchange on bomb at Potsdam]: Mastny, pp. 297-98; Bohlen, p. 237; Donovan, p. 93; Churchill, Triumph, pp. 669-70; see also Feis, Potsdam, ch. 23; Yergin, p. 121.
[U.S. bombing of Japanese cities]: Ronald Spector, Eagle Against the Sun: The American War with Japan (Free Press, 1985), pp. 487-93, 503-6; Toland, Rising Sun, pp. 670-77; Ronald Schaffer, Wings of Judgment: American Bombing in World War II (Oxford University Press, 1985), chs. 6-7; Wesley F. Craven and James L. Cate, eds., The Army Air Forces in World War II (University of Chicago Press, 1948-58), vol. 5, chs. 17-18, 20-21.
[Hiroshima, Nagasaki, and surrender]: Toland, Rising Sun, chs. 33-37; Craven and Cate, vol. 5, pp. 703-35; John Hersey, Hiroshima (Knopf, 1946); Robert J. C. Butow, Japan’s Decision to Surrender (Stanford University Press, 1954); Barton J. Bernstein, “The Perils and Politics of Surrender: Ending the War with Japan and Avoiding the Third Atomic Bomb,” Pacific Historical Review, vol. 46 (1977), pp.1-27; Pacific War Research Society, Japan’s Longest Day (Kodansha International, 1980); Committee for the Compilation of Materials on Damage Caused by the Atomic Bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Hiroshima and Nagasaki: The Physical, Medical, and Social Effects of the Atomic Bombings, Eisei Ishikawa and David L. Swain, trans. (Basic Books, 1981).
226 [“Let them”]: quoted in Yergin, p. 121; see also Mastny, p. 298.
[Truman on Stalin]: quoted in Yergin, p. 119.
[Byrnes at London Foreign Ministers’ conference]: Robert L. Messer, The End of an Alliance: James F. Byrnes, Roosevelt, Truman, and the Origins of the Cold War (University of North Carolina Press, 1982), ch. 7; Herken, ch. 3; Yergin, pp. 122-32; James F. Byrnes, Speaking Frankly (Harper, 1947), ch. 5.
[“Here’s to the atom bomb”]: quoted in Yergin, p. 123.
227 [American ambivalence over Soviet intentions]: see Lynn E. Davis, The Cold War Begins: Soviet-American Conflict over Eastern Europe (Princeton University Press, 1974), ch. 11; Herken, ch. 2; John Lewis Caddis, Russia, the Soviet Union, and the United States: An Interpretive History (Wiley, 1978), ch. 7 passim; Caddis, Long Peace, ch. 2; Robert Daltek, The American Style of Foreign Policy: Cultural Politics and Foreign Affairs (Knopf, 1983), ch. 6; William Zimmerman, “Rethinking Soviet Foreign Policy: Changing American Perspectives,” International Journal, vol. 25 (Summer 1980), pp. 548-62; see also William Welch, American Images of Soviet Foreign Policy: An Inquiry into Recent Appraisals from the Academic Community (Yale University Press, 1970); Thomas, book 2; Melvyn F. Leffler, “The American Conception of the National Security State and the Beginnings of the Cold War, 1945-1948,” American Historical Review, vol. 89, no. 2 (April 1984), pp. 346-81.
[Poll on bomb secret and UN]: Dallek, p. 161; see also Paterson, On Every Front, pp. 113-29; Yergin, pp. 171-72.
[Soviet cold war policy, sources and conflicts]: Werth, chs. 11, 14, and passim; Crankshaw, ch.5 and passim; Frederick C. Barghoorn, The Soviet Image of the United States (Harcourt, 1950); Thomas, book 1; Joseph L. Nogee and Robert H. Donaldson, Soviet Foreign Policy Since World War II (Pergamon Press, 1981), chs. 2-3; Marshall D. Shulman, Stalin’s Foreign Policy Reappraised (Harvard University Press, 1963); Anatol Rapoport, The Big Two: Soviet-American Perceptions of Foreign Policy (Pegasus, 1971), pp. 120-26; Paterson, On Every Front, ch. 7; William Taubman, Stalin’s American Policy: From Entente to Detente to Cold War (Norton, 1982), esp. chs. 5-7; Adam B. Ulam, Expansion and Coexistence: The History of Soviet Foreign Policy, 1917-1967 (Praeger, 1968), pp. 408-55; Robert V. Daniels, Russia: The Roots of Confrontation (Harvard University Press, 1985), chs. 8-9; Genrikh Trofimenko, The U.S. Military Doctrine (Progress Publishers, Moscow, n.d.), esp. chs. 1-2.
[“Leaving them in the lurch”]: quoted in Daniels, p. 220.
[“Year of Cement”]: Yergin, p. 166.
[Stalin’s Bolshoi Theater address]: February 9, 1946, in Walter LaFeber, ed., The Dynamics of World Power, A Documentary History of United States Foreign Policy, 1945-1973: Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union (Chelsea House, 1973), pp. 191-99; see also Werth, ch. 5; Yergin, pp. 166-67, 177.
[Douglas on Stalin’s speech]: quoted in Walter Millis, ed., The Forrestal Diaries (Viking, 1950), p. 134.
[Kennan’s “long telegram”]: “Telegraphic Message from Moscow to the State Department on Soviet Policies,” February 22, 1946, in LaFeber, pp. 200-10, quoted at pp. 207, 208; see John Lewis Gaddis, Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American National Security Policy (Oxford University Press, 1982), chs. 2-3; Rapoport, pp. 106-12; Yergin, pp. 168-71; Thomas G. Paterson, “The Search for Meaning: George F. Kennan and American Foreign Policy,” in Merli and Wilson, pp. 568-76; John Lewis Gaddis, “Containment: A Reassessment,” Foreign Affairs, vol. 55, no. 4 (July 1977), pp. 873-87; George F. Kennan, Memoirs 1925-1950 (Atlantic Monthly/ Little, Brown, 1967), ch. it; Thomas, ch. 22.
228 [“Complete power of disposition”]: “Telegraphic Message” in LaFeber, quoted at p. 208.
[“An iron curtain”]: March 5, 1946, in ibid, pp. 210-17, quoted at pp. 214, 215; see also Terry H. Anderson, The United States, Great Britain, and the Cold War, 1944-1947 (University of Missouri Press, 1981), pp. 110-16; Fleming, vol. 1, pp. 348-57; Thomas, ch. 23.
229 [“Call to war”]: March 13, 1946, in LaFeber, pp. 217-21, quoted at p. 218; see also Werth, pp. 110-14.
[“Putrid and baneful”]: quoted in Daniels, p. 227.
[Forrestal’s anti-Sovietism]: see Gardner, Architects, ch. 10; Millis, passim. [Kennan’s “X” article and his concern about his influence]: “The Sources of Soviet Conduct,” Foreign Affairs, vol. 25, no. 4 (July 1947), pp. 566-82; Kennan, Memoirs, pp. 294-95, ch. 15; see also Gaddis, Russia, pp. 187-88.
229-30 [Byrnes and Truman]: Messer, chs. 8-9; Truman, Decisions, pp. 545-52.
230 [1946 Congressional elections]: Donovan, ch. 24.
[“Greatest victory”]: quoted in Stephen E. Ambrose, Nixon: The Education of a Politician, 1911-1962 (Simon and Schuster, 1987), p. 141.
[HUAC’s plans for 1947]: quoted in Richard M. Freeland, The Truman Doctrine and the Origins of McCarthyism: Foreign Policy, Domestic Politics, and Internal Security, 1946-1948 (Knopf, 1972), p. 132.
[“Class of ’46”]: see David M. Oshinsky, A Conspiracy So Immense: The World of Joe McCarthy (Free Press, 1983), p. 53; Ambrose, Nixon, p. 141.
[Loyalty program]: Athan Theoharis, Seeds of Repression: Harry S. Truman and the Origins of McCarthyism (Quadrangle, 1971), pp. 103-6, quoted at p. 105; Alan D. Harper, The Politics of Loyalty: The White House and the Communist Issue, 1946-1952 (Greenwood Publishing, 1969), ch. 3; Truman, Trial and Hope, ch. 19; Donovan, ch. 31; Athan Theoharis, “The Escalation of the Loyalty Program,” in Barton J. Bernstein, ed., Politics and Policies of the Truman Administration (Quadrangle, 1970), pp. 242-68; Roger S. Abbott, “The Federal Loyalty Program,” in Edward E. Palmer, ed., The Communist Problem in America (Crowell, 1951), pp. 385-97; see, generally, Stanley I. Kutler, The American Inquisition: Justice and Injustice in the Cold War (Hill and Wang, 1982); Herbert Mitgang, Dangerous Dossiers (Donald I. Fine, 1988); Diggins, Proud Decades, ch. 5 passim.
[“Membership in, affiliation with”]: quoted in Abbott, p. 390.
[Attorney General’s list]: Freeland, pp. 208-16; Palmer, Appendix.
[Loyalty board proceedings]: Harper, pp. 47-53, executive order quoted at p. 39; David Caute, The Great Fear: The Anti-Communist Purge Under Truman and Eisenhower (Simon and Schuster, 1978), pp. 269-92.
[“The man who fears”]: Seth W. Richardson, quoted in Richard M. Fried, Men Against McCarthy (Columbia University Press, 1976), p. 24.
231 [HUAC in Hollywood, 1947]: Walter Goodman, The Committee: The Extraordinary Career of House Committee on Un-American Activities (Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1968), pp. 207-25; Victor Navasky, Naming Names (Viking, 1980); Larry Ceplair and Steven Englund, The Inquisition in Hollywood: Politics in the Film Community, 1930-1960 (Anchor Press/ Doubleday, 1980), esp. chs. 8, 10; Richard H. Pells, The Liberal Mind in a Conservative Age: American Intellectuals in the 1940s and 1950s (Harper, 1985), pp. 301-10; Gordon Kahn, Hollywood on Trial: The Story of the 10 Who Were Indicted (Boni & Gaer, 1948).
[Menjou on communists]: quoted in Roger Burlingame, The Sixth Column (Lippincott, 1962), p. 127.
[Cooper on communism]: quoted in Goodman, p. 209.
[Hollywood and radio purge]: Pells, p. 310; see also John Cogley, Report on Blacklisting, 2 vols. (Fund for the Republic, 1956).
[Ex-communists]: see Navasky; Herbert L. Packer, Ex-Communist Witnesses: Four Studies in Fact Finding (Stanford University Press, 1962).
[Hiss case]: Allen Weinstein, Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case (Knopf, 1978); Alistair Cooke, Generation on Trial: U.S.A. v. Alger Hiss (Knopf, 1950); Ambrose, Nixon, ch. 10; Packer, ch. 2; Goodman, ch. 8 passim; Leslie A. Fiedler, “Hiss, Chambers, and the Age of Innocence,” in Fiedler, The Collected Essays of Leslie Fiedler (Stein & Day, 1971), vol. 1, pp. 3-24.
232 [“We’ve been had!”]: quoted in Weinstein, p. 15.
[Truman on the menace of communism]: Freeland, pp. 335-36.
[“Red herring”]: Weinstein, p. 15.
[Greek crisis and Administration response]: Freeland, ch. 2; Theoharis, Seeds, ch. 3; John Lewis Gaddis, “Was the Truman Doctrine a Real Turning Point?,” Foreign Affairs, vol. 52, no. 2 (January 1974), pp. 386-402; Yergin, pp. 279-83; Truman, Trial and Hope, ch. 8; Joseph M. Jones, The Fifteen Weeks (February 21-June 5, 1947) (Viking, 1955); Michael Leigh, Mobilizing Consent: Public Opinion and American Foreign Policy, 1937-1947 (Greenwood Press, 1976), ch. 5; Fleming, vol. 1, pp. 438-61, 465-76.
232 [“Ripe plum”]: Mark Ethridge, quoted in Yergin, pp. 279-80.
[Truman’s address to Congress]: “The Truman Doctrine,” March 12, 1947, in LaFeber, pp. 309-13, quoted at p. 312.
233 [Marshall’s Harvard address]: “Proposal of the Marshall Plan,” June 5, 1947, in ibid., pp. 320-22, quoted at pp. 320, 321.
[Marshall Plan]: John Gimbel, The Origins of the Marshall Plan (Stanford University Press, 1976); Jones; Charles L. Mee, Jr., The Marshall Plan: The Launching of the Pax Americana (Simon and Schuster, 1984); Freeland, ch. 4; Werth, pp. 257-81; LaFeber, pp. 322-29; Thomas G. Paterson, “The Quest for Peace and Prosperity: International Trade, Communism, and the Marshall Plan,” in Bernstein, Politics and Policies, pp. 78-112; Michael J. Hogan, “Paths to Plenty; Marshall Planners and the Debate over European Integration, 1947-1948,” Pacific Historical Review, vol. 53 (1984), pp. 337-66.
[Cominform]: see Werth, ch. 14.
234 [White on psychological tendencies in cold war]: see Ralph K. White, Fearful Warriors (Free Press, 1984), ch. 10; see also Robert Jervis, Perception and Misperception in International Politics (Princeton University Press, 1976); Vamik D. Volkan, The Need to Have Enemies and Allies (Jason Aronson Inc., 1988).
[Lippmann on “X” article]: Lippmann, The Cold War: A Study in U.S. Foreign Policy (Harper, 1947); see also Ronald Steel, Walter Lippmann and the American Century (Atlantic Monthly/Little, Brown, 1980), pp. 443-46; Barton J. Bernstein, “Walter Lippmann and the Early Cold War,” in Thomas G. Paterson, ed., Cold War Critics: Alternatives to American Foreign Policy in the Truman Years (Quadrangle, 1971), pp. 18-53.
[Wallace’s Madison Square Garden address]: September 12, 1946, in LaFeber, pp. 255-60, quoted at p. 258; Richard J. Walton, Henry Wallace, Harry Truman, and the Cold War (Viking, 1976), pp. 100-8; Norman D. Markowitz, The Rise and Fall of the People’s Century: Henry A. Wallace and American Liberalism, 1941-1948 (Free Press, 1973), pp. 178-82; Alonzo L. Hamby, “Henry A. Wallace, the Liberals, and Soviet-American Relations,” Review of Politics, vol. 30, no. 2 (April 1968), pp. 153-69,
235 [Truman’s approval of Wallace’s speech]: see Walton, pp. 98-99; John Morton Blum, ed., The Price of Vision: The Diary of Henry A. Wallace, 1942-1946 (Houghton Mifflin, 1973), pp. 612-13; Truman, Decisions, p. 557.
[Washington reaction to Wallace’s address]: Walton, pp. 108-12, Vandenberg quoted at p. 111; Blum, p. 613 n. 1, and pp. 613-32; Truman, Decisions, pp. 557-60; Byrnes, pp. 239-43; Donovan, ch. 23.
[“You, yourself”]: Blum, p. 618.
[“Pacifist one hundred per cent”]: quoted in Walton, pp. 113-14.
[Eleanor Roosevelt and postwar world]: see Joseph P. Lash, Eleanor: The Years Alone (Norton, 1972), chs. 1-6 passim; Tamara K. Hareven, Eleanor Roosevelt: An American Conscience (Quadrangle, 1968), chs. 10-12.
235-6 [Truman’s political position, early 1948]: see Richard S. Kirkendall, “Election of 1948,” in Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., ed., History of American Presidential Elections, 1789-1968 (Chelsea House, 1971), vol. 4, pp. 3100-4.
236 [ADA]: Clifton Brock, Americans for Democratic Action: Its Role in National Politics (Public Affairs Press, 1962); Mary S. McAuliffe, Crisis on the Left: Cold War Politics and American Liberals, 1947-1954 (University of Massachusetts Press, 1978), pp. 5-10 and passim; Alonzo L. Hamby, “The Liberals, Truman, and FDR as Symbol and Myth,” Journal of American History, vol. 56, no. 4 (March 1970), pp. 859-67; Norman Markowitz, “From the Popular Front to Cold War Liberalism,” in Robert Griffith and Athan Theoharis, eds., The Specter: Original Essays on the Cold War and the Origins of McCarthyism (New Viewpoints, 1974), pp. 90-115.
[Truman’s civil rights message]: February 2, 1948, in Truman Public Papers, vol. 4, pp. 121-26; see also Donald R. McCoy and Richard T. Ruetten, Quest and Response: Minority Rights and the Truman Administration (University Press of Kansas, 1973), ch. 6; Donovan, ch. 35; William C. Berman, The Politics of Civil Rights in the Truman Administration (Ohio State University Press, 1973), ch. 2 and pp. 79-85; Barton J. Bernstein, “The Ambiguous Legacy: The Truman Administration and Civil Rights,” in Bernstein, Politics and Policies, pp. 269-314.
236 [Dewey’s nomination]: Richard N. Smith, Thomas E. Dewey and His Times (Simon and Schuster, 1982), ch. 14; Kirkendall, pp. 3113-16; James T. Patterson, Mr. Republican: Robert A. Taft (Houghton Mifflin, 1972), chs. 26-27.
236-7 [Dixiecrat revolt]: Leonard Dinnerstein, “The Progressive and States’ Rights Parties of 1948,” in Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., ed., History of U.S. Political Parties (Chelsea House, 1973), vol. 4, pp. 3314-19, 3324-28; V. O. Key, Jr., Southern Politics in State and Nation (Knopf, 1949), pp. 329-44; Numan V. Bartley, The Rise of Massive Resistance: Race and Politics in the South During the 1950’s (Louisiana State University Press, 1969), pp. 28-37; McCoy and Ruetten, ch. 7; Truman, Trial and Hope, pp. 179-87.
237 [Progressive convention]: Curtis D. MacDougall, Gideon’s Army (Marzani & Munsell, 1965), vol. 2, chs. 22-25; Irving Howe and Lewis Coser, ‘The American Communist Party: A Critical History (1919-1957) (Beacon Press, 1957), pp. 469-77; David A. Shannon, The Decline of American Communism: A History of the Communist Party Since 194** (Harper, 959), pp. 164-75.
[Democratic civil rights plank]: see Schlesinger, Elections, vol. 4, p. 3154; see also Kirkendall, pp. 3117-18; Truman, Trial and Hope, pp. 181-83.
[1948 campaign]: Donovan, chs. 41-43; Smith, ch. 15; Kirkendall, pp. 3123-45; Dinnerstein, pp. 3321-27; MacDougall, vol. 3; Walton, chs. 5-9 passim: Berman, ch. 3 passim: Markowitz, Rise and Fall, ch. 8; Truman, Trial and Hope, ch. 15; Susan M. Hartmann, Truman and the 80th Congress (University of Missouri Press, 1971), ch. 8; Robert A. Divine, “The Cold War and the Election of 1948,” Journal of American History, vol. 59, no. 1 (June 1972), pp. 90-110; Harvard Silkoff, “Harry Truman and the Election of 1948: The Coming of Age of Civil Rights in American Politics,” Journal of Southern History, vol. 37, no. 4 (November 1971), pp. 597-616; Allen Yarnell, Democrats and Progressives: The 1948 Presidential Election as a Test of Postwar Liberalism (University of California Press, 1974); Irwin Ross, The Loneliest Campaign: The Truman Victory of 1948 (New American Library, 1968); Oral History of Henry Wallace, Columbia University, pp. 21-72.
[Truman’s reaction to poll of fifty experts]: quoted in Phillips, pp. 243-44. [Dewey on overconfidence]: Donovan, p. 437.
[“Very barbarous”]: Wallace Oral History, p. 72.
238 [Election results]: Schlesinger, Elections, vol. 4, p. 3211.
[“A brave man”]: Kirkendall, p. 3099.
The Spiral of Fear
[Polling in 1948]: Angus Campbell and Robert L. Kahn, The People Elect a President (Survey Research Center, University of Michigan, 1952); Schlesinger, Elections, vol. 4, pp. 3192-97; Frederick Mosteller et al., The Pre-election Polls of 1948: Report to the Committee on Analysis of Pre-election Polls and Forecasts (Social Science Research Council, 1949); Bernard R. Berelson et al., Voting: A Study of Opinion Formation in a Presidential Campaign (University of Chicago Press, 1954).
[1948 as “maintaining election”]: see Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (Norton, 1970); James Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Brookings Institution, 1973), chs. 11-12; Kirkendall, p. 3144.
239-40 [Soviet atomic bomb]: “Announcement by President Truman,” September 23, 1949, in LaFeber, pp. 406-7; see also Herken, chs. 14-15; Yergin, ch. 5 passim: Robert J. Donovan, Tumultuous Years: The Presidency of Harry S Truman, 1949-1953 (Norton, 1982), ch. 9; “Reactions of 150,000,000,” Newsweek, vol. 34, no. 14 (October 3, 1949), pp. 25-26.
240 [Germany in the cold war]: Bruce Kuklick, American Policy and the Division of Germany: The Clash with Russia over Reparations (Cornell University Press, 1972); W. Phillips Davison, The Berlin Blockade: A Study in Cold War Politics (Princeton University Press, 1958); Lucius D. Clay, Decision in Germany (Doubleday, 1950), chs. 19-20 and passim; Avi Shlaim, The United States and the Berlin Blockade, 1948-1949: A Study in Crisis Decision-Making (University of California Press, 1983); Yergin, ch. 14.
240 [Chinese revolution and the U.S.]: U.S. Department of State, United States Relations with China (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1949); Tang Tsou, America’s Failure in China, 1941-1950 (University of Chicago Press, 1963); H. Bradford Westerfield, Foreign Policy and Party Politics: Pearl Harbor to Korea (Yale University Press, 1955), chs. 12, 16; Lewis M. Purifoy, Harry Truman’s China Policy: McCarthyism and the Diplomacy of Hysteria, 1947-1951 (New Viewpoints, 1976); Donovan, Tumultuous Years, chs. 6-7; John K. Fairbank, The United States and China, 4th ed. (Harvard University Press, 1983); Russell D. Buhite, Soviet-American Relations in Asia, 1945-1954 (University of Oklahoma Press, 1981), chs. 1-3; Kenneth S. Chern, Dilemma in China: America’s Policy Debate, 1945 (Archon Books, 1980); Okabe Tatsumi, “The Cold War and China,” in Yonosuke Nagai and Akira Iriye, eds., The Origins of the Cold War in Asia (Columbia University Press/University of Tokyo Press, 1977), pp. 224-51.
[Korean War]: Joseph C. Goulden, Korea: The Untold Story of the War (Times Books, 1982); David Rees, Korea: The Limited War (St. Martin’s Press, 1964); Ronald J. Caridi, The Korean War and American Politics: The Republican Party as a Case Study (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1968); Bevin Alexander, Korea: The First War We Lost (Hippocrene, 1986); Donovan, Tumultuous Years, ch. 8 and parts 3-4 passim; Truman, Trial and Hope, chs. 22-28 passim: David J. Dallin, Soviet Foreign Policy After Stalin (Lippincott, 1961), pp. 60-69; Glenn D. Paige, The Korean Decision (Free Press, 1968); Buhite, ch. 5; Allen Guttmann, ed., Korea: Cold War and Limited War, 2nd ed. (D. C. Heath, 1972); Charles M. Dobbs, The Unwanted Symbol: American Foreign Policy, the Cold War, and Korea, 1945-1950 (Kent State University Press, 1981); Allen S. Whiting, China Crosses the Yalu (Macmillan, i960); Strobe Talbott, ed. and trans., Khrushchev Remembers (Little, Brown, 1970-74), vol. 1, ch. 11; Dean Acheson, The Korean War (Norton, 1971); Gaddis, Strategies, ch. 4; John Lewis Gaddis, “Korea in American Politics, Strategy, and Diplomacy, 1945-50,” in Nagai and Iriye, pp. 277-98; Robert M. Slusser, “Soviet Far Eastern Policy, 1945-50: Stalin’s Goals in Korea,” in ibid., pp. 123-46; Robert R. Simmons, The Strained Alliance: Peking, Pyongyang, Moscow and the Politics of the Korean War (Free Press, 1975); James I. Matray, “Truman’s Plan for Victory: National Self-Determination and the Thirty-eighth Parallel Decision in Korea,” Journal of American History, vol. 66, no. 2 (September 1979), pp. 314-33; Daniels, pp. 239-41; Taubman, pp. 201-2, 211-22; Shulman, chs. 6-7; William Manchester, American Caesar: Douglas MacArthur, 1880-1964 (Little, Brown, 1978), chs. 9-10.
[“Administrative dividing line”]: Acheson, quoted in Manchester, p. 539.
240-1 [Acheson on U.S. defense perimeter]: quoted in Goulden, p. 30; see also Dobbs, pp. 180-81; Gaddis, Long Peace, ch. 4.
[Ulam on Soviet blunder in Korea]: Adam B. Ulam, “Washington, Moscow, and the Korean War,” in Guttmann, pp. 258-85, quoted at p. 277.
[Smith Act]: quoted in Howe and Coser, p. 418.
[Smith Act trial of communist leaders]: ibid., pp. 481-82; Shannon, pp. 198-200; Packer, pp. 11-13.
[“Government … on trial”]: William Z. Foster, quoted in Shannon, p. 198.
[“Sufficient danger”]: Judge Harold R. Medina, quoted in ibid., p. 200.
[China-Korea links]: see Purifoy, chs. 8-9.
[China Lobby]: Ross Y. Koen, The China Lobby in American Politics (Octagon Books, 1974), esp. ch. 2; Stanley D. Bachrack, The Committee of One Million: “China Lobby” Politics, 1953-1971 (Columbia University Press, 1976), esp. part 1.
[Taft on communism in China]: quoted in Fried, p. 4; and E. J. Kahn, Jr., The China Hands: America’s Foreign Service Officers and What Befell Them (Viking, 1975), p. 2.
[Acheson as target]: see Westerfield, pp. 327-29.
[“Whined” and “whimpered” and “slobbered”]: quoted in William Manchester, The Glory and the Dream: A Narrative History of America, 1912-1972 (Little, Brown, 1974), p. 492.
244 [Acheson and Hiss]: Weinstein, pp. 505-6, Acheson quoted at p. 505.
[Butler on Acheson]: quoted in Eric F. Goldman, The Crucial Decade: America, 1945-1955 (Knopf, 1956), p. 125.
[McCarthy]: Richard H. Rovere, Senator Joe McCarthy (Harcourt, 1959); Oshinsky; Fried; Thomas C. Reeves, The Life and Times of Joe McCarthy (Stein & Day, 1982); Edwin R. Bayley, Joe McCarthy and the Press (University of Wisconsin Press, 1981); Daniel Bell, ed., The New American Right (Criterion Books, 1955); Earl Latham, ed., The Meaning of McCarthyism, 2nd ed. (D. C. Heath, 1973); Michael P. Rogin, The Intellectuals and McCarthy: The Radical Specter (MIT Press, 1967); Robert Griffith, The Politics of Fear: McCarthy and the Senate (University Press of Kentucky, 1970); Donald F. Crosby, God, Church, and Flag: Senator Joseph R McCarthy and the Catholic Church, 1950-1957 (University of North Carolina Press, 1978); Joseph R. McCarthy, McCarthyism: The Fight for America (Devin-Adair, 1952; reprinted by Arno Press, 1977).
244 [“Multiple untruth”]: see Rovere, pp. 109-10.
[Wheeling]: Reeves, pp. 222-33, McCarthy quoted at p. 224; Oshinsky, pp. 107-12; Bayley, ch. 1.
245 [McCarthy’s Senate performance]: Reeves, pp. 236-42, quoted at p. 239; and Oshinsky, pp. 112-14, quoted at p. 112.
[“Perfectly reckless”]: quoted in Patterson, Mr. Republican, p. 446.
[Tydings committee]: Reeves, pp. 249-314, conclusion quoted at p. 304; Rovere, pp. 145-59.
[“Keep talking”]: quoted in Patterson, p. 446.
[“Declaration of Conscience”]: Oshinsky, pp. 163-65; Fried, p. 83.
[McCarthy in 1950 campaign]: Reeves, ch. 14, reporter quoted at p. 346; Fried, ch. 4.
246 [Buckley on McCarthyism]: quoted in Rovere, p. 22.
[McCarthy and the press]: Bayley, esp. ch. 3, Reedy quoted at p. 68; see also James A. Wechsler, The Age of Suspicion (Random House, 1953); Oshinsky, ch. 12.
[Courting of Eisenhower]: Herbert S. Parmet, Eisenhower and the American Crusades (Macmillan, 1972), chs. 9-10; Stephen E. Ambrose, Eisenhower: Soldier, General of the Army, President-Elect, 1890-1952 (Simon and Schuster, 1983), ch. 25; Dwight D. Eisenhower, The White House Years: Mandate for Change, 1953-1956 (Doubleday, 1963), ch. 1.
247 [“Completely foreign field”]: quoted in Barton J. Bernstein, “Election of 1952,” in Schlesinger, Elections, vol. 4, p. 3225.
[GOP nomination battle]: Ambrose, Soldier, ch. 26; Eisenhower, ch. 2; Patterson, part 6; Parmet, chs. 12-14; Bernstein, “Election,” pp. 3224-34.
[GOP as two parties]: see James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of Democracy: Four-Party Politics in America (Prentice-Hall, 1963), esp. ch. 8.
248 [“Path to defeat”]: quoted in Bernstein, “Election,” p. 3230.
[“Why do they hate me so?”]: quoted in Patterson, p. 547.
[Morningside Heights statement]: quoted in Parmet, p. 130; see also ibid., pp. 128-30; Patterson, pp. 572-78; Eisenhower, p. 64.
[“Surrender at Morningside Heights”]: quoted in Bernstein, “Election,” p. 3242.
249 [Courtship of Stevenson]: Kenneth S. Davis, A Prophet in His Own Country: The Triumphs and Defeats of Adlai E. Stevenson (Doubleday, 1957), ch. 24; John Bartlow Martin, Adlai Stevenson of Illinois (Doubleday, 1976), pp. 513-78; Walter Johnson, How We Drafted Adlai Stevenson (Knopf, 1955); Truman, Trial and Hope, pp. 491-96.
[“Could not, ” not “would not”]: quoted in Davis, p. 394.
[Stevenson’s convention welcome] July 21, 1952, in Walter Johnson, ed., The Papers of Adlai E. Stevenson (Little, Brown, 1972-79), vol. 4, pp. 11-14, quoted at p. 12; author’s personal observations, July 21, 1952, Chicago.
[Democratic, convention]: Davis, pp. 397-409; Martin, pp. 578-604; Bernstein, “Election,” pp. 3236-40; Johnson, Papers, vol. 4, ch. 1.
[Eisenhower in Indiana]: Parmet, pp. 127-28, Jenner quoted on Marshall at p. 127; Ambrose, Soldier, pp. 552-53.
249-50 [Eisenhower in Wisconsin]: Reeves, pp. 436-40, praise of Marshall quoted at p. 437; Ambrose, Soldier, pp. 563-67.
250 [Nixon’s second crisis]: Richard M. Nixon, Six Crises (Doubleday, 1962), ch. 2; Parmet, pp. 134-41; Fawn M. Brodie, Richard Nixon: The Shaping of His Character (Norton, 1981), ch. 19; Smith, Dewey, pp. 599-603; Garry Wills, Nixon Agonistes: The Crisis of the Self-Made Man (Houghton Mifflin, 1970), pp. 91-114; Eisenhower, pp. 65-69.
[“My boy”]: quoted in Nixon, p. 123,
[Stevenson on Taft winning nominee]: Johnson, Papers, vol. 4, p. 90.
[Stevenson on Eisenhower’s backbone]: Ambrose, Soldier, p. 567.
[“Two Republican” parties]: see Johnson, Papers, vol. 4, pp. 66-68.
[Civil rights and the South in 1952 campaign]: Schlesinger, Elections, vol. 4, pp. 3280-81; Bernstein, “Election,” pp. 3247, 3251-52; Eisenhower, pp. 55, 69-71; Donald S. Strong, “The Presidential Election in the South, 1952,” Journal of Politics, vol. 17, no. 1 (August 1955), pp. 343-89; Johnson, Papers, vol. 4, pp. 47-48, 54-60, 89, 151-53, 157; Robert F. Burk, The Eisenhower Administration and Black Civil Rights (University of Tennessee Press, 1984), ch. 1 passim.
[“Go to Korea”]: Parmet, pp. 142-43, Eisenhower quoted at p. 143.
[1952 election results]: Schlesinger, Elections, vol. 4, p. 3337; see also Bernstein, “Election,” pp. 3264-65; Strong.
[Stevenson on his loss]: Johnson, Papers, vol. 4, p. 188.
The Price of Suspicion
[Army-McCarthy hearings]: U.S. Senate, Committee on Government Operations, Special Subcommittee on Investigations, Charges and Countercharges Involving: Secretary of the Army Robert T. Stevens …, 83rd Congress, 2nd Session (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1954); Oshinsky, chs. 27-31; Reeves, chs. 21-22; Michael W. Straight, Trial by Television (Beacon Press, 1954); Fred I. Greenstein, The Hidden-Hand Presidency: Eisenhower as Lender (Basic Books, 1982), pp. 198-212. [Oshinsky on hearings]: Oshinsky, p. 416.
252 [“Largest single group”]: quoted in ibid., p. 319.
[“Got his Ph.D. ”]: quoted in Brodie, p. 290.
[“The dark days of the Hiss case”]: quoted in ibid., p. 284.
[Nixon on Stevenson and Hiss]: quoted in Johnson, Papers, vol. 4, p. 392. [McCarthy on Stevenson]: quoted in Reeves, p. 445.
[“Get into the gutter”]: quoted in Oshinsky, p. 260.
[“Trouble-maker”]: see entry of April 1, 1953, in Robert H. Ferrell, ed., The Eisenhower Diaries (Norton, 1981), pp. 233-34.
[McCarthy’s depredations, early Eisenhower Administration]: see Reeves, ch. 18; Parmet, ch. 26; see also Griffith, Politics of Fear, ch. 6.
[McCarthy and Dirksen on Bohlen]: quoted in Parmet, p. 246; see also Athan G. Theoharis, The Yalta Myths: An Issue in U.S. Politics, 1945-1955 (University of Missouri Press, 1970), ch. 9 and passim. 853.
[“ No More Bohlens”]: quoted in Stephen E. Ambrose, Eisenhower: The President (Simon and Schuster, 1984), p. 60.
[Stalin’s death and the succession]: Svetlana Alliluyeva, Twenty letters to a Friend, Priscilla Johnson McMillan, trans. (Harper, 1967), pp. 5-14; Khrushchev Remembers, vol. 1, pp. 306-41; Dallin, pp. 117-34; Daniels, pp. 246-50; Eisenhower, Mandate, pp. 43-45.
[Dulles]: Townsend Hoopes, The Devil and John Foster Dulles (Atlantic Monthly/Little, Brown, 1973); Ronald W. Pruessen, John Foster Dulles: The Road to Power (Free Press, 1982); John R. Beal, John Foster Dulles, 1888-1959 (Harper, 1959); Herbert S. Parmet, “Power and Reality: John Foster Dulles and Political Diplomacy,” in Merli and Wilson, pp. 589-619; Ambrose, President, pp. 20-22; Gaddis, Strategies, pp. 136-45; Khrushchev Remembers, vol. 2, pp. 362-64.
253-4 [Smith on Dulles]: Gaddis Smith, “The Shadow of John Foster Dulles” (review of Hoopes), Foreign Affairs, vol. 52, no. 2 (January 1974), pp. 403-8, quoted at p. 406.
254 [Eisenhower’s inaugural address]: January 20, 1953, in Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Dwight. D. Eisenhower (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1958-61), vol. 1, pp. 1-8, quoted at pp. 1, 2.
[Dulles on communism]: January 15, 1953, in LaFeber, pp. 464-68, quoted at p. 466.
[Dulles’s hard line vs. Eisenhower’s soft]: see Seyom Brown, The Faces of Power: Constancy and Change in United States Foreign Policy from Truman to Reagan (Columbia University Press, 1983), chs. 7-8; Robert A. Divine, Eisenhower and the Cold War (Oxford University Press, 1981), pp. 19-23 and passim: Ambrose, President, passim: Hoopes, passim; Charles C. Alexander, Holding the Line: The Eisenhower Era, 1952-1961 (Indiana University Press, 1975), pp. 64-66; Gaddis, Strategies, ch. 5 passim; Richard M. Saunders, “Military Force in the Foreign Policy of the Eisenhower Administration,” Political Science Quarterly, vol. 100, no. 1 (Spring 1985), pp. 97-116.
[“United States of Europe”]: see Ambrose, President, pp. 49-50, 120. [Eisenhower, Dulles and “book burning”]: see ibid., pp. 81-83; Reeves, pp. 477-96 passim.
255 [Iran]: Ambrose, President, pp. 109-12; Kermit Roosevelt, Countercoup: The Struggle for the Control of Iran (McGraw-Hill, 1979); Sepehr Zabih, The Mossadegh Era: Roots of the Iranian Revolution (Lake View Press, 1982); Dallin, pp. 203-17; Anthony Eden, Full Circle (Houghton Mifflin, 1960), ch. 9; Stephen E. Ambrose, Ike’s Spies: Eisenhower and the Defense Establishment (Doubleday, 1981), chs. 14-15.
[Eden on Eisenhower’s “obsession”]: quoted in Eden, p. 235.
[Lebanon]: Ambrose, President, pp. 462-75 passim; Fahim I. Qubain, Crisis in Lebanon (Middle East Institute, 1961); Leila M. T. Meo, Lebanon, Improbable Nation: A Study in Political Development (Indiana University Press, 1965); Hoopes, ch. 27.
[“Five times he said no”]: Ambrose, President, p. 229; see also Gaddis, Long Peace, ch. 6.
[“Bland leading the bland”]: quoted in Melanson in Melanson and Mayers, p. 47.
[Eisenhower revisionism]: see Murray Kempton, “The Underestimation of Dwight D. Eisenhower,” Esquire, vol. 68, no. 3 (September 1967), pp. 108-9, 156; Vincent P. De Santis, “Eisenhower Revisionism,” Review of Politics, vol. 38, no. 2 (April 1976), pp. 190-207; Richard H. Rovere, “Eisenhower Revisited—A Political Genius? A Brilliant Man?,” in Bernstein and Matusow, pp. 436-54; Greenstein; Ambrose, President, chs. 1, 27; Mary S. McAuliffe, “Eisenhower, The President,” Journal of American History, vol. 68, no. 3 (December 1981), pp. 625-32; Divine, Eisenhower, pp. 6-7; Wills, pp. 115-38; Melanson and Mayers, passim.
[New Look]: Ambrose, President, pp. 171-73, 224-26; Melanson in Melanson and Mayers, pp. 49-54; Gaddis, Long Peace, pp. 123-24, 140-45; Ambrose, Ike’s Spies, pp. 275-76.
256 [Operation Alert]: Ambrose, President, pp. 256-57; Peter Lyon, Eisenhower: Portrait of the Hero (Little, Brown, 1974), p. 655.
[Eisenhower’s address to editor]: “The Chance for Peace,” April 16, 1953, in Eisenhower Public Papers, vol. 1, pp. 179-88, quoted at pp. 185, 186, 182, respectively; see also Ambrose, President, pp. 94-96.
[“Atoms for peace”]: December 8, 1953, in Eisenhower Public Papers, vol. 1, pp. 813-22; Ambrose, President, pp. 147-51. 256-7 [Bikini atoll test]: Robert A. Divine, Blowing in the Wind: The Nuclear Test Ban Debate, 1954-1960 (Oxford University Press, 1978), ch. 1.
257 [Geneva summit]: Ambrose, President, ch. 11; Hoopes, ch. 18; Dallin, pp. 279-83; Eisenhower, Mandate, ch. 21; Khrushchev Remembers, vol. 1, ch. 13.
[“Complete blueprint”]: “Statement on Disarmament,” July 21, 1955, in Eisenhower Public Papers, vol. 3, pp. 713-16, quoted at p. 715.
[Stevenson’s proposal of test suspension]: Divine, Blowing on the Wind, pp. 86-87, Nixon quoted at p. 87.
[Dulles and Aswan]: Hoopes, chs. 20-21.
[Suez]: Hoopes, chs. 22-24; Ambrose, President, chs. 14-15 passim; Dwight D. Eisenhower, The White House Years: Waging Peace, 1956-1961 (Doubleday, 1965), ch. 3 passim; Herman Finer, Dulles Over Suez: The Theory and Practice of His Diplomacy (Quadrangle, 1964); Eden, book 3.
258 [Gomulka’s warning]: quoted in Ambrose, President, p. 354; see also Dallin, pp. 358-64; Konrad Syrop, Spring in October: The Story of the Polish Revolution, 1956 (Praeger, 1957).
[Hungary]: Paul E. Zinner, Revolution in Hungary (Columbia University Press, 1962); Melvin J. Lasky, ed., The Hungarian Revolution: A White Book (Praeger, 1957); Ambrose, President, ch. 15.
[“Liberation was a sham”]: Ambrose, President, p. 355.
[Welch-McCarthy clash]: Oshinsky, ch. 31, quoted at pp. 462, 463, 464.
[McCarthy’s “condemnation”]: Reeves, ch. 23; Rovere, pp. 222-31.
[Eisenhower’s hidden hand against McCarthy]: see Greenstein, ch. 5; see also Sherman Adams, Firsthand Report: The Story of the Eisenhower Administration (Harper, 1961), ch. 8; Oshinsky, pp. 258-60, 387-88, and ch. 23.
[“Purely negative act”]: Ambrose, President, p. 620.
[Communist Control Act]: see McAuliffe, Crisis on the Left, ch. 9.
259 [Sputnik]: Walter A. McDougall, … The Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age (Basic Books, 1985), pp. 131-34, chs. 6-7; James R. Killian, Jr., Sputnik, Scientists, and Eisenhower (MIT Press, 1977), Introduction and chs. 1-2; Dallin, pp. 453-54; Eisenhower, Waging, ch. 8 passim; Tom Wolfe, The Right Stuff (Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1979), pp. 69-74.
259 [“Distinct surprise”]: quoted in Brown, p. 114.
[Vanguard failure]: McDougall, p. 154; Constance M. Green and Milton Lomask, Vanguard: A History (NASA, 1970), pp. 204-12.
[Gaither report]: Ambrose, President, pp. 433-35; Morton H. Halperin, “The Gaither Committee and the Policy Process,” World Politics, vol. 13, no. 3 (April 1961), pp. 360-84; Samuel P. Huntington, The Common Defense: Strategic Programs in National Politics (Columbia University Press, 1961), pp. 106-13; Brown, ch. 10; Eisenhower, Waging, pp. 219-23.
[Eisenhower on U.S. as “scared”]: quoted in Ambrose, President, p. 451. [Eisenhower’s knowledge of U.S. strategic superiority]: Ambrose, Ike’s Spies, pp. 275-78; Robert A. Strong, “Eisenhower and Arms Control,” in Melanson and Mayers, pp. 255-56.
[Khrushchev]: Dallin, pp. 218-19; Khrushchev Remembers, vols. 1, 2; Edward Crankshaw, Khrushchev (Viking, 1966); Roy A. Medvedev and Zhores A. Medvedev, Khrushchev: The Years in Power, Andrew R. Durkin, trans. (Columbia University Press, 1976).
260 [Khrushchev’s attack upon Molotov]: Dallin, pp. 227-35, Dallin quoted at p. 230.
[Khrushchev’s Twentieth Party Congress address]: Khrushchev, “The Crimes of the Stalin Era,” text reprinted in The New Leader, sect. 2, July 16, 1956, S7-S65; see also Dallin, pp. 322-27.
[Khrushchev in America]: Khrushchev in America (Crosscurrents Press, 1960); “Great Encounter, Part Two,” Newsweek, vol. 54, no. 13 (September 28, 1959), pp. 33-46; Ambrose, President, pp. 541-44; Eisenhower, Waging, pp. 405-14, 432-49; Khrushchev Remembers, vol. 2, ch. 16.
[Khrushchev on his being denied Disneyland]: quoted in Khrushchev in America, pp. 112-13.
[U-2]: David Wise and Thomas B. Ross, The U-2 Affair (Random House, 1962); Michael R. Beschloss, Mayday: Eisenhower, Khrushchev and the U-2 Affair (Harper, 1986); Ambrose, President, pp. 571-77; Eisenhower, Waging, pp. 543-52; M. S. Venkataramani, “The U-2 Crisis: An Inquiry into Its Antecedents,” in Venkataramani, Undercurrents in American Foreign Relations: Four Studies (Asia Publishing House, 1965), pp. 157-208; Carl A. Linden, Khrushchev and the Soviet leadership, 1957-1964 (Johns Hopkins Press, 1966), ch. 6.
261 [Khrushchev on having “parts of the plane” and the pilot]: quoted in Ambrose, President, p. 574.
262 [Reston on Washington]: New York Times, May 9, 1960, p. 1.
[Paris summit]: Beschloss, ch. 11; Wise and Ross, ch. 10; Ambrose, President, pp. 577-79; Eisenhower, Waging, pp. 553-59; Khrushchev Remembers, vol. 2, ch. 18; Jack M. Schick, The Berlin Crisis, 1958-1962 (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1971), pp. 111-33; Harold Macmillan, Pointing the Way, 1959-1961 (Macmillan, 1972), ch. 7. [Ambrose on summit]: Ambrose, President, p. 579.
[Eisenhower’s Farewell Address]: January 17, 1961, in Eisenhower Public Papers, vol. 8, pp. 1035-40, quoted at p. 1038.
262-3 [“Kept the peace” … “didn’t just happen”]: quoted in Beschloss, p. 388.
263 [“Stalemate”]: ibid.
264 [Soviet and American military power]: John M. Collins, U.S.-Soviet Military Balance: Concepts and Capabilities, 1960-1980 (McGraw-Hill, 1980), pp. 25-38, Collins quoted on “bombers could burst through” at p. 36; Genrikh Trofimenko, The U.S. Military Doctrine (Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1986).
[American economic power]: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970 (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1971), part 2, p. 948 (Series W 1-11) and part 1, p. 224 (Series F 1-5); Gertrude Deutsch, ed., The Economic Almanac 1962 (National Industrial Conference Board, 1962), pp. 498, 500; U.S. Library of Congress, Legislative Reference Service, Trends in Economic Growth: A Comparison of the Western Powers and the Soviet Bloc (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1955), pp. 1-5 and passim.
[“Expansive time”]: David F. Noble, Forces of Production: A Social History of Industrial Automation (Knopf, 1984), p. 3; see also, generally, David M. Potter, People of Plenty: Economic Abundance and the American Character (University of Chicago Press, 1954).
[American treaty commitments]: see Roland A. Paul, American Military Commitments Abroad (Rutgers University Press, 1973), pp. 14-15.
[European attacks on America]: see Andre Visson, As Others See Us (Doubleday, 1948); Wolfgang Wagner, “The Europeans’ Image of America,’’ in Karl Kaiser and Hans-Peter Schwarz, eds., America and Western Europe: Problems and Prospects (Lexington Books, 1978), pp. 19-32; Richard Mayne, Postwar: The Dawn of Today’s Europe (Schocken Books, 1983), pp. 111-17; Sidney Alexander, “The European Image of America,” American Scholar, vol. 21, no. 1 (Winter 1951-52), pp. 49-55.
[Lerner on Europe and America]: Max Lerner, America as a Civilization (Simon and Schuster, 1957), p. 930.
[European admiration and support of America]: Henry Lee Munson, European Beliefs Regarding the United States (Common Council for American Unity, 1949), pp. 16, 22, 49, and passim.
[Soviet responses and fears]: see J. M. Mackintosh, Strategy and Tactics of Soviet Foreign Policy (Oxford University Press, 1963); Joseph L. Nogee and Robert H. Donaldson, Soviet Foreign Policy Since World War II (Pergamon Press, 1981), chs. 2, 4; William Zimmerman, Soviet Perspectives on International Relations, 1956-1967 (Princeton University Press, 1969); Charles Gati, “The Stalinist Legacy in Soviet Foreign Policy,” in Stephen F. Cohen et al., eds., The Soviet Union Since Stalin (Indiana University Press, 1980), pp. 279-301;David J. Dallin, Soviet Foreign Policy After Stalin (Lippincott, 1961). [Aviation Day and the “bomber gap”]: see Allen Dulles, The Craft of Intelligence (Harper, 1963), pp. 149, 162-63; Nogee and Donaldson, p. 109; Arnold L. Horelick and Myron Rush, Strategic Power and Soviet Foreign Policy (University of Chicago Press, 1966), pp. 17-18, 27-30, 66; Lincoln P. Bloomfield et al., Khrushchev and the Arms Race: Soviet Interests in Arms Control and Disarmament, 1954-1964 (MIT Press, 1966), ch. 2 passim.
The Technology of Freedom
266 [Per capita and national income]: Potter, pp. 81-84.
267 [American intolerance in 1950s]: see Charles C. Alexander, Holding the Line: The Eisenhower Era, 1952-1961 (Indiana University Press, 1975), pp. 121-22.
[“Entered a period”]: quoted in James Gilbert, Another Chance: Postwar America, 1945-1968 (Temple University Press, 1981), p. 186.
[Mergers and acquisitions, 1950s]: Harold G. Vatter, The U.S. Economy in the 1950s: An Economic History (Norton, 1963), pp. 205-6, Schumpeter quoted at p. 206; survival rate of large firms given at ibid.; see also John Kenneth Galbraith, The Affluent Society, 2nd ed. (Houghton Mifflin, 1969), ch. 8; Robert Sobel, The Age of Giant Corporations: A Microeconomic History of American Business, 1914-19**0 (Greenwood Press, 1972), ch. 8; Willard F. Mueller, “Concentration in Manufacturing,” in Edwin Mansfield, ed., Monopoly Power and Economic Performance: Problems of the Modern Economy (Norton, 1978), pp. 69-73.
[World War II and technological advances]: Noble, ch. 1 passim, pp. 334-35; Ralph Sanders, “Three-Dimensional Warfare: World War II,” in Melvin Kranzberg and Carroll W. Pursell, Jr., eds., Technology in Western Civilization: Technology in the Twentieth Century (Oxford University Press, 1967), pp. 561-78.
[Federal share of research and development, late 1950s]: W. David Lewis, “Industrial Research and Development,” in Kranzberg and Pursell, p. 632; see also Donald J. Mrozek, “The Truman Administration and the Enlistment of the Aviation Industry in Postwar Defense,” Business History Review, vol. 48, no. 1 (Spring 1974), pp. 73-94.
267-8 [Rosenberg on technological change and systematized knowledge]: Rosenberg, Technology and American Economic Growth (Harper, 1972), p. 117.
268 [Air speed records]: Gene Gurney, A Chronology of World Aviation (Franklin Watts, 1965), pp. 139, 144, 171, 192, 207; Roger E. Bilstein, Flight in America, 1900-1983: From the Wrights to the Astronauts (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984), p. 183; Patrick Harper, ed., The Timetable of Technology (Hearst Books, 1982), p. 154; Thomas M. Smith, “The Development of Aviation,” in Kranzberg and Pursell, pp. 158-59; Tom Wolfe, The Right Stuff (Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1979), esp. ch. 3.
268 [Nautilus]: Richard G. Hewlett and Francis Duncan, Nuclear Navy, 1946-1962 (University of Chicago Press, 1974), esp. chs. 6-7.
[Machine tool industry growth, postwar]: Noble, pp. 8-9.
[Federal share of R&D, electrical equipment industry, mid-1960s]: ibid., p. 8. [Technological advances in agriculture]: Gilbert C. File, American Farmers: The New Minority (Indiana University Press, 1981), pp. 110-15; Wayne D. Rasmussen, “Scientific Agriculture,” in Kranzberg and Pursell, pp. 337-53; Reynold M. Wik, “Mechanization of the American Farm,” in ibid., pp. 353-68; Rosenberg, Technology and Growth, pp. 127-46; Zvi Griliches, “Research Costs and Social Returns: Hybrid Corn and Related Innovations,” in Nathan Rosenberg, ed., The Economics of Technological Change (Penguin, 1971), pp. 182-202; Griliches, “Hybrid Corn and the Economics of Innovation,” in ibid.,pp. 211-28.
[Decline of farm labor force]: Rosenberg, Technology and Growth, p. 130; see also Fite, p. 115.
[Increase of per-acre com yield]: Rasmussen, p. 343.
[Return on hybrid corn research]: Griliches, “Research Costs,” p. 183.
268-9 [Agribusiness]: Fite, ch. 7 and pp. 194-97.
269 [“Enormous Laboratory”]: Lerner, p. 216.
[Gibbs]: Lynde Phelps Wheeler, Josiah Willard Gibbs: The History of a Great Mind (Yale University Press, 1951); Muriel Rukeyser, Willard Gibbs (Doubleday, Doran, 1942); J. G. Crowther, Famous American Men of Science (Norton, 1937), pp. 227-98. [Marx on science as social activity]: Marx, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, Samuel Moore and Edward Aveling, trans. (Charles H. Kerr & Co., 1906-9), vol. 1, esp. ch. 15; see also Nathan Rosenberg, “Karl Marx on the economic role of science,” in Rosenberg, Perspectives on Technology (Cambridge University Press, 1976), ch. 7; M. M. Bober, Karl Marx’s Interpretation of History, 2nd. ed. (Harvard University Press, 1968), esp. chs. 1, 8, and pp. 363-76.
[Corporate R&D and American science]: George H. Daniels, Science in American Society: A Social History (Knopf, 1971), esp. ch. 14; Sobel, ch. 9; John Jewkes, David Sawers, and Richard Stillerman, The Sources of Invention (Macmillan, 1958), esp. chs. 2, 6-7; Jack Raymond, Power at the Pentagon (Harper, 1964), chs. 8-9; William H. Whyte, Jr., The Organization Man (Simon and Schuster, 1956), part 5; Jacob Schmookler, “Technological Progress and the Modern Corporation,” in Edward S. Mason, ed., The Corporation in Modern Society (Harvard University Press, 1960), ch. 8; Jay M. Gould, The Technical Elite (Augustus M. Kelley, 1968), ch. 7; David C. Mowery, “Firm Structure, Government Policy, and the Organization of Industrial Research: Great Britain and the United States, 1900-1950,” Business History Review, vol. 58, no. 4 (Winter 1984), pp. 504-31.
270 [“Underlying principle”]: Jewkes el al., p. 238.
[Oppenheimer’s classification as security risk]: United States Atomic Energy Commission, In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer, Transcript of Hearing Before Personnel Security Board, April 12-May 6, 1914 (United States Government Printing Office, 1954); Philip M. Stern, The Oppenheimer Case: Security on Trial (Harper, 1969).
[Conant on subsidies]: Lerner, p. 218.
[Gibbs on Yale payroll]: see Wheeler, pp. 57-59, 90-93, quoted at p. 91.
271 [Taylor and scientific management]: Frederick W. Taylor, The Principles of Scientific Managment (Harper, 1929); Taylor, Shop Management (Harper, 1911); Daniel Nelson, Frederick W. Taylor and the Rise of Scientific Management (University of Wisconsin Press, 1980); Samuel Haber, Efficiency and Uplift: Scientific Management in the Progressive Era, 1890-1920 (University of Chicago Press, 1964); David F. Noble, America by Design: Science, Technology, and the Rise of Corporate Capitalism (Knopf, 1977), pp. 264-77.
[Watertown strike]: Noble, America by Design, p. 272; Nelson, pp. 164-66; see also U.S. Ordnance Department, Report of the Chief of Ordnance to the Secretary of War: 1913 (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1913), pp. 12-15 and Appendix 1.
[“Train of gear wheels”]: quoted in Daniels, p. 309.
271 [“Human engineering”]: Loren Baritz, The Servants of Power: A History of the Use of Social Science in American Industry (1960; reprinted by Greenwood Press, 1974), chs. 8-10 and sources cited therein.
[“Problem of human relations”]: quoted in Baritz, p. 190.
[Union heads on “human relations” approach]: ibid., p. 183.
271-2 [Spot welder on his job]: “J.D.,” quoted in Robert H. Guest, “The Rationalization of Management,” in Kranzberg and Pursell, pp. 56-59.
272 [Automation]: John Diebold, Automation: Its Impact on Business and Labor (National Planning Association, May 1959); James R. Bright, “The Development of Automation,” in Kranzberg and Pursell, pp. 635-55; Noble, Forces, ch. 4 and passim; Ben B. Seligman, Most Notorious Victory: Man in an Age of Automation (Free Press, 1966); Simon Marcson, ed., Automation, Alienation and Anomie (Harper, 1970), esp. parts 2-3.
[Automatic equipment sales, late 1950s]: Diebold, p. 22.
[Automation at Ford]: ibid., pp. 9-10, observer on “whoosh” quoted at p. 9; Bright, pp. 651-53; Allan Nevins and Frank Ernest Hill, Ford: Decline and Rebirth, 1933-1962 (Scribner, 1962), pp. 354-57, 364-66. [“Magical key of creation”]: quoted in Diebold, p. 2.
273 [Carey on automation]: ibid., p. 35.
[Fortune’s “automatic factory”]: “The Automatic Factory” and E. W. Leaver and J. J. Brown, “Machines without Men,” Fortune, vol. 34, no. 5 (November 1946), pp. 160-65, 192-204.
[Reuther on automation]: Reuther, “The Impact of Automation,” in Reuther, Selected Papers, Henry M. Christman, ed. (Macmillan, 1961), pp. 67-100, quoted at p. 76.
[“Everybody’s slice”]: Diebold, p. 43,
[Automation and auto worker militancy]: see Nelson Lichtenstein, “Auto Worker Militancy and the Structure of Factory Life, 1937-1955,” Journal of American History, vol. 67, no. 2 (September 1980), pp. 335-53; William A. Faunce, “Automation in the Automobile Industry: Some Consequences for In-Plant Social Structure,” in Marcson, pp. 169-81.
274 [Butler on man and machine]: Butler, Frewhon, or Over the Range (A. C. Fifield, 1917), pp. 246, 268.
[Bell on work and the machine]: Bell, Work and Its Discontents (Beacon Press, 1956), p. 56.
[Mumford on machine as part of system of power]: see Mumford, Technics and Civilization (Harcourt, 1934), pp. 41-45, 273, 324, and passim.
[Mumford on two technologies]: Mumford, “Authoritarian and Democratic Technics,” Technology and Culture, vol. 5, no. 1 (Winter 1964), pp. 1-8, quoted at p. 2. [Wiener]: Norbert Wiener, The Human Use of Human Beings: Cybernetics and Society (Houghton Mifflin, 1950); Wiener, Cybernetics, or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine (Wiley, 1948).
275 [Alienation and anomie]: see Emile Durkheim, The Division of Labor in Society, George Simpson, trans. (1933; Free Press, 1960); Erich Fromm, The Sane Society (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1955), ch. 5 and passim; Karl Mannheim, Man and Society in an Age of Reconstruction, Edward Shils, trans. (Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., 1940); Wilbert E. Moore, Industrial Relations and the Social Order (Macmillan, 1951), esp. chs. 9-10; Robert Blauner, Alienation and Freedom: The Factory Worker and His Industry (University of Chicago Press, 1964), esp. chs. 2, 5; Seligman, Notorious Victory; William A. Faunce, “Automation and the Division of Labor,” in Marcson, pp. 79-96; Faunce, “Industrialization and Alienation,” in ibid., pp. 400-16; Melvin Seeman, “On the Meaning of Alienation,” in ibid., pp. 381-94.
[“Fortune, Chance, Luck”]: Merton, Social Theory and Social Structure: Toward the Godification of Theory and Research (Free Press, 1949), p. 138.
[Seeman on anomie]: Seeman, pp. 388-89.
275-6 [Marcuse on values and labor]: quoted in Douglas Kellner, Herbert Marcuse and the Crisis of Marxism (University of California Press, 1984), p. 140; see also ibid., esp. chs. 6, 10; Marcuse, “Aggressiveness in Advanced Industrial Society,” in Marcuse, Negations: Essays in Critical Theory, Jeremy J. Shapiro, trans. (Beacon Press, 1968), pp. 248-68; Marcuse, Eros and Civilization: A Philosophical Inquiry into Freud (Beacon Press, 1955); H. Stuart Hughes, The Sea Change: The Migration of Social Thought,1930-1965 (Harper, 1975), pp. 70-88.
The Language of Freedom
276 [“Children of freedom”]: quoted in Adam B. Ulam, The Rivals: America and Russia Since World War II (Viking, 1971), p. 157.
[“Dynamic center”], quoted in John P. Mallan, “Luce’s Hot-and-Cold War,” New Republic, vol. 129, no. 9 (September 28, 1953), p. 12.
[“Founding purpose”]: Luce, “National Purpose and Cold War,” in John K. Jessup, ed., The Ideas of Henry Luce (Atheneum, 1969), pp. 131-33, quoted at pp. 131-32. [“Elementary truth”]: quoted in Richard H. Pells, The Liberal Mind in a Conservative Age: American Intellectuals in the 19)40s and 1950s (Harper, 1985), pp. 124-25.
277 [“An American Century”]: Luce, “The American Century,” in Jessup, pp. 105-20, quoted at p. 117.
[“Egotistic corruption”]: quoted in ibid., p. 16.
[Luce as Cecil Rhodes of journalism]: ibid., p. 15.
[Century of the common man]: Wallace, “The Price of Free World Victory,” in John M. Blum, The Price of Vision: The Diary of Henry A. Wallace, 1942-1946 (Houghton Mifflin, 1973), pp. 635-40, esp. p. 638.
[1949 Conference for World Peace]: Pells, pp. 123-24; Irving Howe, “The Culture Conference,” Partisan Review, vol. 16, no. 5 (May 1949), pp. 505-11; Joseph P. Lash, “Weekend at the Waldorf,” New Republic, vol. 120, no. 16 (April 18, 1949), pp. 10-14.
[Congress for Cultural Freedom]: Sidney Hook, “The Berlin Congress for Cultural Freedom,” Partisan Review, vol. 17, no. 7 (September-October 1950), pp. 715-22; Alexander Bloom, Prodigal Sons: The New York Intellectuals & Their World (Oxford University Press, 1986), pp. 259-73; Christopher Lasch, “The Cultural Cold War: A Short History of the Congress for Cultural Freedom,” in Barton J. Bernstein, ed., Towards a New Past: Dissenting Essays in American History (Pantheon, 1968), pp. 322-59; Mary S. McAullife, Crisis on the Left: Cold War Politics and American Liberals, 1947-1954 (University of Massachusetts Press, 1978), pp. 115-29; New York Times, April 27, 1966, p. 28; Pells, pp. 128-30.
[“Opium of the intellectuals”]: Raymond Aron, The Opium of the Intellectuals, Terence Kilmartin, trans. (Norton, 1962).
[“End of ideology”]: Bell, The End of Ideology: On the Exhaustion of Political Ideas in the Fifties, rev. ed. (Free Press, 1962); see also Edward Shils, “Ideology and Civility: On the Politics of the Individual,” Sewanee Review, vol. 66, no. 3 (July-September 1958), pp. 450-80; Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., “Liberalism in America: A Note for Europeans,” in Schlesinger, The Politics of Hope (Houghton Mifflin, 1963), ch. 6; James Nuechterlein, “Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., and the Discontents of Postwar Liberalism,” Review of Politics, vol. 39, no. 1 (January 1977), pp. 3-40; Stephen J. Whitfield, “The 1950’s: The Era of No Hard Feelings,” South Atlantic Quarterly, vol. 74, no. 3 (Summer 1975), pp. 289-307, esp. pp. 297-98; Bernard Sternsher, “Liberalism in the Fifties: The Travail of Redefinition,” Antioch Review, vol. 2a, no. 3 (Fall 1962), pp. 315-31; McAuliffe; Pells, esp. ch. 3; John P. Diggins, The Proud Decades: America in War and in Peace, 1941-1960 (Norton, 1988), ch. 7 passim. 277-8 [Shils on intellectuals]: Shils, p. 456.
278 [Pells on intellectuals]: Pells, p. 181.
[Shils on social critics and Enlightenment ideals]: Shils, p. 455.
279 [Lerner on the new middle classes]: Lerner, p. 490.
[Fromm] Fromm, Escape from Freedom (Rinehart, 1941); Fromm, Sane Society; Fromm, The Revolution of Hope: Toward a Humanized Technology (Harper, 1968); Fromm, May Man Prevail?: An Enquiry into the Facts and Fictions of Foreign Policy (Anchor, 1961); see also John H. Schaar, Escape from Authority: The Perspectives of Erich Fromm (Basic Books, 1961), esp. chs. 3-4.
279-80 [Riesman]: Riesman, with Reuel Denney and Nathan Glazer, The Lonely Crowd: A Study of the Changing American Character (Yale University Press, 1950); Riesman, Individualism Reconsidered and Other Essays (Free Press, 1954); see also Seymour Martin Lipset and Leo Lowenthal, eds., Culture and Social Character: The Work of David Riesman Reviewed (Free Press, 1954).
[Whyte]: Whyte, Organization Man; see also Robert Lekachman, “Organization Men: The Erosion of Individuality,” Commentary, vol. 23, no. 3 (March 1957), pp. 270-76.
281 [Marcuse]: Marcuse, One Dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society (Beacon Press, 1964); Marcuse, Eros and Civilization; Marcuse, “Aggressiveness”; Marcuse, Soviet Marxism: A Critical Analysis (Columbia University Press, 1958); see also Kellner; Jerzy J. Wiatr, “Herbert Marcuse: Philosopher of a Lost Radicalism,” Science & Society, vol. 34 (1970), pp. 319-30.
[Technological advances in newspaper production]: Frank Luther Mott, American Journalism: A History, 1690-1960 (Macmillan, 1962), pp. 807-9, Editor & Publisher quoted at pp. 807-8.
282 [Press consolidation]: ibid., pp. 813-17.
[“Outside the pale”]: I.erner, p. 762.
[Press and cold war]: James Aronson, The Press and the Cold War (Beacon Press, 1970); Bernard C. Cohen, The Press and Foreign Policy (Princeton University Press, 1963), pp. 36-39 and passim; Douglass Cater, The Fourth Branch of Government (Houghton Mifflin, 1959); see also Michael Schudson, Discovering the News: A Social History of American Newspapers (Basic Books, 1978), ch. 5; Potter, esp. ch. 8.
282-3 [Protestant on press]: quoted in Aronson, p. 36.
283 [MacDougall on press]: ibid., p. 37.
[Polls on inevitability of war, 1945, 1948]: ibid.
[Lippmann and Marshall Plan]: see Joseph M. Jones, The Fifteen Weeks (February 21-June 5, 1917) (Viking, 1955), pp. 226-32.
[Cater on press as fourth branch]: see Cater, pp. 2-3, 7-8, 67-74, and passim.
[PM]: Roy Hoopes, Ralph Ingersoll (Atheneum, 1985), chs. 9-14; Stephen Becker, Marshall Field III (Simon and Schuster, 1964), ch. 6 and pp. 398-402; Mott, pp. 771-75; Carey McWilliams, “The Continuing Tradition of Reform Journalism,” in John M. Harrison and Harry H. Stein, eds., Muckraking: Past, Present and Future (Pennsylvania State University Press, 1973), p. 124; Louis Kronenberger, No Whippings, No Gold Watches: TheSaga of a Writer and His Jobs (Atlantic Monthly/Little, Brown, 1970), ch. 5.
[FDR on PM]: quoted in Becker, p. 209.
284 [Time circulation growth, 1950s]: Dan Golenpaul Associates, Information Please Almanac 1952 (Macmillan, 1951), p. 143; Dan Golenpaul Associates, Information Please Almanac 1962 (Simon and Schuster, 1961), p. 310.
[Mass-circulation magazines’ circulations]: Dan Golenpaul Associates, Information Please Almanac 1957 (Macmillan, 1956), p. 318.
[Life advertising revenues]: Robert T. Elson, The World of Time Inc.: The Intimate History of a Publishing Enterprise, 1941-1960 (Atheneum, 1973), p. 404.
[Assets of Time Inc.]: ibid., p. 459,.
[Luce’s management of his enterprises]: Elson, Time Inc.: 1941-1960; Elson, Time Inc.; The Intimate History of a Publishing Enterprise, 1923-1941 (Atheneum, 1968); T. S. Matthews, Name and Address (Simon and Schuster, 1960), pp. 215-74; Hoopes, chs. 5-8 passim; Kronenberger, ch. 4; Joan Simpson Burns, The Awkward Embrace: The Creative Artist and the Institution in America (Knopf, 1975), pp. 142-50; David Cort, “Once Upon a Time Inc.: Mr. Luce’s Fact Machine,” Nation, vol. 182, no. 7 (February 18, 1956), pp. 134-37; John Kobler, Luce: His Time, Life, and Fortune (Doubleday, 1968).
[Luce on editorial convictions]: Elson, Time Inc.: 1941-1960, pp. 74-75.
[Luce in politics]: see ibid., chs. 7, 20, 23, and passim; Mallan, pp. 12-15; W. A. Swanberg, Luce and His Empire (Scribner, 1972), pp. 176-79, 219-22, 268-73,and passim.
[Kobler on Luce and “top performers”]: quoted in Joan Burns, Awkward Embrace, p. 142. [Luce and White]: see Theodore H. White, In Search of History: A Personal Adventure (Harper, 1978), pp. 126-30, 205-13, 246-49.
284-5 [Development of commercial television]: Erik Barnouw, A History of Broadcasting in the United States (Oxford University Press, 1966-70), vol. 2, pp. 293-95 and passim, and vol. 3, chs. 1-2; James L. Baughman, “Television in the ‘Golden Age’: An Entrepreneurial Experiment,” Historian, vol. 47, no. 2 (February, 1985), pp. 175-95; Leo Bogart, The Age of Television: A Study of Viewing Habits and the Impact of Television on American Life (Frederick Ungar, 1956); James L. Baughman, “The National Purpose and the Newest Medium: Liberal Critics of Television, 1958-1960,” Mid-America, vol. 64, no. 2 (April-July 1982), pp. 41-55; William Y. Elliott, ed., Television’s Impact on American Culture (Michigan State University Press, 1956).
285 [Radio in the 1950s]: J. Fred MacDonald, Don’t Touch That Dial (Nelson-Hall, 1979), pp. 85-90; Arnold Passman, The Deejays (Macmillan, 1971).
285-6 [Democratic and Republican parties, 1950s]: Gary W. Reichard, “Divisions and Dissent: Democrats and Foreign Policy, 1952-1956,” Political Science Quarterly, vol. 93, no. 1 (Spring 1978), pp. 51-72; Reichard, The Reaffirmation of Republicanism: Eisenhower and the Eighty-third Congress (University of Tennessee Press, 1975); Herbert S. Parmet, The Democrats: The Years After FDR (Macmillan, 1976), part 2; Samuel Lubell, Revolt of the Moderates (Harper, 1956); Norman A. Graebner, The New Isolationism: A Study in Politics and Foreign Policy Since 1950 (Ronald Press, 1956); Ralph M. Goldman, Search for Consensus: The Story of the Democratic Party (Temple University Press, 1979), pp. 196-207; James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of Democracy: Four-Party Politics in America (Prentice-Hall, 1963), part 3; James L. Sundquist, Politics and Policy: The Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson Years (Brookings Institution, 1968), part 2, esp. ch. 9.
286 [Divine on containment in 1948 campaign]: Divine, “The Cold War and the Election of 1948,” Journal of American History, vol. 59, no. 1 (June 1972), pp. 90-110, quoted at p. 110.
[Newspaper support of Wallace, 1948]: see Aronson, p. 47.
[Election results, 1956]: Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., ed., History of American Presidential Elections, 1789-1968 (Chelsea House, 1971), vol. 4, p. 3445.
287 [Democratic Advisory Committee]: Parmet, pp. 151-61; John Bartlow Martin, Adlai Stevenson and the World (Doubleday, 1977), pp. 395-402; Sundquist, pp. 405-15; Goldman, pp. 202-4; Burns, Deadlock, pp. 254-55.
[“Strong, searching”]: quoted in Martin, p. 395.
[1956 campaign]: Malcolm Moos, “Election of 1956,” in Schlesinger, Elections, vol. 4, pp. 3341-54; Martin, ch. 2; Reichard, “Divisions,” pp. 65-69; Walter Johnson, ed., The Papers of Adlai E. Stevenson: Toward a New America, 1955-1957 (Little, Brown, 1976); Dwight D. Eisenhower, The White House Years: Waging Peace, 1956-1961 (Doubleday, 1965), ch. 1; Kenneth S. Davis, A Prophet in His Own Country: The Triumph and Defeats of Adlai E. Stevenson (Doubleday, 1957), chs. 28-29; Robert A. Divine, Foreign Policy and U.S. Presidential Elections, 1952-1960 (New Viewpoints, 1974), chs. 3-4.
287-8 [Eleanor Roosevelt, mid-1950s]: Eleanor Roosevelt, On My Own (Harper, 1958), chs. 10-22; Joseph P. Lash, Eleanor: The Years Alone (Norton, 1972), chs. 11-13; Tamara K. Hareven, Eleanor Roosevelt: An American Conscience (Quadrangle, 1968), pp. 210-14.
Dilemmas of Freedom
288 [Hofstadter on the intellectual]: quoted in James MacGregor Burns, Leadership (Harper, 1978), p. 141.
289 [“Physicists have known sin”]: quoted in Whitfield, p. 292.
[Lippmann in the postwar world]: Lippmann, The Cold War: A Study in U.S. Foreign Policy (Harper, 1947); Lippmann, Essays in the Public Philosophy (Atlantic Monthly/Little, Brown, 1955); Ronald Steel, Walter Lippmann and the American Century (Atlantic Monthly/Little, Brown, 1980), chs. 32-41 passim: Anwar Hussain Syed, Walter Lippmann’s Philosophy of International Politics (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1963), pp. 340-44 and passim; Barton J. Bernstein, “Walter Lippmann and the Early Cold War,” in Thomas G. Paterson, ed., Cold War Critics: Alternatives to American Foreign Policy in the Truman Years (Quadrangle, 1971), pp. 18-53; Kenneth W. Thompson, Political Realism and the Crisis of World Politics: An American Approach to Foreign Policy (Princeton University Press, 1960), pp. 38-50.
[Lippmann on popular rule]: The Public Philosophy, pp. 14, 61.
289-90 [MacLeish on Lippmann and Lippmann’s reply]: MacLeish, “The Alternative,” Yale Review, vol. 44, no. 4 (June 1955), pp. 481-96, esp. p. 487; Lippmann, “A Rejoinder,” ibid., pp. 497-500.
290 [Kennan’s continued opposition to “legalistic-moralistic” approach]: see Kennan, “Morality and Foreign Policy,” Foreign Affairs, vol. 64, no. 2 (Winter 1985-86), pp. 205-18; Kennan, Memoirs, 2 vols. (Atlantic Monthly/Little, Brown, 1967-72); Kennan, American Diplomacy, 1900-1950 (University of Chicago Press, 1951); Kennan, Realities of American Foreign Policy (Norton, 1966); Kennan, Soviet-American Relations, 1917-1920, 8 vols. (Princeton University Press, 1956-58); Kennan, Russia and the West Under Lenin and Stalin (Little, Brown, 1961).
290 [Pitfall of “realism”]: see Christopher Lasch, “‘Realism’ as a Critique of American Diplomacy,” in Lasch, The World of Nations: Reflections on American History, Politics & Culture (Knopf, 1973), pp. 205-15; Robert C. Good, “The National Interest and Political Realism: Niebuhr’s ‘Debate’ with Morgenthau and Kennan,” Journal of Politics, vol. 22, no. 4 (November 1960), pp. 597-619; Thompson, Political Realism, pp. 50-61; Dean Acheson, “The Illusion of Disengagement,” Foreign Affairs, vol. 36, no. 3 (April 1958), pp. 371-82; John W. Coffey, “George Kennan and the Ambiguities of Realism,” South Atlantic Quarterly, vol. 73, no. 2 (Spring 1974), pp. 184-98.
291 [Morgenthau]: Morgenthau, Scientific Man vs. Power Politics (University of Chicago Press, 1946); Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace (Knopf, 1948); Morgenthau, In Defense of the National Interest: A Critical Examination of American Foreign Policy (Knopf, 1951); Morgenthau, The Impasse of American Foreign Policy (University of Chicago Press, 1962); George Eckstein, “Hans Morgenthau: A Personal Memoir,” Social Research, vol. 48, no. 4 (Winter 1981), pp. 641-52; ibid., vol. 48, no. 4 (Winter 1981), passim; Robert W. Tucker, “Professor Morgenthau’s Theory of Political ‘Realism,’ “American Political Science Review, vol. 46, no. 1 (March 1952), pp. 214-24; Stanley Hoffmann, “Realism and Its Discontents,” Atlantic, vol. 256, no. 5 (November 1985), pp. 131-36; Kenneth W. Thompson, “Moral Reasoning in American Thought on War and Peace,” Review of Politics, vol. 39, no. 3 (July 1977), pp. 386-99, esp. pp. 391-94; see also Thompson, Morality and Foreign Policy (Louisiana State University Press, 1980).
[“Lust for power”]: Morgenthau, Scientific Man, p. 9.
[“We must sin”]: ibid., p. 201; see also Kenneth W. Thompson, Moralism and Morality in Politics and Diplomacy (University Press of America, 1985), pp. 93-107.
[Morgenthau on public opinion]: Morgenthau, “What Is Wrong with Our Foreign Policy,” in Impasse, pp. 68-94, quoted at p. 74.
292 [Niebuhr]: Niebuhr, Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics (Scribner, 1932); Niebuhr, The Irony of American History (Scribner, 1952); Niebuhr, Christian Realism and Political Problems (Scribner, 1953); Niebuhr, The Structure of Nations and Empires (Scribner, 1959); Richard W. Fox, Reinhold Niebuhr (Pantheon, 1985); Fox, “Reinhold Niebuhr and the Emergence of the Liberal Realist Faith, 1930-1945,” Review of Politics, vol. 38, no. 2 (April 1976), pp. 244-65; Donald B. Meyer, The Protestant Search for Political Realism, 1919-1941 (University of California Press, 1960), esp. chs. 13-14; Charles Frankel, The Case for Modern Man (Harper, 1955), ch. 6; Good; Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., “Reinhold Niebuhr’s Role in American Political Thought and Life,” in Schlesinger, Politics of Hope, pp. 97-125; Morton White, “Of Moral Predicaments” (review of Niebuhr, Irony), New Republic, vol. 126, no. 18 (May 5, l952), pp. 8-9.
293 [“Companionship in a common purpose”]: quoted in Fox, “Niebuhr and Emergence,” p. 260.
[“Play hardball”]: quoted in William E. Leuchtenburg, “Preacher of Paradox” (review of Fox, Niebuhr), Atlantic, vol. 257, no. 1 (January 1986), p. 94.
[“Father of us all”]: quoted in Fox, “Niebuhr and Emergence,” p. 245.
[“Spiritual father”]: ibid.
[“Atheists for Niebuhr”]: Thompson, “Moral Reasoning,” p. 387.
[“Dizziness of freedom”]: quoted in Frankel, p. 88.
[“Narcosis of the soul”]: ibid., p. 89.
[“Instant Niebuhrian”]: Harvey Cox, “In the Pulpit and on the Barricades” (review of Fox, Niebuhr), New York Times Book Review, January 5, 1986, pp. 1, 24-25, quoted at p. 24.
294 [“Russia, the Atom and the West”]: Kennan, Russia, the Atom and the West (Harper, 1958); see also Kennan, Memoirs, vol. 2, ch. 10.
[De Gaulle on Lippmann]: quoted in Steel, p. 495.
[American products in Europe]: see Edward A. McCreary, The Americanization of Europe: The Impact of Americans and American Business on the Uncommon Market (Doubleday, 1964), pp. 13-15, 89-90.
295 [American corporations in Europe]: see ibid., ch. 4; Mayne, pp. 112-17. [“49th State”]: British shipowner, quoted in Visson, p. 68.
[“Americans are not served”]: ibid.
[American product failures in Europe]: McCreary, p. 91; see also ibid., pp. 128-35; Mayne, pp. 114-15.
[European view of America’s “imperialism, ” “dollarnoose, ” and “shabby money-lending”]: Visson, pp. 13, 75, 115, and passim; Bruce Hutchinson, Canada’s Lonely Neighbor (Longmans, Green, 1954), p. 11 and passim; “Why Is US Prestige Declining?,” New Republic, vol. 131, no. 8 (August 23, 1954), p. 8; Jean Rikhoff Hills, “The British Press on ‘The Yanks,’” ibid., pp. 9-12; Franz M. Joseph, ed., As Others See Us: The United States through Foreign Eyes (Princeton University Press, 1959).
[“Spiritual standardization”]: quoted in Visson, p. 161.
[“Coco-colonization”]: Mayne, p. 115.
[Koestler on American ubiquity]: quoted in Wilson P. Dizard, The Strategy of Truth: The Story of the U.S. Information Service (Public Affairs Press, 1961), p. 10.
296 [USIA]: Dizard; Thomas C. Sorenson, The Word War: The Story of American Propaganda (Harper, 1968); Thomas C. Reeves, The Life and Times of Joe McCarthy (Stein & Day, 1982), pp. 476-91 passim; Robert E. Elder, The Information Machine: The United States Information Agency and American Foreign Policy (Syracuse University Press, 1968).
[“McCarthyism … is a tragedy”]: Hutchinson, p. 26,
[“France was a land”]: quoted in Dizard, p. 20.
[Ford Foundation international programs]: Dwight Macdonald, The Ford Foundation: The Men and the Millions (Reynal & Co., 1956), p. 60 and passim; Edward H. Berman, The Influence of the Carnegie, Ford, and Rockefeller Foundations on American Foreign Policy: The Ideology of Philanthropy (State University of New York Press, 1983).
[Ford support of Congress for Cultural Freedom]: Berman, pp. 143-45, “combat tyranny” quoted at p. 144.
297 [Lewis in France]: Thelma M. Smith and Ward L. Miner, Transatlantic Migrations: The Contemporary American Novel in France (Duke University Press, 1955), p. 17.
[“Greatest lileary development”]: quoted in ibid., pp. 20-21; see also Henri Peyre, “American Literature Through French Eyes,” Virginia Quarterly Review, vol. 23, no. 3 (Summer 1947), pp. 421-38.
298 [Gide on American literature]: Smith and Miner, p. 21.
[French appreciation of Hemingway]: see ibid., ch. 8 and passim; Roger Asselineau, “French Reactions to Hemingway’s Works Between the Two World Wars,” in Asselineau, ed., The Literary Reputation of Hemingway in Europe (New York University Press, 1965), pp. 39-72; Peyre, p. 435.
[Maurois on Hemingway’s subjects]: Maurois, “Ernest Hemingway,” in Carlos Baker, ed., Hemingway and His Critics: An International Anthology (Hill and Wang, 1961), p. 38.
[Sales of French-language Bell Tolls]: Smith and Miner, p. 30.
[French appreciation of Faulkner]: see ibid., ch. 9.
[“Magical, fantastic”]: quoted in ibid., pp. 129-30.
[Sartre on Faulkner and de Beauvoir]: ibid., pp. 62-63.
[Faulkner as “universal writer”]: see ibid., p. 141.
[German on cadging American books]: Hans Magnus Enzenberger, “Mann, Kafka and the Katzenjammer Kids,” New York Times Book Review, November 11, 1985, pp. 1, 37-39, quoted at p. 37.
[“Thoughtful and barbaric”]: quoted in Mayne, p. 109.
299 [Hemingway’s politics]: see Scott Donaldson, By Force of Will: The Life and Art of Ernest Hemingway (Viking, 1977), ch. 5; John Killinger, Hemingway and the Dead Gods: A Study in Existentialism (University of Kentucky Press, 1960), esp. ch. 5; Carlos Baker, Hemingway: The Writer as Artist (Princeton University Press, 1963), pp. 197-202, ch. 10 and passim; Ray B. West, Jr., “Ernest Hemingway: The Failure of Sensibility,” Sewanee Review, vol. 53 (1945), pp. 120-35; Lionel Trilling, “Hemingway and His Critics,” in Baker, Hemingway and His Critics, pp. 61-70.
[“You believe in Life”]: Hemingway, For Whom the Bell Tolls (Scribner, 1940), p. 305. [“Presentness of the past”]: Hyatt H. Waggoner, “William Harrison Faulkner,” in John A. Garraty, ed., Encyclopedia of American Biography (Harper, 1974), pp. 343-45, quoted at p. 344.
299 [Faulkner in two American traditions]: ibid., p. 344.
[Faulkner and public and private values]: Faulkner, “Speech of Acceptance upon the Award of the Nobel Prize for Literature,” in The Faulkner Reader (Random House, 1954), pp. 3-4; Hyatt H. Waggoner, William Faulkner: From Jefferson to the World (University of Kentucky Press, 1959), esp. chs. 11-12; R. W. B. Lewis, “William Faulkner: The Hero in the New World,” in Robert Penn Warren, ed., Faulkner: A Collection of Critical Essays (Prentice-Hall, 1966), pp. 204-18; Edmund Wilson, “William Faulkner’s Reply to the Civil-Rights Program,” in ibid., pp. 219-25; Vincent F. Hopper, “Faulkner’s Paradise Lost,” Virginia Quarterly Review, vol. 23, no. 3 (Summer 1947), pp. 405-20; see also Joseph Blotner, Faulkner, 2 vols. (Random House, 1974).
[“Moving from a tenor”]: quoted in Hopper, p. 420.
300 [“We prate of freedom”]: quoted in George W. Nitchie, Human Values in the Poetry of Robert Frost: A Study of a Poet’s Convictions (Duke University Press, 1960), pp. 88-89.
[“Keep off each other”]: “Build Soil—A Political Pastoral,” in Robert Frost, Complete Poems (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1963), pp. 421-30, quoted at p. 429.
[“Freedom I’d like to give”]: quoted in Lawrance R. Thompson, Fire and Ice: The Art and Thought of Robert Frost (Henry Holt, 1942), p. 216; see also ibid., pp. 177-232 passim; Nitchie; Malcolm Cowley, “Frost: A Dissenting Opinion” and “The Case Against Mr. Frost: II,” New Republic, vol. 111, no. 11 (September 11, 1944), pp. 312-13, and no. 12 (September 18, 1944), pp. 345-47; William H. Pritchard, Frost: A Literary Life Reconsidered (Oxford University Press, 1984).
[Hicks on Frost]: Hicks, “The World of Robert Frost,” New Republic, vol. 65, no. 835 (December 3, 1930), pp. 77-78, quoted at p. 78.
[“Wise primitive”]: Mailer, “The White Negro: Superficial Reflections on the Hipster,” in Mailer, Advertisements for Myself (Putnam, 1959), pp. 337-58, quoted at p. 343.
[Miller]: Arthur Miller, Timebends: A Life (Grove Press, 1987); Leonard Moss, Arthur Miller (Twayne, 1967); Robert A. Martin, ed., The Theatre Essays of Arthur Miller (Viking, 1978); Benjamin Nelson, Arthur Miller: Portrait of a Playwright (David McKay, 1970); Richard Corrigan, ed., Arthur Miller (Prentice-Hall, 1969). [“Right dramatic form”]: Miller, “The Family in Modern Drama,” in Martin, pp. 69-85, quoted at p. 85.
301 [“I always said”]: Miller, “Introduction to the Collected Plays,” in ibid., pp. 113-70, quoted at p. 141; see also Richard T. Brucher, “Willy Loman and The Soul of a New Machine: Technology and the Common Man,” Journal of American Studies, vol. 17, no. 3 (December 1983), pp. 325-36.
[Europeans on America’s commitment to freedom]: see Wagner in Kaiser and Schwarz, pp. 19-32, esp. pp. 24-25; see also Jean-Paul Sartre, “Individualism and Conformism in the United States,” in Sartre, Literary and Philosophical Essays, Annette Michelson, trans. (Criterion Books, 1955), pp. 97-106.
[Shaw on Americans]: quoted in Wagner, p. 25.
[Khrushchev’s meeting with American labor leaders]: “Free Labor Meets Khrushchev,” in Reuther, Papers, pp. 299-315, quoted at pp. 312, 313; Khrushchev in America (Crosscurrents Press, 1960), pp. 124-40; see also Herbert Mitgang, Freedom to See: The Khrushchev Broadcast and Its Meaning for America (Fund for the Republic, April 1958); Alexander Rapoport, “The Russian Broadcasts of the Voice of America,” Russian Review, vol. 16, no. 3 (July 1957), pp. 3-14; Alexander Anikst, “American Books and Soviet Readers,” New World Review, vol. 4, no. 3 (March 1956), pp. 18-20; Melville J. Ruggles, “American Books in Soviet Publishing,” Slavic Review, vol. 20 (1961), pp. 419-35.
303 [Lives of the poor]: see Robert L. Heilbroner, The Great Ascent: The Struggle for Economic Development in Our Time (Harper, 1963), chs. 2-3; see also Aidan W. Southall and Peter C. W. Gutkind, Townsmen in the Making: Kampala and Its Suburbs (East African Institute of Social Research, 1957).
[Untouchable children in lime pits]: Margaret Bourke-White, Halfway to Freedom: A Report on the New India (Simon and Schuster, 1949), ch. 14.
304 [Division of world GNP]: P. N. Rothenstein-Rodan, “International Aid for Underdeveloped Countries,” Review of Economics and Statistics, vol. 43, no. 2 (May 1961), p. 118 (Table l-A).
304 [GNP per capita]: ibid., p. 118 (Table 1-B); see also ibid., p. 126 (Table 2-C); Paul G. Hoffman, World Without Want (Harper, 1962), pp. 38-39 (Table 1).
[Population growth and its causes]; J. O. Hertzler, The Crisis in World Population (University of Nebraska Press, 1956), pp. 20-21 (Table 1), p. 22 (Figure 1), p. 23 (Table 2).
[Nationalism, war, and decolonization]: Peter Worsley, The Third World, 2nd ed. (University of Chicago Press, 1970), chs. 2-3; T. O. Lloyd, The British Empire, 1558-1981 (Oxford University Press, 1984), pp. 276-92, 312-20; Milton Osborne, Region of Revolt: Focus on Southeast Asia (Penguin, 1970), ch. 5; Tony Smith, “Introduction,” in Tony Smith, ed., The End of the European Empire: Decolonization After World War II (D. C. Heath, 1975), pp. vii-xxiii; Rudolf von Albertini, “The Impact of the Two World Wars on the Decline of Colonialism,” in ibid., pp. 3-19; William R. Louis, Imperialism at Bay: The United States and the Decolonization of the British Empire, 1941-1945 (Oxford University Press, 1978). [Worsley on sense of common fate]: Worsley, p. 84.
[“O masters, lords”]: “The Man with the Hoe,” in Markham, The Man with the Hoe and Other Poems (Doubleday, Page, 1913), pp. 15-18, quoted at pp. 17, 18.
305 [Imperviousness of Indian villages]: see Kusum Nair, Blossoms in the Dust: The Human Element in Indian Development (Gerald Duckworth, 1961).
[Forms of nationalist revolt and postcolonial government]: see Worsley, chs. 3-5.
The Boston Irish
306 [Numbers of Irish immigrants into Boston, late 1840s-1850s]: Oscar Handlin, Boston’s Immigrants, 1790-1865: A Study in Acculturation (Harvard University Press, 1941), p. 229 (Table 5).
[Irish famine]: Thomas Gallagher, Paddy’s Lament, Ireland 1846-1847: Prelude to Hatred (Harcourt, 1982), ch. 1 and passim; Cecil Woodham-Smith, The Great Hunger: Ireland, 1845-9 (Hamish Hamilton, 1962); R. Dudley Edwards and T. Desmond Williams, eds., The Great Famine: Studies in Irish History, 1845-52 (Browne and Nolan, 1956).
[Famine deaths and emigration]: see William P. MacArthur, “Medical History of the Famine,” in Edwards and Williams, pp. 308-12; William V. Shannon, The American Irish (Macmillan, 1966), p. 1; Oliver MacDonagh, “Irish Emigration to the United States of America and the British Colonies during the Famine,” in Edwards and Williams, pp. 317-88, esp. p. 388 (Appendix 1).
[Ireland under British rule]: J. C. Beckett, The Making of Modern Ireland, 1603-1923 (Knopf, 1966); T. W. Freeman, Pre-Famine Ireland: A Study in Historical Geography (Manchester University Press, 1957); Thomas A. Emmet, Ireland Under English Rule, or A Plea for the Plaintiff, 2 vols. (Knickerbocker Press, 1903); Lawrence J. McCaffrey, The Irish Question, 1800-1922 (University of Kentucky Press, 1968); Edward M. Levine, The Irish and Irish Politicians: A Study of Cultural and Social Alienation (University of Notre Dame Press, 1966), ch. 2; Kevin B. Nowlan, “The Political Background,” in Edwards and Williams, ch. 3; Shannon, ch. 1.
[“Always went forth”]: quoted in Shannon, p. 9.
307 [Irish in Boston]: Handlin; Levine, ch. 3; Donald B. Cole, Immigrant City: Lawrence, Massachusetts, 1845-1921 (University of North Carolina Press, 1963), esp. ch. 3; Shannon, ch. 11, also ch. 2; see also Gallagher, ch. 23; Woodham-Smith, ch. 12.
[Irish in sports]: Carl Wittke, The Irish in America (Louisiana State University Press, 1956), ch. 24; Shannon, pp. 95-102.
[Irish in politics]: Levine, esp. chs. 4-5; Arthur Mann, Yankee Reformers in the Urban Age (Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1954), ch. 2; Handlin, ch. 5; Shannon, chs. 4-5; Edgar Lin, Beyond Pluralism: Ethnic Politics in America (Scott, Foresman, 1970), ch. 8; see also Wittke, ch. 10; Nathan Glazer and Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Beyond the Melting Pot: The Negroes, Puerto Ricans, Jews, Italians, and Irish of New York City (MIT Press, 1963), pp. 217-87.
308 [Irish economic progress]: Stephan Thernstrom, The Other Bostonians: Poverty and Progress in an American Metropolis, 1880-1970 (Harvard University Press, 1973), esp. pp. 130-44, 160-75; Handlin, esp. ch. 3; Cole, chs. 3-4, 7, and passim; Wittke, chs. 3-5, 7, 21; Marjorie R. Fallows, Insh Americans: Identity and Assimilation (Prentice-Hall, 1979), chs. 4-5; H. M. Gitelman, “The Waltham System and the Coming of the Irish,” Labor History, vol. 8, no. 3 (Fall 1967), pp. 227-53; Stephen Birmingham, Real Lace: America’s Irish Rich (Harper, 1973); Shannon, ch. 6.
308 [“None need apply”]: quoted in Handlin, p. 67.
[Irish in Puck]: John J. Appel, “From Shanties to Lace Curtain: The Irish Image in Puck, 1876-1910,” Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 13 (1971), pp. 365-75, quoted at p. 367; see also Shannon, ch. 9.
[Continued social exclusion of Irish]: see Helen Howe, The Gentle Americans, 1864-1960: Biography of a Breed (Harper, 1965), pp. 97-99; Cleveland Amory, The Proper Bostonians (E. P. Dutton, 1947), esp. ch. 15; Birmingham; Rose Fitzgerald Kennedy, Times to Remember (Doubleday, 1974), pp. 49-52; Richard J. Whalen, The Founding Father: The Story of Joseph P. Kennedy (New American Library, 1964), pp. 24-27, 34, 59, 401-2, 417-18; David E. Koskoff, Joseph P. Kennedy: A Life and Times (Prentice-Hall, 1974),pp. 18-19, 378-80.
309 [Limits of Insh liberalism]: see Levine, chs. 4-6; Mann, ch. 2; Glazer and Moynihan, pp. 229-34, 264-74; Liu, ch. 8; Fallows, ch. 8.
[Two Patrick Kennedys]: Tim Pal Coogan, “Sure, and It’s County Kennedy Now,” New York Times Magazine, June 23, 1963, pp. 7-9, 32-36; Koskoff, chs. 1-2; Whalen, ch. 1 ; see also the genealogical tables in James MacGregor Burns, Edward Kennedy and the Camelot Legacy (Norton, 1976), pp. 344-46.
[Honey Fitz]: Doris Kearns Goodwin, The Fitzgeralds and the Kennedys (Simon and Schuster, 1987), book 1 ; John Henry Cutler, “Honey Fitz”: Three Steps to the White House (Bobbs-Merrill, 1962); Kennedy, chs. 2-5; Francis Russell, The Great Interlude: Neglected Events and Persons from the First World War to the Depression (McGraw-Hill, 1964), pp. 162-90.
310 [Joe Kennedy]: Whalen; Koskoff; Goodwin, book 2 passim; Michael R. Beschloss, Kennedy and Roosevelt: The Uneasy Alliance (Norton, 1980); Birmingham, ch. 16; Matthew Josephson, The Money Lords: The Great Finance Capitalists, 1925-1950 (Weybright and Talley, 1972), pp. 176-87.
[John Kennedy and Catholicism]: see Garry Wills, The Kennedy Imprisonment: A Meditation on Power (Atlantic Monthly/Little, Brown, 1982), p. 61; Lawrence H. Fuchs, John F. Kennedy and American Catholicism (Meredith Press, 1967); James MacGregor Burns, John Kennedy: A Political Profile (Harcourt, 1960), ch. 13; Donald F. Crosby, God, Church, and Flag: Senator Joseph R. McCarthy and the Catholic Church, 1950-1957 (University of North Carolina Press, 1978), p.35; Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House (Houghton Mifflin, 1965), pp. 107-8; see also Goodwin, p. 635.
[Kennedy and liberalism]: see Schlesinger, pp. 9-19; Burns, Profile, pp. 73-81, 132-36, 264-68; Crosby, pp. 106-7; Herbert S. Parmet, Jack: The Struggles of John F. Kennedy (Dial Press, 1980), pp. 175-82, 188-89, 461-62,and ch. 26; David Burner and Thomas R. West, The Torch Is Passed: The Kennedy Brothers and American Liberalism (Atheneum, 1984), ch. 3 passim.
[Schlesinger on Kennedy’s detachment]: Schlesinger, p. 108; see also Goodwin, pp. 752-55.
[Kennedy’s womanizing]: see Joan Blair and Clay Blair, Jr., The Search For JFK (Berkley, 1976), passim; Wills, chs. 1-2.
311 [Curley]: Joseph F. Dineen, The Purple Shamrock: The Hon. James Michael Curley of Boston (Norton, 1949); James Michael Curley, I’d Do It Again (Prentice-Hall, 1957); Russell, pp. 191-212; Shannon, ch. 12.
[Kennedy’s first congressional campaign]: Parmet, ch. 10; Whalen, ch. 22; Blair and Blair, part 4; Goodwin, pp. 705-21; Koskoff, pp. 405-9; Burns, Profile, ch. 4; Kennedy, pp. 306-20.
[The two Joseph Russos]: Koskoff, p. 407; Cutler, p. 308; independent anonymous source.
[Kennedy in the House]: Blair and Blair, chs. 41-43; Parmet, chs. 11-12; Burns, Profile, ch. 5; Goodwin, ch. 40.
312 [“Felt like a worm there”]: Interview with Senator John F. Kennedy, 1959.
[Kennedy’s Senate campaign]: Parmet, ch. 13; Burns, Profile, ch. 6; Goodwin, pp. 755-68; Kennedy, pp. 320-27; Crosby, pp. 108-11; Whalen, ch. 23; Koskoff, pp. 413-17.
312 [Kennedy’s distance from other Democrats]: see Parmet, p. 254.
[Joe Kennedy and the Post]: Koskoff, pp. 415-16; Whalen, pp. 429-31; Parmet, pp. 242-43.
313 [Kennedy and McCarthyism]: Burns, Profile, ch. 8; Crosby, pp. 108-13, 205-16; Parmet, pp. 243-52, 300-11.
The Southern Poor
[Macon County, 1930s]: Charles S. Johnson, Shadow of the Plantation (University of Chicago Press, 1934; reprinted 1979), p. 100.
314 [FDR on the South]: message to the Conference on Economic Conditions of the South, July 4, 1938, in The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt, Samuel I. Rosenman, comp. (Random House, 1938-50), vol. 7, pp. 421-22, quoted at p. 421.
[Proportion of American poor black families in South]: Alan Batchelder, “Poverty: The Special Case of the Negro,” in Louis A. Ferman, Joyce L. Kornbluh, and Alan Haber, eds., Poverty in America (University of Michigan Press, 1965), p. 114.
[Plessy v. Ferguson?: 163 U.S. 537 (1896).
[Black poverty and class structure in South]: see John Dollard, Caste and Class in a Southern Town, 3rd ed. (Doubleday Anchor, 1957), ch. 5 and passim; Morton Rubin, Plantation County (University of North Carolina Press, 1951), pp. 123-32 and passim, Nathan Hare, “Recent Trends in the Occupational Mobility of Negroes, 1930-1960: An Intracohort Analysis,” Social Forces, vol. 44, no. 2 (December 1965), pp. 166-73; Batchelder in Ferman et al., pp. 112-19; Tom Kahn, “The Economics of Equality,” in ibid., pp. 153-72; Vivian W. Henderson, The Economic Status of Negroes: In the Nation and in the South (Southern Regional Council, 1963); Charles S. Johnson, Growing Up in the Black Belt: Negro Youth in the Rural South (1941; Schocken Books, 1907); Johnson, Shadow; Robert Coles, Children of Crisis (Little, Brown, 1967-78), vol. 2, chs. 4, 7; V. O. Key, Jr., Southern Politics in State and Nation (Knopf, 1949), esp. part 5; Truman M. Pierce et al., White and Negro Schools in the South: An Analysis of Biracial Education (Prentice-Hall, 1955); see also Neil R. Peirce, The Deep South States of America (Norton, 1974); Jack Bass and Walter DeVries, The Transformation of Southern Politics: Social Change and Political Consequence Since 1945 (Basic Books, 1976).
[Peonage]: Pete Daniel, The Shadow of Slavery: Peonage in the South, 1901-1969 (University of Illinois Press, 1972), p. 188 and passim.
[Rowan in the South]: Rowan, South of Freedom (Knopf, 1952).
[“Momma, momma”]: ibid., p. 40.
315 [Black migration from Southeast, 1950s]: Selz C. Mayo and C. Horace Hamilton, “The Rural Negro Population of the South in Transition,” Phylon, vol. 24, no. 2 (July 1963), p. 165.
[Decline in proportion of American blacks in Southeast, 1940-60]: ibid., p. 161.
[Decline in black farm population]: ibid. (Table 1).
[Migrant workers]: Dale Wright, They Harvest Despair: The Migrant Farm Worker (Beacon Press, 1965); Truman Moore, The Slaves We Rent (Random House, 1965); Michael Harrington, The Other America: Poverty in the United States (Macmillan, 962), pp. 48-56; Coles, vol. 2, chs. 3, 8.
[Black migration within South and economic opportunities]: Mayo and Hamilton, pp. 162, 166-71.
[Black women as household or service laborers]: ibid., p. 168 (Table 5).
316 [Appalachia]: Harry M. Caudill, Night Comes to the Cumberlands: A Biography of a Depressed Area (Atlantic Monthly/Little, Brown, 1963), esp. parts 5-7; William J. Page, Jr., and Earl E. Huyck, “Appalachia: Realities of Deprivation,” in Ben B. Seligman, ed., Poverty as a Public Issue (Free Press, 1965), pp. 152-76; Laurel Shackelford and Bill Weinberg, Our Appalachia (Hill and Wang, 1977); Roul Tunley, “The Strange Case of West Virginia,” Saturday Evening Post, vol. 232, no. 32 (February 6, 1960), pp. 19-21, 64-66; William H. Turner, “Blacks in Appalachian America: Reflections on Biracial Education and Unionism,” Phylon, vol. 44, no. 3 (1983), pp. 198-208.
[“Low income, high unemployment”]: Page and Huyck, p. 153.
[“Fire every damn Nigger”]: Interview with Milburn (Big Bud) Jackson, in Shackelford and Weinberg, pp. 300-3, quoted at p. 302.
316 [Harlan County]: see John W. Hevener, Which Side Are You On?: The Harlan County Coal Miners, 1931-39 (University of Illinois Press, 1978); G. C. Jones, Growing Up Hard in Harlan County (University Press of Kentucky, 1985).
[TVA]: David E. Lilienthal, TVA: Democracy on the March (Harper, 1953); Frank E. Smith, Land Between the Lakes (University Press of Kentucky, 1971); Gordon R. Clapp, The TVA: An Approach to the Development of a Region (University of Chicago Press, 1955); Caudill, pp. 318-24.
317 [Texas]: Robert A. Caro, The Years of Lyndon Johnson: The Path to Power (Knopf, 1982), esp. ch. 1; T. R. Fehrenbach, Lone Star: A History of Texas and the Texans (Macmillan, 1968); George N. Green, The Establishment in Texas Politics: The Primitive Years, 1938-1957 (Greenwood Press, 1979); Neil R. Peirce, The Megastates of America (Norton, 1972), pp. 495-563; Key, ch. 12.
317-18 [Johnson, birth to Senate]: Caro; Alfred Steinberg, Sam Houston’s Boy (Macmillan, 1968), chs. 1-27; Doris Kearns, Lyndon Johnson and the American Dream (Harper, 1976), chs. 1-3; Ronnie Dugger, The Politician: The Life and Times of Lyndon Johnson, The Drive For Power, from the Frontier to the Master of the Senate (Norton, 1982), parts 1-10; Merle Miller, Lyndon: An Oral Biography (Putnam, 1980), ch. 1; Sam Houston Johnson, My Brother Lyndon (Cowles Book Co., 1970), chs. 2-4; Seth S. McKay, W. Lee O’Daniel and Texas Politics, 1938-1942 (Texas Tech Press, 1944), ch. 6; Monroe Billington, “Lyndon B. Johnson and the Blacks: The Early Years,” Journal of Negro History, vol. 42, no. 1 (January 1977), pp. 26-42; T. Harry Williams, “Huey, Lyndon, and Southern Radicalism,” Journal of American History, vol. 40, no. 2 (September 1973), pp. 267-93.
318 [“Endless chains”]: Megastates, p. 509.
[Jones]: Bascom N. Timmons, Jesse H. Jones: The Man and the Statesman (Henry Holt, 1956); Jesse H. Jones and Edward Angly, Fifty Billion Dollars: My Thirteen Years with the HFC (Macmillan, 1951).
319 [Texas oilmen]: Carl Coke Rister, Oil! Titan of the Southwest (University of Oklahoma Press, 1949); Richard O’Connor, The Oil Barons: Men of Greed and Grandeur (Little, Brown, 1971); Ed Kilman and Theon Wright, Hugh Roy Cullen: A Story of American Opportunity (Prentice-Hall, 1954); Harry Hurt III, Texas Rich: The Hunt Dynasty from the Early Oil Days through the Silver Crash (Norton, 1981); John Bainbridge, The Super-Americans (Doubleday, 1961).
[Johnson’s 1948 Senate campaign]: Steinberg, chs. 28-29, “Landslide Lyndon” quoted at p. 276; Dugger, chs. 52-58.
[Johnson in the Senate]: Rowland Evans and Robert Novak, Lyndon B. Johnson: The Exercise of Power (New American Library, 1966), chs. 3-10; William S. White, The Professional: Lyndon B. Johnson (Houghton Mifflin, 1964), chs. 10-11; Kearns, Johnson, chs. 4-5 and pp. 379-84; Steinberg, Johnson, chs. 30-54; Miller, ch. 2; Alfred Steinberg, Sam Rayburn (Hawthorn Books, 1975), ch. 26; Dugger, part 12; William S. White, Citadel: The Story of The U.S. Senate (Houghton Mifflin, 1968), pp. 88-89, 101-5, 201-2, 209-10, and passim.
[Kearns on Johnson’s election as party whip]: Kearns, Johnson, p. 102.
321 [FDR and civil rights]: Harvard Sitkoff, A New Deal for Blacks: The Emergence of Civil Rights as a National Issue (Oxford University Press, 1978); Raymond Wollers, Negroes and the Great Depression: The Problem of Economic Recovery (Greenwood Publishing, 1970); John B. Kirby, “The Roosevelt Administration and Blacks: An Ambivalent Legacy,” in Barton J. Bernstein and Allen J. Matusow, eds., Twentieth-Century America: Recent Interpretations, 2nd ed. (Harcourt, 1972), pp. 265-88.
[Truman and civil rights]: Donald R. McCoy and Richard T. Ruetten, Quest and Response: Minority Rights and the Truman Administration (University Press of Kansas, 1973), chs. 9, 13, and passim; Barton J. Bernstein, “The Ambiguous Legacy: The Truman Administration and Civil Rights,” in Bernstein, ed., Politics and Policies of the Truman Administration (Quadrangle, 1970), pp. 269-314.
[Sundquist on the filibuster]: Sundquist, Politics and Policy: The Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson Years (Brookings Institution, 1968), p. 222.
[Brown]: 347 U.S. 483 (1954); see also Richard Kluger, Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America’s Struggle for Equality (Knopf, 1976); Daniel M. Berman, It Is So Ordered: The Supreme Court Rules on School Desegregation (Norton, 1966); Numan V. Bartley, The Rise of Massive Resistance: Race and Politics in the South During the 1950’s (Louisiana State University Press, 1969), chs. 4-5; Robert F. Burk, The Eisenhower Administration and Black Civil Rights (University of Tennessee Press, 1984), ch. 7.
322 [1950 Court decisions]: Sweatt v. Painter, 339 U.S. 629 (1950); McLaunn v. Oklahoma State Regents, 339 U.S. 637 (1950).
[“If 1 failed to produce”]: quoted in Kearns, Johnson, pp. 147-48; see also Billington.
[Civil Rights Act of 1957]: Burk, ch. 10; Steven F. Lawson, Black Ballots: Voting Rights in the South, 1944-1969 (Columbia University Press, 1976), chs. 6-7; Sundquist, pp. 222-38; J. W. Anderson, Eisenhower, Brownell and the Congress: The Tangled Origins of the Civil Rights Bill of 1956-1957 (Inter-University Case Program/University of Alabama Press, 1964); Kearns, Johnson, pp. 146-52; Evans and Novak, ch. 7; Dwight D. Eisenhower, The White House Years: Waging Peace, 1956-1961 (Doubleday, 1965), pp. 154-62; Carl Solberg, Hubert Humphrey (Norton, 1984), pp. 179-80. [Black registration, 1919, in Alabama]: Sundquist, pp. 244-45; see also Burk, ch. 11; Lawson, pp. 203-20; Foster Rhea Dulles, The Civil Rights Commission: 1957-1961 (Michigan State University Press, 1968).
[Little Rock]: Eisenhower, pp. 162-76; Burk, ch. 9; Tony Freyer, The Little Rock Crisis: A Constitutional Interpretation (Greenwood Press, 1984); Sherman Adams, Firsthand Report: The Story of the Eisenhower Administration (Harper, 1961), ch. 16; Bartley, ch. 14 and passim: see also John Bartlow Martin, The Deep South Says “Never” (Ballantine, 1957); James J. Kilpatrick, The Southern Case for School Segregation (Crowell-Collier Press, 1962).
323 [Struggle over strengthening the act]: see Lawson, pp. 222-49; Sundquist, pp. 238-50; Daniel M. Berman, A Bill Becomes a Law: Congress Enacts Civil Rights Legislation, 2nd ed. (Macmillan, 1966); see also Burk, ch. 11.
[“Very little faith”]: quoted in Sundquist, p. 243.
[Kennedy and civil rights]: Carl M. Brauer, John F. Kennedy and the Second Reconstruction (Columbia University Press, 1977), pp. 11-29; Theodore C. Sorensen, Kennedy (Harper, 1965), pp. 470-72; Burns, Profile, pp. 200-6; Parmet, Jack, pp. 408-14.
324 [“Shaped primarily”]: quoted in Parmel, Jack, p. 409.
[Campaign for Democratic nomination]: ibid., chs. 24-27, 29; Theodore C. Sorensen, “Election of 1960,” in Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., History of American Presidential Elections, 1789-1968 (Chelsea House, 1971), vol. 4, pp. 3450-54, 3456-61; Sorensen, Kennedy, chs. 4-5; Schlesinger, Thousand Days, chs. 1-2; Solberg, ch. 20; Evans and Novak, chs. 11-13; Whalen, pp. 443-56; Theodore H. White, The Making of the President 1960 (Atheneum, 1961), chs. 2, 4-6; Wall Anderson, Campaigns: Cases in Political Conflict (Goodyear Publishing, 1970), ch. 10.
[“DearJack”]: quoted in Parmet, Jack, p. 439.
[“All of us”]: ibid., p. 508.
325 [Johnson’s selection as running mate]: Schlesinger, Thousand Days, pp. 39-57; Herbert S. Parmet, JFK: The Presidency of John F. Kennedy (Dial Press, 1983), pp. 21-30; Sorensen, Kennedy, pp. 162-66; Burner and West, pp. 85-88; Miller, pp. 254-60.
[“Little shit-ass”]: quoted in Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., Robert Kennedy and His Times (Houghton Mifflin, 1978), p. 210. [“Evil threat”]: quoted in Parmet, JFK, p. 34.
[Truman and Roosevelt defections]: Joseph P. Lash, Eleanor: The Years Alone (Norton, 1972), pp. 292-97; Marie B. Hecht, Beyond the Presidency: The Residues of Power (Macmillan, 1976), pp. 144-45; New York Times, July 3, 1960, pp. 1, 18-19; Truman quoted on “prearranged affair” at p. 1.
325-6 [Kennedy-Roosevelt reconciliation]: Lash, pp. 297-99, Kennedy quoted at p. 297; Parmet, JFK, pp. 35-36.
326 [Nixon’s nomination]: Stephen E. Ambrose, Nixon: The Education of a Politician, 1913-1962 (Simon and Schuster, 1987), ch. 24; Sorensen, “Election,” pp. 3454-56, 3461-69; White, chs. 3, 7.
[1960 campaign]: Sorensen, “Election,” pp. 3461-69; Sorensen, Kennedy, chs. 7-8; Ambrose, Nixon, chs. 25-26; Schlesinger, Thousand Days, ch. 3; Schlesinger, Robert Kennedy, pp. 211-21; Parmet, JFK, ch. 2; Burk, ch. 12; Eisenhower, ch. 25; White, part 2; Richard M. Nixon, Six Crises (Doubleday, 1962), pp. 293-426; Fawn M. Brodie, Richard Nixon: The Shaping of His Character (Norton, 1981), pp. 410-34; Evans and Novak, ch. 14; Brauer, ch. 2; Robert A. Divine, Foreign Policy and U.S. Presidential Elections, 1952-1960 (New Viewpoints, 1974), pp. 183-287; Eric F. Goldman, “The 1947 Kennedy-Nixon ‘Tube City’ Debate,” Saturday Review, vol. 4, no. 2 (October 16, 1976), pp. 12-13.
326 [Kennedy on separation of church and state]: quoted in Sorensen, Kennedy, p. 190; see also Fuchs, pp. 179-82.
[1960 election results]: Schlesinger, Elections, vol. 4, p. 3562; see also Bernard Cosman, “Presidential Republicanism in the South, 1960,” Journal of Politics, vol. 24, no. 2 (May 1962), pp. 303-22.
The Invisible Latins
[Kennedy’s inaugural address]: January 20, 1961, in Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: John F. Kennedy (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1962-64), vol. 1, pp. 1-3.
328 [Kennedy on Alliance for Progress]: March 13, 1961, in ibid., vol. 1, pp. 170-75, quoted at pp. 172, 175.
[“Heard such words”]: quoted in Schlesinger, Thousand Days, p. 205. [Coolidge’s intervention in Nicaragua]: L. Ethan Ellis, Republican Foreign Policy, 1921-1933 (Rutgers University Press, 1968), pp. 252-61; Harold N. Denny, Dollars for Bullets: The Story of American Rule in Nicaragua (1929; reprinted by Greenwood Press, 1980); Gregorio Selser, Sandino (Monthly Review Press, 1981); William Kamman, A Search for Stability: United States Diplomacy Toward Nicaragua, 1925-1933 (University of Notre Dame Press, 1968).
[Hoover and Stimson in Latin America]: Bryce Wood, The Making of the Good Neighbor Policy (Columbia University Press, 1961), pp. 123-28, 131-35; Donald M. Dozer, Are We Good Neighbors?: Three Decades of Inter-American Relations, 1930-1960 (University of Florida Press, 1959), pp. 9-16; Ellis, ch. 8.
[FDR and the Good Neighbor]: Wood; Dozer, chs. 1-4; Irwin F. Gellman, Roosevelt and Batista: Good Neighbor Diplomacy in Cuba, 1933-1945 (University of New Mexico Press, 1973.)
[Latin America in the American consciousness]: see D. H. Radier, El Gringo: The Yankee Image in Latin America (Chilton Co., 1962), p. 3 and passim.
329 [Figures of Latin poverty]: Samuel Shapiro, Invisible Latin America (Beacon Press, 1963), p. 3 and chs. 1-7 passim; see also Tad Szulc, The Winds of Revolution: Latin America Today—and Tomorrow (Praeger, 1963), ch. 2; Robert J. Alexander, Today’s Latin America (Anchor Books, 1962), pp. 57-83; Nathan L. Whetten, Guatemala: The Land and the People (Yale University Press, 1961), parts 2-3.
[“Culture of poverty”]: Oscar Lewis, “The Culture of Poverty,” in Arthur I. Blaustein and Roger R. Woock, eds., Man Against Poverty: World War III (Vintage, 1968), pp. 260-74, esp. pp. 264-68; see also Lewis, Five Families: Mexican Case Studies in the Culture of Poverty (Basic Books, 1959); Lewis, The Children of Sanchez: Autobiography of a Mexican Family (Random House, 1961); Lewis, La Vida: A Puerto Rican Family in the Culture of Poverty—San Juan and New York (Random House, 1966).
[Mexican oil dispute]: see Wood, chs. 8-9; Robert F. Smith, The United States and Revolutionary Nationalism in Mexico, 1916-1932 (University of Chicago Press, 1972); Harlow S. Person, Mexican Oil: Symbol of Recent Trends in International Relations (Harper, 1942); Ellis, pp. 229-52.
329-30 [Forms of government in Latin America]: Shapiro, pp. 18-24, quoted at p. 23.
330 [Cuban revolt against Spain]: Hugh Thomas, Cuba: The Pursuit of Freedom (Harper, 1971), book 3; David F. Trask, The War with Spain, 1898 (Macmillan, 1981); Philip S. Foner, The Spanish-Cuban-American War and the Birth of American Imperialism, 1891-1902, 2 vols. (Monthly Review Press, 1972).
[U.S. intervention in Cuba]: Thomas, books 4-8, 10 passim; Henry Wriston, “A Historical Perspective,” in John Plank, ed., Cuba and the United States: Long-Range Perspectives (Brookings Institution, 1967), pp. 1-30; Robert F. Smith, The United States and Cuba: Business and Diplomacy, 1917-1960 (Bookman Associates, 1960), esp. chs. 10-11; Wood, chs. 2-3; Gellman; William Appleman Williams, “The Influence of the United States on the Development of Modern Cuba,” in Robert F. Smith, ed., Background to Revolution: The Development of Modern Cuba (Knopf, 1966), pp. 187-94.
330 [“Cheating, mañana lot”]: quoted in Wriston, p. 13.
[Figures of U.S. companies’ control of Cuban economy]: Shapiro, p. 75.
[U.S. investment as one-third Cuban GNP]: ibid.
330-1 [Cuban sugar-mill workers and the jobless]: see Thomas, p. 1109.
331 [Castro’s revolution]: ibid., book 8 passim; Robert F. Smith, “Castro’s Revolution: Domestic Sources and Consequences,” in Plank, pp. 45-68; Herbert L. Matthews, The Cuban Story (George Braziller, 1961); Warren Miller, 90 Miles from Home: The Face of Cuba Today (Little, Brown, 1961); Tad Szulc, Fidel (Morrow, 1986), parts 1-3.
[U.S.-Cuban relations after revolution]: Thomas, chs. 98-102 passim; Richard E. Welch, Jr., Response to Revolution: The United States and the Cuban Revolution, 1959-1961 (University of North Carolina Press, 1985); Philip W. Bonsai, Cube, Castro, and the United States (University of Pittsburgh Press, 1971); see also F. Parkinson, Latin America, the Cold War, & the World Powers, 1945-1973 (Sage Publications, 1974), ch. 5.
[Plans for CIA-backed invasion]: Peter Wyden, Bay of Pigs: The Untold Story (Jonathan Cape, 1979), chs. 1-2 passim; Brodie, ch. 27; Stephen E. Ambrose, Eisenhower: The President (Simon and Schuster, 1984), pp. 504-7, 556-57, 582-84, 608-10.
[The “Guatemala model”]: see Lucien S. Vandenbroucke, “Anatomy of a Failure: The Decision to Land at the Bay of Pigs,” Political Science Quarterly, vol. 99, no. 3 (Fall 1984), pp. 471-91, esp. pp. 474-75; Richard H. Immerman, The CIA in Guatemala: The Foreign Policy of Intervention (University of Texas Press, 1982), esp. pp. 188-97; Trumbull Higgins, The Perfect Failure: Kennedy, Eisenhower, and the CIA at the Bay of Pigs (Norton, 1987), esp. ch. 1.
[Kennedy on Castro]: Kennedy, The Strategy of Peace, Allan Nevins, ed. (Harper, 1960), pp. 132, 133.
[Nixon on eliminating “cancer”]: Nixon, pp. 352-53.
[“Kennedy Asks Aid”]: New York Times, October 21, 1960, p. 1; see also Nixon, pp. 353-54.
[Nixon on Kennedy’s proposal]: New York Times, October 22, 1960, p. 8; see also Nixon, pp. 354-57.
[JFK’s “middle way”]: see Wyden, pp. 92, 99-101, 149-52, and chs. 3-4 passim; see also Schlesinger, Thousand Days, ch. 10 passim; Sorensen, Kennedy, pp. 294-98. [Advisers’group-think]: Vandenbroucke; Wyden, pp. 314-16.
332 [Bay of Pigs invasion] Wyden, chs. 5-7; Haynes B. Johnson, The Bay of Pigs: Brigade 2506 (Norton, 1964); Higgins, esp. ch. 8; Thomas, ch. 06; Parmet, JFK, ch. 7; Parkinson, ch. 6; Schlesinger, Thousand Days, ch. 11; John Bartlow Martin, Adlai Stevenson and the World (Doubleday, 1977), pp. 622-36; Beatrice Bishop Berle and Travis Beal Jacobs, eds., Navigating the Rapids, 1918-1971: From the Papers of Adolf A. Berle (Harcourt, 1973), pp. 740-43; Wills, Kennedy Imprisonment, chs. 18-19; Szulc, Fidel, pp. 532-61.
[“An old saying”]: quoted in Wyden, p. 305.
[“All my life”]: quoted in Sorensen, Kennedy, p. 309.
[Paris and Vienna summits, Berlin crisis and war fears, summer 1961]: Schlesinger, Thousand Days, chs. 14-15; Parmel, JFK pp. 183-202; Jack M. Schick, The Berlin Crisis, 1958-1962 (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1971), chs. 5-6; Jean E. Smith, The Defense of Berlin (Johns Hopkins Press, 1963), chs. 11-12 passim; Robert M. Slusser, The Berlin Crisis of 1961 (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973); Ralph G. Martin, Hero for Our Time: An Intimate Story of the Kennedy Years (Macmillan, 1983), ch. 18; Charles de Gaulle, Memoirs of Hope: Renewal and Endeavor, Terence Kilmartin, trans. (Simon and Schuster, 1971), pp. 254-60; Strobe Talbott, ed. and trans., Khrushchev Remembers (Little, Brown, 1970-74), vol. 2, pp. 487-509; Bruce Miroff, Pragmatic Illusions: The Presidential Politics of John F. Kennedy (David McKay, 1976), pp. 64-82; Alexander L. George and Richard Smoke, Deterrence in American Foreign Policy: Theory and Practice (Columbia University Press, 1977), ch. 14; Montague Kern et al., The Kennedy Crises: The Press, the Presidency, and Foreign Policy (University of North Carolina Press, 1983), part 3; “Gun Thy Neighbor?,” Time, vol. 78, no. 7 (August 18, 1961), p. 58; “The Sheltered Life,” Time, vol. 78, no. 16 (October 20, 1961), pp. 21-25.
[“Shake her hand first”]: quoted in Parmet, JFK, p. 187.
[“Missile gap”]: see George and Smoke, pp. 449-59; Arnold L. Horelick and Myron Rush, Strategic Tower and Soviet Foreign Policy (University of Chicago Press, 1966), chs. 8-9 passim; Roy E. Licklider, “The Missile Gap Controversy,” Political Science Quarterly, vol. 85, no. 4 (December 1970), pp. 600-15; see also Ambrose, Eisenhower, pp. 312-14, 561-63.
[Kennedy-McNamara discussions]: Parmet, JFK, p. 196.
[Kennedy’s address]: July 25, 1961, in Kennedy Public Papers, vol. 1, pp. 533-50; Parmet, JFK, p. 197.
[Truman on address]: quoted in Parmet, JFK, p. 198.
[Roosevelt on civilian defense and negotiations]: ibid.; Lash, p. 319.
[Berlin Wall]: Schick, pp. 172-73; Smith, Defense, ch. 13; George and Smoke, pp. 437-42; Schlesinger, Thousand Days, pp. 394-97.
[Cuban missile crisis]: David Detzer, The Brink: The Missile Crisis, 1962 (Crowell, 1979); Elie Abel, The Missile Crisis (Lippincott, 1966); Abram Chayes, The Cuban Missile Crisis (Oxford University Press, 1974); Herbert S. Dinnerstein, The Making of a Missile Crisis: October 1962 (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976); Robert F. Kennedy, Thirteen Days: A Memoir of the Cuban Missile Crisis (Norton, 1969); Parmet, JFK, ch. 12; Martin, Stevenson, pp. 719-48; Sorensen, Kennedy, ch. 24; Thomas, chs. 107-10; Khrushchev Remembers, vol. 1, ch. 20, and vol. 2, pp. 509-14; Schlesinger, Robert Kennedy, ch. 22; Szulc, Fidel, pp. 562-92; Parkinson, ch. 8; Jerome H. Kahan and Anne K. Long, “The Cuban Missile Crisis: A Study of Its Strategic Context,” Political Science Quarterly, vol. 87, no. 4 (December 1973), pp. 564-90; Roberta Wohlstetter, “Cuba and Pearl Harbor: Hindsight and Foresight,” Foreign Affairs, vol. 43, no. 4 (July 1965), pp. 691-707; George and Smoke, ch. 15; Andrés Suárez, Cuba: Castroism and Communism, 1959-1966, Joel Carmichael and Ernest Halperin, trans. (MIT Press, 1967), ch. 7; Carl A. Linden, Khrushchev and the Soviet Leadership, 1957-1964 (Johns Hopkins Press, 1966), ch. 8; Kern et al., part 4; Wills, chs. 21-22; Miroff, pp. 82-100; Raymond L. Garthoff, Reflections on the Cuban Missile Crisis (Brookings Institution, 1987); J. Anthony Lukas, “Class Reunion: Kennedy’s Men Relive the Cuban Missile Crisis,” New York Times Magazine, August 30, 1987, pp. 22-27, 51, 58-61, esp. pp. 58, 61.
[“Bullfight critics”]: quoted in Parmet, JFK, p. 286.
[Robert Kennedy on lessons learned]: Thirteen Days, pp. 124, 126.
The Revolutionary Asians
[“To those new states”]: Kennedy Public Papers, vol. 1, p. 1.
[“Lenin or any of the Soviet”]: Charles Bohlen, quoted in Parmet, JFK, p. 191.
335-6 [Khrushchev on Kennedy]: Khrushchev Remembers, vol. 2, p. 495.
336 [U.S. and Cuba after missile crisis]: see Schlesinger, Robert Kennedy, ch. 23; Warren Hinckle and William W. Turner, The Fish Is Red: The Story of the Secret War Against Castro (Harper, 1981); K. S. Karol, Guerrillas in Power: The Course of the Cuban Revolution, Arnold Pomerans, ed. (Hill and Wang, 1970), pp. 270-87.
[Debray]: Debray, Revolution in the Revolution?: Armed Struggle and Political Struggle in Latin America, Bobbye Ortiz, trans. (Monthly Review Press, 1967); see also Hartmut Ramm, The Marxism of Regis Debray: Between Lenin and Guevara (Regents Press of Kansas, 1978), esp. ch. 4; Leo Huberman and Paul M. Sweezy, eds., Regis Debray and the Latin American Revolution (Monthly Review Press, 1968).
[Guevara]: Daniel James, Ché Guevara (Stein & Day, 1969); Luis J. Gonzalez and Gustavo A. Sanchez Salazar, The Great Rebel: Che Guevara in Bolivia, Helen R. Lane, trans. (Grove Press, 1969); Ernesto “Che” Guevara, “La Guerra de Guerrillas,” in Franklin M. Osanka, ed.. Modern Guerrilla Warfare (Free Press of Glencoe, 1962), pp. 336-75; see also Parkinson, pp. 215-18; Karol, ch. 4.
[Alliance for Progress]: see Jerome Levinson and Juan de Onís, The Alliance That Lost Its Way: A Critical Report on the Alliance for Progress (Quadrangle, 1970); Department of Economic Affairs, Pan American Union, The Alliance for Progress and Latin-American Development Prospects: A Five-Year Review, 1961-1965 (Johns Hopkins Press, 1967); Szulc, Winds of Revolution, ch. 6; Rader, ch. 9; Miroff, pp. 110-42; Schlesinger, Thousand Days, ch. 8; Abraham F. Lowenthal, “‘Liberal,’ ‘Radical,’ and ‘Bureaucratic’ Perspectives on U.S. Latin American Policy: The Alliance for Progress in Retrospect,” in Julio Cotler and Richard R. Fagen, eds., Latin America and the United States: The Changing Political Realities (Stanford University Press, 1974), pp. 212-35; Heraclio Bonilla, “Commentary on Lowenthal,” in ibid., pp. 236-37.
337 [Stevenson’s missile crisis proposal]: see Martin, Stevenson and the World, pp. 723-24.
[American Revolution in Asia]: Richard B. Morris, The Emerging Nations and the American Revolution (Harper, 1970), pp. 199-205, Nagasaki report quoted at p. 200, Sun Yat-sen at p. 202, Mao at pp. 204, 205.
337-8 [1942 poll on locations of China and India]: Gary R. Hess, America Encounters India, 1941-1947 (Johns Hopkins Press, 1971), p. 2.
338 [Churchill on limited application of Atlantic Charter]: ibid., pp. 28-29.
[FDR and India during World War II]: ibid.; Christopher Thome, Allies of a Kind: The United States, Britain, and the War Against Japan, 1941-1945 (Oxford University Press, 1978), chs. 8, 14, 21, 28; see also, generally, Louis.
[“Dear Friend”]: quoted in Hess, pp. 68-69.
[“Restore to India”]: cable of July 25, 1942, quoted in ibid., p. 76.
[“1,100,000,000 potential enemies”]: quoted in ibid., p. 155.
[Postwar Indian criticism of U.S.]: see ibid., pp. 163-72 passim.
339 [Gandhi’s “congratulatory” telegram]: quoted in ibid., p. 155.
[Roosevelt’s voyage to India]: Eleanor Roosevelt, India and the Awakening East (Harper, 1953); Lash, pp. 195-205.
[Indian conditions]: see Nair; Bourke-White; Ronald Segal, The Anguish of India (Stein & Day, 1965); Chester Bowles, Ambassador’s Report (Harper, 1954); Amlam Dalta, “India,” in Adamantios A. Pepelasis et al., Economic Development: Analysis and Case Studies (Harper, 1961), ch. 13; Donald K. Faris, To Plow with Hope (Harper, 1958), esp. part 1.
[Senator Kennedy’s anticolonial speeches]: see Schlesinger, Thousand Days, pp. 507-8; Parmet, Jack, pp. 399-408; Burns, Profile, pp. 193-200.
[Representative Kennedy’s tour of Asia]: Parmet, Jack, pp. 226-28; Schlesinger, Thousand Days, p. 522; see also W. W. Rostow, The Diffusion of Power: An Essay in Recent History (Macmillan, 1972), p. 106.
[“Key area”]: Schlesinger, Thousand Days, p. 522.
[Foreign aid to India]: P. J. Eldridge, The Politics of Foreign Aid in India (Schocken, 1970), passim; see also Segal, ch. 4; Rostow, ch. 20.
340 [India and the Soviet Union]: see Eldridge, ch. 4 and passim; Bowles, chs. 15-16; Arthur Stein, India and the Soviet Union: The Nehru Era (University of Chicago Press, 1969); Robert H. Donaldson, Soviet Policy towards India: Ideology and Strategy (Harvard University Press, 1974), chs. 3-5; see also Robert Trumbull, As I See India (William Sloane Associates, 1956), ch. 17.
[Indian polls on U.S. and Soviet prestige]: see Eldridge, pp. 98-111 passim. [Chinese-Indian border conflict]: Neville Maxwell, India’s China War (Pantheon, 1970); John Kenneth Galbraith, Ambassador’s Journal: A Personal Account of the Kennedy Years (Houghton Mifflin, 1969), chs. 19-22.
[Nehru in the U.S., 1961]: Schlesinger, Thousand Days, pp. 523-26; Kennedy quoted at p. 526; Galbraith, pp. 245-51; India Information Services, The Prime Minister Comes to America (Information Service of India, n.d.).
[Jackie Kennedy in India and Pakistan]: Galbraith, pp. 305-33 passim; Schlesinger, Thousand Days, pp. 530-31; Sorensen, Kennedy, p. 383.
341 [Budding revolution in Southeast Asia]: see Osborne, esp. chs. 3-4; Erich H. Jacoby, Agrarian Unrest in Southeast Asia (Columbia University Press, 1949); Frank N. Trager, ed., Marxism in Southeast Asia: A Study of Four Countries (Stanford University Press, 1959); Virginia Thompson and Richard Adloff, The Left Wing in Southeast Asia (William Sloane Associates, 1950).
[Ho and the American Declaration of Independence]: see Marvin E. Gettleman et al., eds., Vietnam and America: A Documentary History (Grove Press, 1985), pp. 39-42; Morris, p. 220; Stanley Karnow, Vietnam (Viking, 1983), pp. 135-36; see also Jean Lacouture, Ho Chi Minh, Peter Wiles, trans. (Random House. 1968), ch. 14; David V. J. Bell and Allen E. Goodman, “Vietnam and the American Revolution,” Yale Review, vol. 61, no. l (October 1971), pp. 26-34.
341 [Roosevelt and Indochina]: Gary R. Hess, “Franklin Roosevelt and Indochina,” Journal of American History, vol. 59, no. 2 (September 1972), pp. 353-68; Walter LaFeber, “Roosevelt, Churchill, and Indochina, 1942-45,” American Historical Review, vol. 80, no. 5 (December 1975), pp. 1277-95; Thorne, chs. 7, 13, 20, 27.
[“Cheerful fecklessness”]: quoted in Hess, “Roosevelt and Indochina,” p. 356.
342 [U.S. and Indochina, Truman and Eisenhower Administrations]: George McT. Kahin, Intervention: How America Became Involved in Vietnam (Knopf, 1986), chs. 1-4; Karnow, chs. 4-6; Townsend Hoopes, The Devil and John Foster Dulles (Atlantic Monthly/Little, Brown, 1973), chs. 15-16; Leslie H. Gelb and Richard K. Betts, The Irony of Vietnam: The System Worked (Brookings Institution, 1979), pp. 36-68; K. M. Kail, What Washington Said: Administration Rhetoric and the Vietnam War, 1949-1969 (Harper, 1973), passim; Ronald H. Spector, Advice and Support: The Early Years of the United States Army in Vietnam, 1941-1960 (Free Press, 1985), parts 2-3; Jeanette P. Nichols, “United States Aid to South and Southeast Asia, 1950-1960,” Pacific Historical Review, vol. 32, no. 2 (1963), pp. 171-84.
[President Kennedy and Indochina]: Kahin, chs. 5-6; Karnow, chs. 7-8; Gelb and Betts, ch. 3; Schlesingcr, Thousand Days, chs. 13, 20; Kail, passim; David Halberstam, The Best and the Brightest (Random House, 1972), chs. 1-16; William J. Rust, Kennedy in Vietnam (Scribner, 1985); Richard J. Walton, Cold War and Counterrevolution: The Foreign Policy of John F. Kennedy (Viking, 1972), ch. 10; Kern et al., parts 2, 5; Maxwell D. Taylor, Swords and Plowshares (Norton, 1972), chs. 17-18, 23; Ralph L. Stavins, “Kennedy’s Private War,” New York Review of Books, vol. 17, no. 1 (July 22, 1971), pp. 20-32; Roger Hilsman, To Move a Nation (Doubleday, 1967), part 9.
343 [“There are limits”]: quoted in Schlesinger, Robert Kennedy, p. 705. [Kennedy on danger of escalation]: see Kahin, p. 138.
[Kennedy and Diem coup]: Rust, chs. 6-10; Kahin, ch. 6; Schlesinger, Thousand Days, pp. 981-98; Karnow, ch. 8.
[“Thwart a change”]: quoted in Karnow, p. 295.
344 [Kennedy Administration assumptions about Third World aspirations]: see Robert A. Pakenham, Liberal America and the Third World (Princeton University Press, 1973), esp. pp. 59-85 and chs. 3-4.
[Bowles on Kennedy Administration]: Bowles, Promises to Keep: My Years in Public Life, 1941-1969 (Harper, 1971), pp. 435-36, quoted at p. 435; see also Bowles, “Reminiscences,” Oval History Project, Columbia University (1963), pp. 841, 846.