The following are some of the many articles and books that I have consulted. The list is by no means complete, but represents additional sources that are most relevant to the points made in this book. This book was written for the nonspecialist and not for my colleagues, and so I have tried to simplify topics without oversimplifying them. A more complete and detailed account of the brain and music can be found in these readings, and in the readings cited in them. Some of the works cited below are written for the specialist researcher. I have used an asterisk (*) to indicate the more technical readings. Most of the marked entries are primary sources, and a few are graduate-level textbooks.
Introduction
Churchland, P. M. 1986. Matter and Consciousness. Cambridge: MIT Press.
In the passage on mankind’s curiosity having solved many of the greatest scientific mysteries, I have borrowed liberally from the introduction to this excellent and inspiring work on the philosophy of mind.
*Cosmides, L., and J. Tooby. 1989. Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture, Part I. Case study: A computational theory of social exchange. Ethology and Sociobiology 10: 51–97.
An excellent introduction to the field of evolutionary psychology by two leading scholars.
*Deaner, R. O., and C. L. Nunn. 1999. How quickly do brains catch up with bodies? A comparative method for detecting evolutionary lag. Proceedings of Biological Sciences 266 (1420):687–694.
A recent scholarly article on the topic of evolutionary lag, the notion that our bodies and minds are at present equipped to deal with the world and living conditions as they were fifty thousand years ago, due to the amount of time it takes for adaptations to become encoded in the human genome.
Levitin, D. J. 2001. Paul Simon: The Grammy Interview. Grammy September, 42–46.
Source of the Paul Simon quote about listening for sound.
*Miller, G. F. 2000. Evolution of human music through sexual selection. In The Origins of Music, edited by N. L. Wallin, B. Merker, and S. Brown. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Written by another leader in the field of evolutionary psychology, this article discusses many of the ideas discussed in Chapter 9, which are mentioned only briefly in Chapter 1.
Pareles, J., and P. Romanowski, eds. 1983. The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll. New York: Summit Books.
Adam and the Ants get eight column inches plus a photo in this edition, U2—already well known with three albums and the hit “New Year’s Day”—get only four inches, and no photo.
*Pribram, K. H. 1980. Mind, brain, and consciousness: the organization of competence and conduct. In The Psychobiology of Consciousness, edited by J. M. D. Davidson, R.J. New York: Plenum.
*———. 1982. Brain mechanism in music: prolegomena for a theory of the meaning of meaning. In Music, Mind, and Brain, edited by M. Clynes. New York: Plenum.
Pribram taught his course from a collection of articles and notes that he had compiled. These were two of the papers that we read.
Sapolsky, R. M. 1998. Why Zebras Don’t Get Ulcers, 3rd ed. New York: Henry Holt and Company.
An excellent book and a fun read on the science of stress, and the reasons that modern humans suffer from stress; the idea of “evolutionary lag” that I introduce more fully in Chapter 9 is dealt with very well in this book.
*Shepard, R. N. 1987. Toward a Universal Law of Generalization for psychological science. Science 237 (4820):1317–1323.
*———. 1992. The perceptual organization of colors: an adaptation to regularities of the terrestrial world? In The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture, edited by J. H. Barkow, L. Cosmides, and J. Tooby. New York: Oxford University Press.
*———. 1995. Mental universals: Toward a twenty-first century science of mind. In The Science of the Mind: 2001 and Beyond, edited by R. L. Solso and D. W. Massaro. New York: Oxford University Press.
Three papers by Shepard in which he discusses the evolution of mind.
Tooby, J., and L. Cosmides. 2002. Toward mapping the evolved functional organization of mind and brain. In Foundations of Cognitive Psychology, edited by D. J. Levitin. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Another paper by these two leaders in evolutionary psychology, perhaps the more general of the two papers I’ve listed here.
Chapter 1
*Balzano, G. J. 1986. What are musical pitch and timbre? Music Perception 3 (3):297–314.
A scientific article on the issues involved in pitch and timbre research.
Berkeley, G. 1734/2004. A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge. Whitefish, Mont.: Kessinger Publishing Company.
The famous question—if a tree falls in the forest and no one is there to hear it, does it make a sound?—was first posed by the theologian and philosopher George Berkeley, bishop of Cloyne, in this work.
*Bharucha, J. J. 2002. Neural nets, temporal composites, and tonality. In Foundations of Cognitive Psychology: Core Readings, edited by D. J. Levitin. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Neural networks for chord recognition.
*Boulanger, R. 2000. The C-Sound Book: Perspectives in Software Synthesis, Sound Design, Signal Processing, and Programming. Cambridge: MIT Press.
An introduction to the most widely used software sound synthesis program/system. The best book I know of for people who want to learn to program computers to make music and create timbres of their own choosing.
Burns, E. M. 1999. Intervals, scales, and tuning. In Psychology of Music, edited by D. Deutsch. San Diego: Academic Press.
On the origin of scales, relationships among tones, nature of intervals and scales.
*Chowning, J. 1973. The synthesis of complex audio spectra by means of frequency modulation. Journal of the Audio Engineering Society 21:526–534.
FM synthesis, as eventually manifested in the Yamaha DX synthesizers, was first described in this professional journal.
Clayson, A. 2002. Edgard Varèse. London: Sanctuary Publishing, Ltd.
Source of the quotation “Music is organized sound.”
Dennett, Daniel C. 2005. Show me the science. The New York Times, August 28.
Source of the quotation “Heat is not made of tiny hot things.”
Doyle, P. 2005. Echo & Reverb: Fabricating Space in Popular Music Recording, 1900–1960. Middletown, Conn.
An expansive, scholarly survey of the recording industry’s fascination with space and creating artificial ambiences.
Dwyer, T. 1971. Composing with Tape Recorders: Musique Concrète. New York: Oxford University Press.
For background information on the musique concrète of Schaeffer, Dhomon, Normandeau, and others.
*Grey, J. M. 1975. An exploration of musical timbre using computer-based techniques for analysis, synthesis, and perceptual scaling. Ph.D. Thesis, Music, Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics, Stanford University, Stanford, Calif.
The most influential paper on modern approaches to the study of timbre.
*Janata, P. 1997. Electrophysiological studies of auditory contexts. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, University of Oregon.
Contains the experiments showing that the inferior colliculus of the barn owl restores the missing fundamental.
*Krumhansl, C. L. 1990. Cognitive Foundations of Musical Pitch. New York: Oxford University Press.
*———. 1991. Music psychology: Tonal structures in perception and memory. Annual Review of Psychology 42:277–303.
*———. 2000. Rhythm and pitch in music cognition. Psychological Bulletin 126 (1):159–179.
*———. 2002. Music: A link between cognition and emotion. Current Directions in Psychological Science 11 (2):45–50.
Krumhansl is one of the leading scientists working in music perception and cognition; these articles, and the monograph, provide foundations of the field, and in particular, the notion of tonal hierarchies, the dimensionality of pitch, and the mental representation of pitch.
*Kubovy, M. 1981. Integral and separable dimensions and the theory of indispensable attributes. In Perceptual Organization, edited by M. Kubovy and J. Pomerantz. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum.
Source for the notion of separable dimensions in music.
Levitin, D. J. 2002. Memory for musical attributes. In Foundations of Cognitive Psychology: Core Readings, edited by D. J. Levitin. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Source for the listing of eight different perceptual attributes of a sound.
*McAdams, S., J. W. Beauchamp, and S. Meneguzzi. 1999. Discrimination of musical instrument sounds resynthesized with simplified spectrotemporal parameters. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 105 (2):882–897.
McAdams, S., and E. Bigand. 1993. Introduction to auditory cognition. In Thinking in Sound: The Cognitive Psychology of Audition, edited by S. McAdams and E. Bigand. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
*McAdams, S., and J. Cunible. 1992. Perception of timbral analogies. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, B 336:383–389.
*McAdams, S., S. Winsberg, S. Donnadieu, and G. De Soete. 1995. Perceptual scaling of synthesized musical timbres: Common dimensions, specificities, and latent subject classes. Psychological Research/Psychologische Forschung 58 (3):177–192.
McAdams is the leading researcher in the world studying timbre, and these four papers provide an overview of what we currently know about timbre perception.
Newton, I. 1730/1952. Opticks: or, A Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflections, and Colours of Light. New York: Dover.
Source for Newton’s observation that light waves are not themselves colored.
*Oxenham, A. J., J. G. W. Bernstein, and H. Penagos. 2004. Correct tonotopic representation is necessary for complex pitch perception. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101:1421–1425.
On tonotopic representations of pitch in the auditory system.
Palmer, S. E. 2000. Vision: From Photons to Phenomenology. Cambridge: MIT Press.
An excellent introduction to cognitive science and vision science, at the undergraduate level. Full disclosure: Palmer and I are collaborators, and I made some contributions to this book. Source for the different attributes of visual stimuli.
Pierce, J. R. 1992. The Science of Musical Sound, revised ed. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
Excellent source for the educated layperson who wants to understand the physics of sound, overtones, scales, etc. Full disclosure: Pierce was my teacher and friend when he was alive.
Rossing, T. D. 1990. The Science of Sound, 2nd ed. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing.
Another excellent source for the physics of sound, overtones, scales, and so on, appropriate for undergraduates.
Schaeffer, Pierre. 1967. La musique concrète. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
———. 1968. Traité des objets musicaux. Paris: Le Seuil.
The principles of musique concrète are introduced in the first work, and Schaeffer’s masterpiece on the theory of sound in the second. Unfortunately, no English translation yet exists.
Schmeling, P. 2005. Berklee Music Theory Book 1. Boston: Berklee Press.
I learned music theory at Berklee College, and this is the first volume in their set. Suitable for self-teaching, this covers all the basics.
*Schroeder, M. R. 1962. Natural sounding artificial reverberation. Journal of the Audio Engineering Society 10 (3):219–233.
The seminal article on the creation of artificial reverberation.
Scorsese, Martin. 2005. No Direction Home. USA: Paramount.
Source of the reports of Bob Dylan being booed at the Newport Folk Festival.
Sethares, W. A. 1997. Tuning, Timbre, Spectrum, Scale. London: Springer.
A rigorous introduction to the physics of music and musical sounds.
*Shamma, S., and D. Klein. 2000. The case of the missing pitch templates: How harmonic templates emerge in the early auditory system. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 107 (5):2631–2644.
*Shamma, S. A. 2004. Topographic organization is essential for pitch perception. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101:1114–1115.
On tonotopic representations of pitch in the auditory system.
*Smith, J. O., III. 1992. Physical modeling using digital waveguides. Computer Music Journal 16 (4):74–91.
The article that introduced wave guide synthesis.
Surmani, A., K. F. Surmani, and M. Manus. 2004. Essentials of Music Theory: A Complete Self-Study Course for All Musicians. Van Nuys, Calif.: Alfred Publishing Company.
Another excellent self-teaching guide to music theory.
Taylor, C. 1992. Exploring Music: The Science and Technology of Tones and Tunes. Bristol: Institute of Physics Publishing.
Another excellent college-level text on the physics of sound.
Trehhub, S. E. 2003. Musical predispositions in infancy. In The Cognitive Neuroscience of Music, edited by I. Perets and R. J. Zatorre. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
*Västfjäll, D., P. Larsson, and M. Kleiner. 2002. Emotional and auditory virtual environments: Affect-based judgments of music reproduced with virtual reverberation times. CyberPsychology & Behavior 5 (1):19–32.
A recent scholarly article on the effect of reverberation on emotional response.
Chapter 2
*Bregman, A. S. 1990. Auditory Scene Analysis. Cambridge: MIT Press.
The definitive work on general auditory grouping principles.
Clarke, E. F. 1999. Rhythm and timing in music. In The Psychology of Music, edited by D. Deutsch. San Diego: Academic Press.
An undergraduate-level article on the psychology of time perception in music, and the source for the Eric Clarke quote.
*Ehrenfels, C. von. 1890/1988. On “Gestalt qualities.” In Foundations of Gestalt Theory, edited by B. Smith. Munich: Philosophia Verlag.
On the founding of Gestalt psychology and the Gestalt psychologists’ interest in melody.
Elias, L. J., and D. M. Saucier. 2006. Neuropsychology: Clinical and Experimental Foundations. Boston: Pearson.
Textbook for introducing fundamental concepts of neuroanatomy and the functions of different brain regions.
*Fishman, Y. I., D. H. Reser, J. C. Arezzo, and M. Steinschneider. 2000. Complex tone processing in primary auditory cortex of the awake monkey. I. Neural ensemble correlates of roughness. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 108:235–246.
The physiological basis of consonance and dissonance perception.
Gilmore, Mikal. 2005. Lennon lives forever: Twenty-five years after his death, his music and message endure. Rolling Stone, December 15.
Source of the John Lennon quote.
Helmholtz, H. L. F. 1885/1954. On the Sensations of Tone, 2nd revised ed. New York: Dover.
Unconscious inference.
Lerdahl, Fred. 1983. A Generative Theory of Tonal Music. Cambridge: MIT Press.
The most influential statement of auditory grouping principles in music.
*Levitin, D. J., and P. R. Cook. 1996. Memory for musical tempo: Additional evidence that auditory memory is absolute. Perception and Psychophysics 58:927–935.
This is the article mentioned in the text, in which Cook and I asked people to sing their favorite rock songs, and they reproduced the tempo with very high accuracy.
Luce, R. D. 1993. Sound and Hearing: A Conceptual Introduction. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum.
Textbook on the ear and hearing, including physiology of the ear, loudness, pitch perception, etc.
*Mesulam, M.-M. 1985. Principles of Behavioral Neurology. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Company.
Advanced, graduate textbook for introducing fundamental concepts of neuroanatomy and the functions of different brain regions.
Moore, B. C. J. 1982. An Introduction to the Psychology of Hearing, 2nd ed. London: Academic Press.
———. 2003. An Introduction to the Psychology of Hearing, 5th ed. Amsterdam: Academic Press.
Textbooks on the ear and hearing, including physiology of the ear, loudness, pitch perception, etc.
Palmer, S. E. 2002. Organizing objects and scenes. In Foundations of Cognitive Psychology: Core readings, edited by D. J. Levitin. Cambridge: MIT Press.
On the Gestalt principles of visual grouping.
Stevens, S. S., and F. Warshofsky. 1965. Sound and Hearing, edited by R. Dubos, H. Margenau, C. P. Snow. Life Science Library. New York: Time Incorporated.
A good introduction to the principles of hearing and auditory perception for the general reader.
*Tramo, M. J., P. A. Cariani, B. Delgutte, and L. D. Braida. 2003. Neurobiology of harmony perception. In The Cognitive Neuroscience of Music, edited by I. Peretz and R. J. Zatorre. New York: Oxford University Press.
The physiological basis of consonance and dissonance perception.
Yost, W. A. 1994. Fundamentals of Hearing: An Introduction, 3rd ed. San Diego: Academic Press, Inc.
Textbook on hearing, pitch, and loudness perception.
Zimbardo, P. G., and R. J. Gerrig. 2002. Perception. In Foundations of Cognitive Psychology, edited by D. J. Levitin. Cambridge: MIT Press.
The Gestalt principles of grouping.
Chapter 3
Bregman, A. S. 1990. Auditory Scene Analysis. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Streaming by timbre and other auditory grouping principles. My analogy about the eardrum as a pillowcase stretched over a bucket borrows liberally from a different analogy Bregman proposes in this book.
*Chomsky, N. 1957. Syntactic Structures. The Hague, Netherlands: Mouton.
About the innateness of a language capacity in the human brain.
Crick, F. H. C. 1995. The Astonishing Hypothesis: The Scientific Search for the Soul. New York: Touchstone/Simon & Schuster.
The idea that all of human behavior can be explained by the activity of the brain and neurons.
Dennett, D. C. 1991. Consciousness Explained. Boston: Little, Brown and Company.
On the illusions of conscious experience, and brains updating information.
———. 2002. Can machines think? In Foundations of Cognitive Psychology: Core Readings, edited by D. J. Levitin. Cambridge: MIT Press.
———. 2002. Where am I? In Foundations of Cognitive Psychology: Core Readings, edited by D. J. Levitin. Cambridge: MIT Press.
These two articles address foundational issues of the brain as computer and the philosophical idea of functionalism; “Can Machines Think?” also summarizes the Turing test for intelligence, and its strengths and weaknesses.
*Friston, K. J. 2005. Models of brain function in neuroimaging. Annual Review of Psychology 56:57–87.
A technical overview on research methods for the analysis of brain imaging data by one of the inventors of SPM, a widely used statistical package for fMRI data.
Gazzaniga, M. S., R. B. Ivry, and G. Mangun. 1998. Cognitive Neuroscience. New York: Norton.
Functional divisions of the brain; basic divisions into lobes, major anatomical landmarks; undergraduate text.
Gertz, S. D., and R. Tadmor. 1996. Liebman’s Neuroanatomy Made Easy and Understandable, 5th ed. Gaithersburg, Md.: Aspen.
An introduction to neuroanatomy and major brain regions.
Gregory, R. L. 1986. Odd Perceptions. London: Routledge.
On perception as inference.
*Griffiths, T. D., S. Uppenkamp, I. Johnsrude, O. Josephs, and R. D. Patterson. 2001. Encoding of the temporal regularity of sound in the human brainstem. Nature Neuroscience 4 (6):633–637.
*Griffiths, T. D., and J. D. Warren. 2002. The planum temporale as a computational hub. Trends in Neuroscience 25 (7):348–353.
Recent work on sound processing in the brain from Griffiths, one of the most esteemed researchers of the current generation of brain scientists studying auditory processes.
*Hickok, G., B. Buchsbaum, C. Humphries, and T. Muftuler. 2003. Auditory-motor interaction revealed by fMRI: Speech, music, and working memory in area Spt. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 15 (5):673–682.
A primary source for music activation in a brain region at the posterior Sylvian fissure at the parietal-temporal boundary.
*Janata, P., J. L. Birk, J. D. Van Horn, M. Leman, B. Tillmann, and J. J. Bharucha. 2002. The cortical topography of tonal structures underlying Western music. Science 298:2167–2170.
*Janata, P., and S. T. Grafton. 2003. Swinging in the brain: Shared neural substrates for behaviors related to sequencing and music. Nature Neuroscience 6 (7):682–687.
*Johnsrude, I. S., V. B. Penhune, and R. J. Zatorre. 2000. Functional specificity in the right human auditory cortex for perceiving pitch direction. Brain Res Cogn Brain Res 123:155–163.
*Knosche, T. R., C. Neuhaus, J. Haueisen, K. Alter, B. Maess, O. Witte, and A. D. Friederici. 2005. Perception of phrase structure in music. Human Brain Mapping 24 (4):259–273.
*Koelsch, S., E. Kasper, D. Sammler, K. Schulze, T. Gunter, and A. D. Friederici. 2004. Music, language and meaning: brain signatures of semantic processing. Nature Neuroscience 7 (3):302–307.
*Koelsch, S., E. Schröger, and T. C. Gunter. 2002. Music matters: Preattentive musicality of the human brain. Psychophysiology 39 (1):38–48.
*Kuriki, S., N. Isahai, T. Hasimoto, F. Takeuchi, and Y. Hirata. 2000. Music and language: Brain activities in processing melody and words. Paper read at 12th International Conference on Biomagnetism.
Primary sources on the neuroanatomy of music perception and cognition.
Levitin, D. J. 1996. High-fidelity music: Imagine listening from inside the guitar. The New York Times, December 15.
———. 1996. The modern art of studio recording. Audio, September, 46–52.
On modern recording techniques and the illusions they create.
———. 2002. Experimental design in psychological research. In Foundations of Cognitive Psychology: Core Readings, edited by D. J. Levitin. Cambridge: MIT Press.
On experimental design and what is a “good” experiment.
*Levitin, D. J., and V. Menon. 2003. Musical structure is processed in “language” areas of the brain: A possible role for Brodmann Area 47 in temporal coherence. NeuroImage 20 (4):2142–2152.
The first research article using fMRI to show that temporal structure and temporal coherence in music is processed in the same brain region that does so for spoken and signed languages.
*McClelland, J. L., D. E. Rumelhart, and G. E. Hinton. 2002. The appeal of parallel distributed processing. In Foundations of Cognitive Psychology: Core Readings, edited by D. J. Levitin. Cambridge: MIT Press.
The brain as a parallel processing machine.
Palmer, S. 2002. Visual awareness. In Foundations of Cognitive Psychology: Core Readings, edited by D. J. Levitin. Cambridge: MIT Press.
The philosophical foundations of modern cognitive science, dualism, and materialism.
*Parsons, L. M. 2001. Exploring the functional neuroanatomy of music performance, perception, and comprehension. In I. Peretz and R. J. Zatorre, Eds., Biological Foundations of Music, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Vol. 930, pp. 211–230.
*Patel, A. D., and E. Balaban. 2004. Human auditory cortical dynamics during perception of long acoustic sequences: Phase tracking of carrier frequency by the auditory steady-state response. Cerebral Cortex 14 (1):35–46.
*Patel, A. D. 2003. Language, music, syntax, and the brain. Nature Neuroscience 6 (7):674–681.
*Patel, A. D., and E. Balaban. 2000. Temporal patterns of human cortical activity reflect tone sequence structure. Nature 404:80–84.
*Peretz, I. 2000. Music cognition in the brain of the majority: Autonomy and fractionation of the music recognition system. In The Handbook of Cognitive Neuropsychology, edited by B. Rapp. Hove, U.K.: Psychology Press.
*Peretz, I. 2000. Music perception and recognition. In The Handbook of Cognitive Neuropsychology, edited by B. Rapp. Hove, U.K.: Psychology Press.
*Peretz, I., and M. Coltheart. 2003. Modularity of music processing. Nature Neuroscience 6 (7):688–691.
*Peretz, I., and L. Gagnon. 1999. Dissociation between recognition and emotional judgements for melodies. Neurocase 5:21–30.
*Peretz, I., and R. J. Zatorre, eds. 2003. The Cognitive Neuroscience of Music. New York: Oxford.
Primary sources on the neuroanatomy of music perception and cognition.
Pinker, S. 1997. How The Mind Works. New York: W. W. Norton. Pinker claims here that music is an evolutionary accident.
*Posner, M. I. 1980. Orienting of attention. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 32:3–25.
The Posner Cueing Paradigm.
Posner, M. I., and D. J. Levitin. 1997. Imaging the future. In The Science of the Mind: The 21st Century. Cambridge: MIT Press.
A more complete explanation of the bias that Posner and I have against simple “mental cartography” for its own sake.
Ramachandran, V. S. 2004. A Brief Tour of Human Consciousness: From Impostor Poodles to Purple Numbers. New York: Pi Press.
Consciousness and our naive intuitions about it.
*Rock, I. 1983. The Logic of Perception. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Perception as a logical process and as constructive.
*Schmahmann, J. D., ed. 1997. The Cerebellum and Cognition. San Diego: Academic Press.
On the cerebellum’s role in emotional regulation.
Searle, J. R. 2002. Minds, brains, and programs. In Foundations of Cognitive Psychology: Core Readings, edited by D. J. Levitin. Cambridge: MIT Press.
The brain as a computer; this is one of the most discussed, argued, and cited articles in modern philosophy of mind.
*Sergent, J. 1993. Mapping the musician brain. Human Brain Mapping 1:20–38.
One of the first neuroimaging reports of music and the brain, still widely cited and referred to.
Shepard, R. N. 1990. Mind Sights: Original Visual Illusions, Ambiguities, and Other Anomalies, with a Commentary on the Play of Mind in Perception and Art. New York: W. H. Freeman.
Source of the “Turning the Tables” illusion.
*Steinke, W. R., and L. L. Cuddy. 2001. Dissociations among functional subsystems governing melody recognition after right hemisphere damage. Cognitive Neuroscience 18 (5):411–437.
*Tillmann, B., P. Janata, and J. J. Bharucha. 2003. Activation of the inferior frontal cortex in musical priming. Cognitive Brain Research 16:145–161.
Primary sources on the neuroanatomy of music perception and cognition.
*Warren, R. M. 1970. Perceptual restoration of missing speech sounds. Science, January 23, 392–393.
Source of the example of auditory “filling in” or perceptual completion.
Weinberger, N. M. 2004. Music and the Brain. Scientific American (November 2004):89–95.
*Zatorre, R. J., and P. Belin. 2001. Spectral and temporal processing in human auditory cortex. Cerebral Cortex 11:946–953.
*Zatorre, R. J., P. Belin, and V. B. Penhune. 2002. Structure and function of auditory cortex: Music and speech. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 6 (1):37–46.
Primary sources on the neuroanatomy of music perception and cognition.
Chapter 4
*Bartlett, F. C. 1932. Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology. London: Cambridge University Press.
On schemas.
*Bavelier, D., C. Brozinsky, A. Tomann, T. Mitchell, H. Neville, and G. Liu. 2001. Impact of early deafness and early exposure to sign language on the cerebral organization for motion processing. The Journal of Neuroscience 21 (22):8931–8942.
*Bavelier, D., D. P. Corina, and H. J. Neville. 1998. Brain and language: A perspective from sign language. Neuron 21:275–278.
The neuroanatomy of sign language.
*Bever, T. G., and Chiarell, R. J. 1974. Cerebral dominance in musicians and nonmusicians. Science 185 (4150):537–539.
A seminal paper on hemispheric specialization for music.
*Bharucha, J. J. 1987. Music cognition and perceptual facilitation—a connectionist framework. Music Perception 5 (1):1–30.
*———. 1991. Pitch, harmony, and neural nets: A psychological perspective. In Music and Connectionism, edited by P. M. Todd and D. G. Loy. Cambridge: MIT Press.
*Bharucha, J. J., and P. M. Todd. 1989. Modeling the perception of tonal structure with neural nets. Computer Music Journal 13 (4):44–53.
*Bharucha, J. J. 1992. Tonality and learnability. In Cognitive Bases of Musical Communication, edited by M. R. Jones and S. Holleran. Washington, D.C: American Psychological Association.
On musical schemas.
*Binder, J., and C. J. Price. 2001. Functional neuroimaging of language. In Handbook of Functional Neuroimaging of Cognition, edited by A. Cabeza and A. Kingston.
*Binder, J. R., E. Liebenthal, E. T. Possing, D. A. Medler, and B. D. Ward. 2004. Neural correlates of sensory and decision processes in auditory object identification. Nature Neuroscience 7 (3):295–301.
*Bookheimer, S. Y. 2002. Functional MRI of language: New approaches to understanding the cortical organization of semantic processing. Annual Review of Neuroscience 25:151–188.
The functional neuroanatomy of speech.
Cook, P. R. 2005. The deceptive cadence as a parlor trick. Princeton, N.J., Montreal, Que., November 30.
Personal communication from Perry Cook, who described the deceptive cadence this way in an e-mail to me.
*Cowan, W. M., T. C. Südhof, and C. F. Stevens, eds. 2001. Synapses. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
In-depth information on synapses, the synaptic cleft, and synaptic transmission.
*Dibben, N. 1999. The perception of structural stability in atonal music: the influence of salience, stability, horizontal motion, pitch commonality, and dissonance. Music Perception 16 (3):265–24.
On atonal music, such as that by Schönberg described in this chapter.
*Franceries, X., B. Doyon, N. Chauveau, B. Rigaud, P. Celsis, and J.-P. Morucci. 2003. Solution of Poisson’s equation in a volume conductor using resistor mesh models: Application to event related potential imaging. Journal of Applied Physics 93 (6):3578–3588.
The inverse Poisson problem of localization with EEG.
Fromkin, V., and R. Rodman. 1993. An Introduction to Language, 5th ed. Fort Worth, Tex.: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers.
The basics of psycholinguistics, phonemes, word formation.
*Gazzaniga, M. S. 2000. The New Cognitive Neurosciences, 2nd ed. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Foundations of neuroscience.
Gernsbacher, M. A., and M. P. Kaschak. 2003. Neuroimaging studies of language production and comprehension. Annual Review of Psychology 54:91–114.
A recent review of studies of the neuroanatomical basis for language.
*Hickok, G., B. Buchsbaum, C. Humphries, and T. Muftuler. 2003. Auditory-motor interaction revealed by fMRI: Speech, music, and working memory in area Spt. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 15 (5):673–682.
*Hickok, G., and Poeppel, D. 2000. Towards a functional neuroanatomy of speech perception. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 4 (4):131–138.
The neuroanatomical basis for speech and music.
Holland, B. 1981. A man who sees what others hear. The New York Times, November 19.
An article about Arthur Lintgen, the man who can read record grooves. He can only read them for music that he knows, and only for classical music post-Beethoven.
*Huettel, S. A., A. W. Song, and G. McCarthy. 2003. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates, Inc.
On the theory behind fMRI.
*Ivry, R. B., and L. C. Robertson. 1997. The Two Sides of Perception. Cambridge: MIT Press.
On hemispheric specialization.
*Johnsrude, I. S., V. B. Penhune, and R. J. Zatorre. 2000. Functional specificity in the right human auditory cortex for perceiving pitch direction. Brain Res Cogn Brain Res 123:155–163.
*Johnsrude, I. S., R. J. Zatorre, B. A. Milner, and A. C. Evans. 1997. Left-hemisphere specialization for the processing of acoustic transients. NeuroReport 8:1761–1765.
The neuroanatomy of speech and music.
*Kandel, E. R., J. H. Schwartz, and T. M. Jessell. 2000. Principles of Neural Science, 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Foundations of neuroscience, cowritten by Nobel Laureate Eric Kandel. This is a widely used text in medical schools and graduate neuroscience programs.
*Knosche, T. R., C. Neuhaus, J. Haueisen, K. Alter, B. Maess, O. Witte, and A. D. Friederici. 2005. Perception of phrase structure in music. Human Brain Mapping 24 (4):259–273.
*Koelsch, S., T. C. Gunter, D. Y. v. Cramon, S. Zysset, G. Lohmann, and A. D. Friederici. 2002. Bach speaks: A cortical “language-network” serves the processing of music. NeuroImage 17:956–966.
*Koelsch, S., E. Kasper, D. Sammler, K. Schulze, T. Gunter, and A. D. Friederici. 2004. Music, language, and meaning: Brain signatures of semantic processing. Nature Neuroscience 7 (3):302–307.
*Koelsch, S., B. Maess, and A. D. Friederici. 2000. Musical syntax is processed in the area of Broca: an MEG study. NeuroImage 11 (5):56.
Articles on musical structure by Koelsch, Friederici, and their colleagues.
Kosslyn, S. M., and O. Koenig. 1992. Wet Mind: The New Cognitive Neuroscience. New York: Free Press.
A general audience’s introduction to cognitive neuroscience.
*Krumhansl, C. L. 1990. Cognitive Foundations of Musical Pitch. New York: Oxford University Press.
On the dimensionality of pitch.
*Lerdahl, F. 1989. Atonal prolongational structure. Contemporary Music Review 3 (2).
On atonal music, such as that of Schönberg.
*Levitin, D. J., and V. Menon. 2003. Musical structure is processed in “language” areas of the brain: A possible role for Brodmann Area 47 in temporal coherence. NeuroImage 20 (4):2142–2152.
*———. 2005. The neural locus of temporal structure and expectancies in music: Evidence from functional neuroimaging at 3 Tesla. Music Perception 22 (3):563–575.
The neuroanatomy of musical structure.
*Maess, B., S. Koelsch, T. C. Gunter, and A. D. Friederici. 2001. Musical syntax is processed in Broca’s area: An MEG study. Nature Neuroscience 4 (5):540–545.
The neuroanatomy of musical structure.
*Marin, O. S. M. 1982. Neurological aspects of music perception and performance. In The Psychology of Music, edited by D. Deutsch. New York: Academic Press.
Loss of musical function due to lesions.
*Martin, R. C. 2003. Language processing: Functional organization and neuroanatomical basis. Annual Review of Psychology 54:55–89.
The neuroanatomy of speech perception.
McClelland, J. L., D. E. Rumelhart, and G. E. Hinton. 2002. The Appeal of Parallel Distributed Processing. In Foundations of Cognitive Psychology: Core Readings, edited by D. J. Levitin. Cambridge: MIT Press.
On schemas.
Meyer, L. B. 2001. Music and emotion: distinctions and uncertainties. In Music and Emotion: Theory and Research, edited by P. N. Juslin and J. A. Sloboda. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
Meyer, Leonard B. 1956. Emotion and Meaning in Music. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
———. 1994. Music, the Arts, and Ideas: Patterns and Predictions in Twentieth-Century Culture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
On musical style, repetition, gap-fill, and expectations.
*Milner, B. 1962. Laterality effects in audition. In Interhemispheric Effects and Cerebral Dominance, edited by V. Mountcastle. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press.
Laterality in hearing.
*Narmour, E. 1992. The Analysis and Cognition of Melodic Complexity: The Implication-Realization Model. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
*———. 1999. Hierarchical expectation and musical style. In The Psychology of Music, edited by D. Deutsch. San Diego: Academic Press.
On musical style, repetition, gap-fill, and expectations.
*Niedermeyer, E., and F. L. Da Silva. 2005. Electroencephalography: Basic Principles, Clinical Applications, and Related Fields, 5th ed. Philadephia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins.
An introduction to EEG (advanced, technical, not for the faint of heart).
*Panksepp, J., ed. 2002. Textbook of Biological Psychiatry. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley.
On SSRIs, seratonin, dopamine, and neurochemistry.
*Patel, A. D. 2003. Language, music, syntax and the brain. Nature Neuroscience 6 (7):674–681.
The neuroanatomy of musical structure; this paper introduces the SSIRH.
*Penhune, V. B., R. J. Zatorre, J. D. MacDonald, and A. C. Evans. 1996. Interhemispheric anatomical differences in human primary auditory cortex: Probabilistic mapping and volume measurement from magnetic resonance scans. Cerebral Cortex 6:661–672.
*Peretz, I., R. Kolinsky, M. J. Tramo, R. Labrecque, C. Hublet, G. Demeurisse, and S. Belleville. 1994. Functional dissociations following bilateral lesions of auditory cortex. Brain 117:1283–1301.
*Perry, D. W., R. J. Zatorre, M. Petrides, B. Alivisatos, E. Meyer, and A. C. Evans. 1999. Localization of cerebral activity during simple singing. NeuroReport 10:3979–3984.
The neuroanatomy of music processing.
*Petitto, L. A., R. J. Zatorre, K. Gauna, E. J. Nikelski, D. Dostie, and A. C. Evans. 2000. Speech-like cerebral activity in profoundly deaf people processing signed languages: Implications for the neural basis of human language. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 97 (25):13961–13966.
The neuroanatomy of sign language.
Posner, M. I. 1973. Cognition: An Introduction. Edited by J. L. E. Bourne and L. Berkowitz, 1st ed. Basic Psychological Concepts Series. Glenview, Ill.: Scott, Foresman and Company.
———. 1986. Chronometric Explorations of Mind: The Third Paul M. Fitts Lectures, Delivered at the University of Michigan, September 1976. New York: Oxford University Press.
On mental codes.
Posner, M. I., and M. E. Raichle. 1994. Images of Mind. New York: Scientific American Library.
A general-reader introduction to neuroimaging.
Rosen, C. 1975. Arnold Schoenberg. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
On the composer, atonal and twelve-tone music.
*Russell, G. S., K. J. Eriksen, P. Poolman, P. Luu, and D. Tucker. 2005. Geodesic photogrammetry for localizing sensor positions in dense-array EEG. Clinical Neuropsychology 116:1130–1140.
The inverse Poisson problem in EEG localization.
Samson, S., and R. J. Zatorre. 1991. Recognition memory for text and melody of songs after unilateral temporal lobe lesion: Evidence for dual encoding. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 17 (4):793–804.
———. 1994. Contribution of the right temporal lobe to musical timbre discrimination. Neuropsychologia 32:231–240.
Neuroanatomy of music and speech perception.
Schank, R. C., and R. P. Abelson. 1977. Scripts, plans, goals, and understanding. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Seminal work on schemas.
*Shepard, R. N. 1964. Circularity in judgments of relative pitch. Journal of The Acoustical Society of America 36 (12):2346–2353.
*———. 1982. Geometrical approximations to the structure of musical pitch. Psychological Review 89 (4):305–333.
*———. 1982. Structural representations of musical pitch. In Psychology of Music, edited by D. Deutsch. San Diego: Academic Press.
The dimensionality of pitch.
Squire, L. R., F. E. Bloom, S. K. McConnell, J. L. Roberts, N. C. Spitzer, and M. J. Zigmond, eds. 2003. Fundamental Neuroscience, 2nd ed. San Diego: Academic Press.
Basic neuroscience text.
*Temple, E., R. A. Poldrack, A. Protopapas, S. S. Nagarajan, T. Salz, P. Tallal, M. M. Merzenich, and J. D. E. Gabrieli. 2000. Disruption of the neural response to rapid acoustic stimuli in dyslexia: Evidence from functional MRI. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 97 (25):13907–13912.
Functional neuroanatomy of speech.
*Tramo, M. J., J. J. Bharucha, and F. E. Musiek. 1990. Music perception and cognition following bilateral lesions of auditory cortex. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2:195–212.
*Zatorre, R. J. 1985. Discrimination and recognition of tonal melodies after uni-lateral cerebral excisions. Neuropsychologia 23 (1):31–41.
*———. 1998. Functional specialization of human auditory cortex for musical processing. Brain 121 (Part 10):1817–1818.
*Zatorre, R. J., P. Belin, and V. B. Penhune. 2002. Structure and function of auditory cortex: Music and speech. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 6 (1):37–46.
*Zatorre, R. J., A. C. Evans, E. Meyer, and A. Gjedde. 1992. Lateralization of phonetic and pitch discrimination in speech processing. Science 256 (5058):846–849.
*Zatorre, R. J., and S. Samson. 1991. Role of the right temporal neocortex in retention of pitch in auditory short-term memory. Brain (114):2403–2417.
Studies of the neuroanatomy of speech and music, and of the effect of lesions.
Chapter 5
Bjork, E. L., and R. A. Bjork, eds. 1996. Memory, Handbook of Perception and Cognition, 2nd ed. San Diego: Academic Press.
General text on memory for the researcher.
Cook, P. R., ed. 1999. Music, Cognition, and Computerized Sound: An Introduction to Psychoacoustics. Cambridge: MIT Press.
This book consists of the lectures that I attended as an undergraduate in the course I mention, taught by Pierce, Chowning, Mathews, Shepard, and others.
*Dannenberg, R. B., B. Thom, and D. Watson. 1997. A machine learning approach to musical style recognition. Paper read at International Computer Music Conference, September. Thessoloniki, Greece.
A source article about music fingerprinting.
Dowling, W. J., and D. L. Harwood. 1986. Music Cognition. San Diego: Academic Press.
On the recognition of melodies in spite of transformations.
Gazzaniga, M. S., R. B. Ivry, and G. R. Mangun. 1998. Cognitive Neuroscience: The Biology of the Mind. New York: W. W. Norton.
Contains a summary of Gazzaniga’s split-brain studies.
*Goldinger, S. D. 1996. Words and voices: Episodic traces in spoken word identification and recognition memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 22 (5):1166–1183.
*———. 1998. Echoes of echoes? An episodic theory of lexical access. Psychological Review 105 (2):251–279.
Source articles on multiple-trace memory theory.
Guenther, R. K. 2002. Memory. In Foundations of Cognitive Psychology: Core Readings, edited by D. J. Levitin. Cambridge: MIT Press.
An overview of the record-keeping vs. constructivist theories of memory.
*Haitsma, J., and T. Kalker. 2003. A highly robust audio fingerprinting system with an efficient search strategy. Journal of New Music Research 32 (2):211–221.
Another source article on audio fingerprinting.
*Halpern, A. R. 1988. Mental scanning in auditory imagery for songs. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 143:434–443.
Source for the discussion in this chapter about the ability to scan music in our heads.
*———. 1989. Memory for the absolute pitch of familiar songs. Memory and Cognition 17 (5):572–581.
This article was the inspiration for my 1994 study.
*Heider, E. R. 1972. Universals in color naming and memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology 93 (1):10–20.
Under Eleanor Rosch’s married name, a foundational work on categorization.
*Hintzman, D. H. 1986. “Schema abstraction” in a multiple-trace memory model. Psychological Review 93 (4):411–428.
Hintzman’s MINERVA model is discussed in the context of multiple-trace memory models.
*Hintzman, D. L., R. A. Block, and N. R. Inskeep. 1972. Memory for mode of input. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 11:741–749.
Source for the study of fonts that I discuss.
*Ishai, A., L. G. Ungerleider, and J. V. Haxby. 2000. Distributed neural systems for the generation of visual images. Neuron 28:979–990.
Source for the work on categorical separation in the brain.
*Janata, P. 1997. Electrophysiological studies of auditory contexts. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, University of Oregon.
This contains the report of imagining a piece of music bearing a nearly identical EEG signature to actually hearing a piece of music.
*Levitin, D. J. 1994. Absolute memory for musical pitch: Evidence from the production of learned melodies. Perception and Psychophysics 56 (4):414–423.
This is the source article reporting my study of people singing their favorite rock and pop songs at or near the correct key.
*———. 1999. Absolute pitch: Self-reference and human memory. International Journal of Computing Anticipatory Systems.
An overview of absolute-pitch research.
*———. 1999. Memory for musical attributes. In Music, Cognition and Computerized Sound: An Introduction to Psychoacoustics, edited by P. R. Cook. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Description of my study with tuning forks and memory for pitch.
———. 2001. Paul Simon: The Grammy interview. Grammy, September, 42–46.
Source of the Paul Simon comment about listening for timbres.
*Levitin, D. J., and P. R. Cook. 1996. Memory for musical tempo: Additional evidence that auditory memory is absolute. Perception and Psychophysics 58:927–935.
Source of my study on memory for the tempo of a song.
*Levitin, D. J., and S. E. Rogers. 2005. Pitch perception: Coding, categories, and controversies. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 9 (1):26–33.
Review of absolute-pitch research.
*Levitin, D. J., and R. J. Zatorre. 2003. On the nature of early training and absolute pitch: A reply to Brown, Sachs, Cammuso and Foldstein. Music Perception 21 (1):105–110.
A technical note about problems with absolute-pitch research.
Loftus, E. 1979/1996. Eyewitness Testimony. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Source of the experiments on memory distortions.
Luria, A. R. 1968. The Mind of a Mnemonist. New York: Basic Books.
Source of the story about the patient with hypermnesia.
McClelland, J. L., D. E. Rumelhart, and G. E. Hinton. 2002. The appeal of parallel distributed processing. In Foundations of Cognitive Psychology: Core Readings, edited by D. J. Levitin. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Seminal article on parallel distributed processing (PDP) models, otherwise known as “neural networks,” computer simulations of brain activity.
*McNab, R. J., L. A. Smith, I. H. Witten, C. L. Henderson, and S. J. Cunningham. 1996. Towards the digital music library: tune retrieval from acoustic input. Proceedings of the First ACM International Conference on Digital Libraries:11–18.
Music fingerprinting overview.
*Parkin, A. J. 1993. Memory: Phenomena, Experiment and Theory. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Textbook on memory.
*Peretz, I., and R. J. Zatorre. 2005. Brain organization for music processing. Annual Review of Psychology 56:89–114.
Review of neuroanatomical foundations of music perception.
*Pope, S. T., F. Holm, and A. Kouznetsov. 2004. Feature extraction and database design for music software. Paper read at International Computer Music Conference in Miami.
On music fingerprinting.
*Posner, M. I., and S. W. Keele. 1968. On the genesis of abstract ideas. Journal of Experimental Psychology 77:353–363.
*———. 1970. Retention of abstract ideas. Journal of Experimental Psychology 83:304–308.
Source for the experiments described that showed prototypes might be stored in memory.
*Rosch, E. 1977. Human categorization. In Advances in Crosscultural Psychology, edited by N. Warren. London: Academic Press.
*———. 1978. Principles of categorization. In Cognition and Categorization, edited by E. Rosch and B. B. Lloyd. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum.
*Rosch, E., and C. B. Mervis. 1975. Family resemblances: Studies in the internal structure of categories. Cognitive Psychology 7:573–605.
*Rosch, E., C. B. Mervis, W. D. Gray, D. M. Johnson, and P. Boyes-Braem. 1976. Basic objects in natural categories. Cognitive Psychology 8:382–439.
Source articles on Rosch’s prototype theory.
*Schellenberg, E. G., P. Iverson, and M. C. McKinnon. 1999. Name that tune: Identifying familiar recordings from brief excerpts. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 6 (4):641–646.
Source for the study described of people naming songs based on timbral cues.
Smith, E. E., and D. L. Medin. 1981. Categories and concepts. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Smith, E., and D. L. Medin. 2002. The exemplar view. In Foundations of Cognitive Psychology: Core Readings, edited by D. J. Levitin. Cambridge: MIT Press.
On the exemplar view, as an alternative to Rosch’s prototype theory.
*Squire, L. R. 1987. Memory and Brain. New York: Oxford University Press.
Textbook on memory.
*Takeuchi, A. H., and S. H. Hulse. 1993. Absolute pitch. Psychological Bulletin 113 (2):345–361.
*Ward, W. D. 1999. Absolute Pitch. In The Psychology of Music, edited by D. Deutsch. San Diego: Academic Press.
Overviews of absolute pitch.
*White, B. W. 1960. Recognition of distorted melodies. American Journal of Psychology 73:100–107.
Source for the experiments on how music can be recognized under transposition and other transformations.
Wittgenstein, L. 1953. Philosophical Investigations. New York: Macmillan.
Source for Wittgenstein’s writings about “What is a game?” and family resemblance.
Chapter 6
*Desain, P., and H. Honing. 1999. Computational models of beat induction: The rule-based approach. Journal of New Music Research 28 (1):29–42.
This paper discusses some of the algorithms the authors used in the foot-tapping show I wrote about.
*Aitkin, L. M., and J. Boyd. 1978. Acoustic input to lateral pontine nuclei. Hearing Research 1 (1):67–77.
Physiology of the auditory pathway, low-level.
*Barnes, R., and M. R. Jones. 2000. Expectancy, attention, and time. Cognitive Psychology 41 (3):254–311.
An example of Mari Reiss Jones’s work on time and timing in music.
Crick, F. 1988. What Mad Pursuit: A Personal View of Scientific Discovery. New York: Basic Books.
Source for the quote about Crick’s early years as a scientist.
Crick, F. H. C. 1995. The Astonishing Hypothesis: The Scientific Search for the Soul. New York: Touchstone/Simon & Schuster.
Source for Crick’s discussion of reductionism.
*Friston, K. J. 1994. Functional and effective connectivity in neuroimaging: a synthesis. Human Brain Mapping 2:56–68.
The article on functional connectivity that helped Menon to create the analyses we needed for our paper on musical emotion and the nucleus accumbens.
*Gallistel, C. R. 1989. The Organization of Learning. Cambridge: MIT Press.
An example of Randy Gallistel’s work.
*Goldstein, A. 1980. Thrills in response to music and other stimuli. Physiological Psychology 8 (1):126–129.
The study that showed that naloxone can block musical emotion.
*Grabow, J. D., M. J. Ebersold, and J. W. Albers. 1975. Summated auditory evoked potentials in cerebellum and inferior colliculus in young rat. Mayo Clinic Proceedings 50 (2):57–68.
Physiology and connections of the cerebellum.
*Holinger, D. P., U. Bellugi, D. L. Mills, J. R. Korenberg, A. L. Reiss, G. F. Sherman, and A. M. Galaburda. In press. Relative sparing of primary auditory cortex in Williams syndrome. Brain Research.
The article that Ursula told Crick about.
*Hopfield, J. J. 1982. Neural networks and physical systems with emergent collective computational abilities. Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences 79 (8):2554–2558.
The first statement of Hopfield nets, a form of neural network model.
*Huang, C., and G. Liu. 1990. Organization of the auditory area in the posterior cerebellar vermis of the cat. Experimental Brain Research 81 (2):377–383.
*Huang, C.-M., G. Liu, and R. Huang. 1982. Projections from the cochlear nucleus to the cerebellum. Brain Research 244:1–8.
*Ivry, R. B., and R. E. Hazeltine. 1995. Perception and production of temporal intervals across a range of durations: Evidence for a common timing mechanism. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 21 (1):3–18.
Papers on the physiology, anatomy, and connectivity of the cerebellum and lower auditory areas.
*Jastreboff, P. J. 1981. Cerebellar interaction with the acoustic reflex. Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis 41 (3):279–298.
Source for information on the acoustic “startle” reflex.
*Jones, M. R. 1987. Dynamic pattern structure in music: recent theory and research. Perception & Psychophysics 41:621–634.
*Jones, M. R., and M. Boltz. 1989. Dynamic attending and responses to time. Psychological Review 96:459–491.
Examples of Jones’s work on timing and music.
*Keele, S. W., and R. Ivry. 1990. Does the cerebellum provide a common computation for diverse tasks—A timing hypothesis. Annals of The New York Academy of Sciences 608:179–211.
Example of Ivry’s work on timing and the cerebellum.
*Large, E. W., and M. R. Jones. 1995. The time course of recognition of novel melodies. Perception and Psychophysics 57 (2):136–149.
*———. 1999. The dynamics of attending: How people track time-varying events. Psychological Review 106 (1):119–159.
More examples of Jones’s work on timing and music.
*Lee, L. 2003. A report of the functional connectivity workshop, Düsseldorf 2002. NeuroImage 19:457–465.
One of the papers Menon read to create the analyses we needed for our nucleus accumbens study.
*Levitin, D. J., and U. Bellugi. 1998. Musical abilities in individuals with Williams syndrome. Music Perception 15 (4):357–389.
*Levitin, D. J., K. Cole, M. Chiles, Z. Lai, A. Lincoln, and U. Bellugi. 2004. Characterizing the musical phenotype in individuals with Williams syndrome. Child Neuropsychology 10 (4):223–247.
Information on Williams syndrome and two studies of their musical abilities.
*Levitin, D. J., and V. Menon. 2003. Musical structure is processed in “language” areas of the brain: A possible role for Brodmann Area 47 in temporal coherence. NeuroImage 20 (4):2142–2152.
*———. 2005. The neural locus of temporal structure and expectancies in music: Evidence from functional neuroimaging at 3 Tesla. Music Perception 22 (3):563–575.
*Levitin, D. J., V. Menon, J. E. Schmitt, S. Eliez, C. D. White, G. H. Glover, J. Kadis, J. R. Korenberg, U. Bellugi, and A. L. Reiss. 2003. Neural correlates of auditory perception in Williams syndrome: An fMRI study. NeuroImage 18 (1):74–82.
Studies that showed cerebellar activations to music listening.
*Loeser, J. D., R. J. Lemire, and E. C. Alvord. 1972. Development of folia in human cerebellar vermis. Anatomical Record 173 (1):109–113.
Background on cerebellar physiology.
*Menon, V., and D. J. Levitin. 2005. The rewards of music listening: Response and physiological connectivity of the mesolimbic system. NeuroImage 28 (1):175–184.
The paper in which we showed the involvement of the nucleus accumbens and the brain’s reward system in music listening.
*Merzenich, M. M., W. M. Jenkins, P. Johnston, C. Schreiner, S. L. Miller, and P. Tallal. 1996. Temporal processing deficits of language-learning impaired children ameliorated by training. Science 271:77–81.
Paper showing that dyslexia may be caused by a timing deficit in children’s auditory systems.
*Middleton, F. A., and P. L. Strick. 1994. Anatomical evidence for cerebellar and basal ganglia involvement in higher cognitive function. Science 266 (5184):458–461.
*Penhune, V. B., R. J. Zatorre, and A. C. Evans. 1998. Cerebellar contributions to motor timing: A PET study of auditory and visual rhythm reproduction. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 10 (6):752–765.
*Schmahmann, J. D. 1991. An emerging concept—the cerebellar contribution to higher function. Archives of Neurology 48 (11):1178–1187.
*Schmahmann, Jeremy D., ed. 1997. The Cerebellum and Cognition, International Review of Neurobiology, v. 41. San Diego: Academic Press.
*Schmahmann, S. D., and J. C. Sherman. 1988. The cerebellar cognitive affective syndrome. Brain and Cognition 121:561–579.
Background information on the cerebellum, function, and anatomy.
*Tallal, P., S. L. Miller, G. Bedi, G. Byma, X. Wang, S. S. Nagarajan, C. Schreiner, W. M. Jenkins, and M. M. Merzenich. 1996. Language comprehension in language-learning impaired children improved with acoustically modified speech. Science 271:81–84.
Paper showing that dyslexia may be caused by a timing deficit in children’s auditory systems.
*Ullman, S. 1996. High-level Vision: Object Recognition and Visual Cognition. Cambridge: MIT Press.
On the architecture of the visual system.
*Weinberger, N. M. 1999. Music and the auditory system. In The Psychology of Music, edited by D. Deutsch. San Diego: Academic Press.
On the physiology and connectivity of the music/auditory system.
Chapter 7
*Abbie, A. A. 1934. The projection of the forebrain on the pons and cerebellum. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London (Biological Sciences) 115:504–522.
Source of the quote about the cerebellum being involved in art.
*Chi, Michelene T. H., Robert Glaser, and Marshall J. Farr, eds. 1988. The Nature of Expertise. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Psychological studies of expertise, including chess players.
*Elbert, T., C. Pantev, C. Wienbruch, B. Rockstroh, and E. Taub. 1995. Increased cortical representation of the fingers of the left hand in string players. Science 270 (5234):305–307.
Source for the cortical changes associated with playing violin.
*Ericsson, K. A., and J. Smith, eds. 1991. Toward a General Theory of Expertise: Prospects and Limits. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Psychological studies of expertise, including chess players.
*Gobet, F., P. C. R. Lane, S. Croker, P. C. H. Cheng, G. Jones, I. Oliver, J. M. Pine. 2001. Chunking mechanisms in human learning. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 5:236–243.
On chunking for memory.
*Hayes, J. R. 1985. Three problems in teaching general skills. In Thinking and Learning Skills: Research and Open Questions, edited by S. F. Chipman, J. W. Segal, and R. Glaser. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum.
Source for the study that argued that Mozart’s early works were not highly regarded, and refutation of the claim that Mozart didn’t need ten thousand hours like everyone else to become an expert.
Howe, M. J. A., J. W. Davidson, and J. A. Sloboda. 1998. Innate talents: Reality or myth? Behavioral & Brain Sciences 21 (3):399–442.
One of my favorite articles, although I don’t agree with everything in it; an overview of the “talent is a myth” viewpoint.
Levitin, D. J. 1982. Unpublished conversation with Neil Young, Woodside, CA.
———. 1996. Interview: A Conversation with Joni Mitchell. Grammy, Spring, 26–32.
———. 1996. Stevie Wonder: Conversation in the Key of Life. Grammy, Summer, 14–25.
———. 1998. Still Creative After All These Years: A Conversation with Paul Simon. Grammy, February, 16–19, 46.
———. 2000. A conversation with Joni Mitchell. In The Joni Mitchell Companion: Four Decades of Commentary, edited by S. Luftig. New York: Schirmer Books.
———. 2001. Paul Simon: The Grammy Interview. Grammy, September, 42–46.
———. 2004. Unpublished conversation with Joni Mitchell, December, Los Angeles, CA.
Sources for the anecdotes and quotations from these musicians about musical expertise.
MacArthur, P. (1999). JazzHouston Web site. http://www.jazzhouston.com/forum/messages.jsp?key=352&page=7&pKey=1&fpage=1&total=588.
Source of the quote about Rubinstein’s mistakes.
*Sloboda, J. A. 1991. Musical expertise. In Toward a General Theory of Expertise, edited by K. A. Ericcson and J. Smith. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Overview of issues and findings in musical expertise literature.
Tellegen, Auke, David Lykken, Thomas Bouchard, Kimerly Wilcox, Nancy Segal, and Stephen Rich. 1988. Personality similarity in twins reared apart and together. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54 (6):1031–1039.
The Minnesota Twins study.
*Vines, B. W., C. Krumhansl, M. M. Wanderley, and D. Levitin. In press. Cross-modal interactions in the perception of musical performance. Cognition.
Source of the study about musician gestures conveying emotion.
Chapter 8
*Berlyne, D. E. 1971. Aesthetics and Psychobiology. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
On the “inverted-U” hypothesis of musical liking.
*Gaser, C., and G. Schlaug. 2003. Gray matter differences between musicians and nonmusicians. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 999:514–517.
Differences between the brains of musicians and nonmusicians.
*Husain, G., W. F. Thompson, and E. G. Schellenberg. 2002. Effects of musical tempo and mode on arousal, mood, and spatial abilities. Music Perception 20 (2):151–171.
The “Mozart Effect” explained.
*Hutchinson, S., L. H. Lee, N. Gaab, and G. Schlaug. 2003. Cerebellar volume of musicians. Cerebral Cortex 13:943–949.
Differences between the brains of musicians and nonmusicians.
*Lamont, A. M. 2001. Infants’ preferences for familiar and unfamiliar music: A socio-cultural study. Paper read at Society for Music Perception and Cognition, August 9, 2001, at Kingston, Ont.
On infants’ prenatal musical experience.
*Lee, D. J., Y. Chen, and G. Schlaug. 2003. Corpus callosum: musician and gender effects. NeuroReport 14:205–209.
Differences between the brains of musicians and nonmusicians.
*Rauscher, F. H., G. L. Shaw, and K. N. Ky. 1993. Music and spatial task performance. Nature 365:611.
The original report of the “Mozart Effect.”
*Saffran, J. R. 2003. Absolute pitch in infancy and adulthood: the role of tonal structure. Developmental Science 6 (1):35–47.
On the use of absolute pitch cues by infants.
*Schellenberg, E. G. 2003. Does exposure to music have beneficial side effects? In The Cognitive Neuroscience of Music, edited by I. Peretz and R. J. Zatorre. New York: Oxford University Press.
*Thompson, W. F., E. G. Schellenberg, and G. Husain. 2001. Arousal, mood, and the Mozart Effect. Psychological Science 12 (3):248–251.
The “Mozart Effect” explained.
*Trainor, L. J., L. Wu, and C. D. Tsang. 2004. Long-term memory for music: Infants remember tempo and timbre. Developmental Science 7 (3):289–296.
On the use of absolute-pitch cues by infants.
*Trehub, S. E. 2003. The developmental origins of musicality. Nature Neuroscience 6 (7):669–673.
*———. 2003. Musical predispositions in infancy. In The Cognitive Neuroscience of Music, edited by I. Peretz and R. J. Zatorre. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
On early infant musical experience.
Chapter 9
Barrow, J. D. 1995. The Artful Universe. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.
“Music has no role in survival of the species.”
Blacking, J. 1995. Music, Culture, and Experience. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
“The embodied nature of music, the indivisibility of movement and sound, characterizes music across cultures and across time.”
Buss, D. M., M. G. Haselton, T. K. Shackelford, A. L. Bleske, and J. C. Wakefield. 2002. Adaptations, exaptations, and spandrels. In Foundations of Cognitive Psychology: Core Readings, edited by D. J. Levitin. Cambridge: MIT Press.
I’ve intentionally avoided making a distinction between two types of evolutionary by-products, spandrels and exaptations, in order to simplify the presentation in this chapter, and I’ve used the term spandrels for both types of evolutionary by-products. Because Gould himself did not use the terms consistently through his writings, and because the main point is not compromised by glossing over this distinction, I present a simplified explanation here, and I don’t think that readers will suffer any loss of understanding. Buss, et al., discuss this distinction and others, based on the work of Stephen Jay Gould cited below.
*Cosmides, L. 1989. The logic of social exchange: Has natural selection shaped how humans reason? Cognition 31:187–276.
*Cosmides, L., and J. Tooby. 1989. Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture, Part II. Case Study: A computational theory of social exchange. Ethology and Sociobiology 10:51–97.
Perspectives of evolutionary psychology on cognition as adaptation.
Cross, I. 2001. Music, cognition, culture, and evolution. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 930:28–42.
———. 2001. Music, mind and evolution. Psychology of Music 29 (1):95–102.
———. 2003. Music and biocultural evolution. In The Cultural Study of Music: A Critical Introduction, edited by M. Clayton, T. Herbert and R. Middleton. New York: Routledge.
———. 2003. Music and evolution: Consequences and causes. Comparative Music Review 22 (3):79–89.
———. 2004. Music and meaning, ambiguity and evolution. In Musical Communications, edited by D. Miell, R. MacDonald and D. Hargraves.
The sources for Cross’s arguments as articulated in this chapter.
Darwin, C. 1871/2004. The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex. New York: Penguin Classics.
The source for the ideas Darwin had about music, sexual selection, and adaptation. “I conclude that musical notes and rhythm were first acquired by the male or female progenitors of mankind for the sake of charming the opposite sex. Thus musical tones became firmly associated with some of the strongest passions an animal is capable of feeling, and are consequently used instinctively ….”
*Deaner, R. O., and C. L. Nunn. 1999. How quickly do brains catch up with bodies? A comparative method for detecting evolutionary lag. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 266 (1420):687–694.
On evolutionary lag.
Gleason, J. B. 2004. The Development of Language, 6th ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Undergraduate text on the development of language ability.
*Gould, S. J. 1991. Exaptation: A crucial tool for evolutionary psychology. Journal of Social Issues 47:43–65.
Gould’s explication of different kinds of evolutionary by-products.
Huron, D. 2001. Is music an evolutionary adaptation? In Biological Foundations of Music.
Huron’s response to Pinker (1997); the idea of comparing autism to Williams syndrome for an argument about the link between musicality and sociability first appeared here.
*Miller, G. F. 1999. Sexual selection for cultural displays. In The Evolution of Culture, edited by R. Dunbar, C. Knight and C. Power. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
*———. 2000. Evolution of human music through sexual selection. In The Origins of Music, edited by N. L. Wallin, B. Merker and S. Brown. Cambridge: MIT Press.
———. 2001. Aesthetic fitness: How sexual selection shaped artistic virtuosity as a fitness indicator and aesthetic preferences as mate choice criteria. Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts 2 (1):20–25.
*Miller, G. F., and M. G. Haselton. In Press. Women’s fertility across the cycle increases the short-term attractiveness of creative intelligence compared to wealth. Human Nature.
Source articles for Miller’s view on music as sexual fitness display.
Pinker, S. 1997. How the Mind Works. New York: W. W. Norton.
Source of Pinker’s “auditory cheesecake” analogy.
Sapolsky, R. M. Why Zebras Don’t Get Ulcers, 3rd ed. 1998. New York: Henry Holt and Company.
On evolutionary lag.
Sperber, D. 1996. Explaining Culture. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Music as an evolutionary parasite.
*Tooby, J., and L. Cosmides. 2002. Toward mapping the evolved functional organization of mind and brain. In Foundations of Cognitive Psychology, edited by D. J. Levitin. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Another work by these evolutionary psychologists on cognition as adaptation.
Turk, I. Mousterian Bone Flute. Znanstvenoraziskovalni Center Sazu 1997 [cited December 1, 2005. Available from http://www.uvi.si/eng/slovenia/background-information/neanderthal-flute/.]
The original report on the discovery of the Slovenian bone flute.
*Wallin, N. L. 1991. Biomusicology: Neurophysiological, Neuropsychological, and Evolutionary Perspectives on the Origins and Purposes of Music. Stuyvesant, N.Y.: Pendragon Press.
*Wallin, N. L., B. Merker, and S. Brown, eds. 2001. The Origins of Music. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Further reading on the evolutionary origins of music.