FLAG. Adopted by the European Council the same year as the official anthem of the European Union (EU), the EU flag is a circle of 12 gold stars on a bright blue background. The same flag has represented the Council of Europe since 1955, and beginning in 1985 it has been the official flag of the EU and the European Commission. Unlike the United States flag, the number of stars (12) is permanent and does not change with the number of EU member states.

FONTAINE, NICOLE (1942– ). A center-right French politician, Nicole Fontaine has been a member of the European Parliament (EP) since 1984. Having previously served as vice president of the EP and a member of the Conciliation Committee (established with the co-decision procedure), Fontaine was elected as President of the EP in 1999, a post she would hold until 2002. In the 2004–2009 EP Fontaine is serving her fifth consecutive term as MEP and is a member of the Group of the European Peoples’ Party (Christian Democrats) and European Democrats. Refer to appendix D.

FOOD SAFETY. Food-related health scares in the European Union (EU), such as the sale of beef contaminated with Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (mad cow disease) from the United Kingdom and dioxin-contaminated food products from Belgium, have diminished consumer confidence in European food products. In response, the EU has developed a comprehensive strategy, “from the farm to the fork,” to try and restore the trust of the European consumers.

A Regulation adopted in 2002, commonly referred to as the General Food Law, updates food safety laws throughout the EU and ensures that there is a chain of safety measures which includes feed, livestock, and final products. The EU has also established a rapid alert system in which the governments of the EU member states notify the European Commission in the event of any potential food-related risks, which subsequently disseminates the information throughout the EU.

In 2002, the creation of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) was approved with the responsibility of providing independent scientific advice to the European Commission. EFSA is headquartered in Parma, Italy.

Food safety is also subject to strict enforcement and control measures. Individual food production plants as well as member state governments can be inspected to monitor compliance with food safety rules and practices. The Food and Veterinary Office (FVO) of the European Commission, located in Grange, Ireland, is the office responsible for these investigations. See also AGRICULTURAL POLICY.

FOREIGN AND SECURITY POLICY. The idea that the European Union (EU) needs to have an integrated foreign and security policy to complement its international economic might has been discussed for decades. Given the special, sensitive, and security interests of each of the individual member states, however, this has been one of the most difficult tasks to achieve as was witnessed during the 2003 United States intervention in Iraq and the differences of opinion amongst the EU member states and the then candidate countries. Nevertheless, as uncertainty persists in the international arena, the EU continues to take deliberate steps to address such concerns and potential threats to its security.

Beginning with the European Political Cooperation in the 1970s, the EC member states tried to coordinate their foreign policies on pressing international issues. In the Treaty on European Union, the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) became the second pillar of the EU, remaining intergovernmental but having the institutionalized support and ability to develop joint actions and common positions. The post of High Representative for the CFSP was included in the Treaty of Amsterdam. Also included in this treaty are the types of cases which an EU defense and/or military force would consider undertaking; the Petersberg tasks which were first adopted by the Western European Union in 1992 and include humanitarian missions, peacekeeping and peacemaking, and crisis management. As part of the European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP), the EU conducted its first two missions in the former Yugoslavia in 2003, one in Bosnia-Herzegovina and one in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. In December 2003, a European Security Strategy was adopted to focus on the global war on terror, the Middle East, and Bosnia-Herzegovina. See also DEFENSE POLICY; EXTERNAL RELATIONS; FOUCHET PLAN; TERRORISM.

FOUCHET PLAN. An initiative of French President Charles de Gaulle beginning in 1960, the Fouchet Plan was the result of a committee created to investigate and outline possibilities for enhanced political and security cooperation between the member states of the European Community. The chair of this committee was Christian Fouchet, the French ambassador to Denmark.

Lacking supranational characteristics, the Fouchet Plan contained an intergovernmental institutional framework outside the Treaty of Rome in which the states would have dominant control over foreign and defense policy cooperation. The smaller states of the EC adamantly opposed the Fouchet Plan and the project was abandoned by 1962.

FRAMEWORK DECISION. An instrument for cooperation in justice and home affairs (JHA) incorporated in the Treaty of Amsterdam, framework decisions replace joint actions. Framework decisions are used as a guideline for the convergence of laws and regulations between the member states in areas of JHA. The European Commission or a member state may propose a framework decision, which must be agreed upon unanimously and becomes binding on the member states once adopted.

FRANCE. Marking the beginning of European-style integration, on 9 May 1950, French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman proposed the pooling of the French and German coal and steel industries; an offer that would be open to all democratic Western European countries in the aftermath of World War II. Jean Monnet, who was appointed National Planning Commissioner by President Charles de Gaulle, is also known as the “Father of Europe” and was responsible for the first ideas regarding this type of supranational organization for Europe.

A founding member of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), France has participated in all aspects of the European integration process. Traditionally, France has been considered one of the most influential European Union (EU) member states, playing an important leadership role in what has come to be know as the Franco–German motor of European integration.

In 1952, the six founding members of the European Community (EC) signed the European Defence Community treaty. Ironically, the country in which the initiative began and the one in which the treaty was signed, France, would within several years also cause its defeat. Due in large part to the idea of sharing sovereignty in such a highly sensitive competence, the French parliament rejected the treaty in its ratification process in 1954, effectively rendering the proposal a failure.

Charles de Gaulle, president of the French Fifth Republic from 1958 to 1969, signed the Treaty of the Elysée along with German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer in 1963, setting the precedent for Franco–German cooperation. Nevertheless, de Gaulle did not always assume this collaborative attitude, and particularly not with all of his European counterparts. Twice he vetoed the United Kingdom’s application for EC membership, once in 1963 and once in 1967, unable to agree on negotiations regarding the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), amongst other sensitive issues and interests. The first and only so-called crisis of governance in the EC—the Empty Chair Crisis—was a direct result of de Gaulle’s actions during the European Summit of June 1965 when he recalled his government’s EC representatives and officials in a dispute over the funding of the CAP. De Gaulle’s position on EC policies varied depending on the particular issue and favored an economically integrated Europe while leaving the political decisions, responsibilities, and competences under the sole authority of national leaders.

With quite a different perspective on European integration, another influential French leader in this process was French President François Mitterrand. Mitterrand encouraged enhanced economic integration, including the idea of the European common currency, supporting the European Commission president, Frenchman Jacques Delors, largely responsible for negotiating the necessary policies for the creation of the single market and the euro. In light of the changing European context, Mitterrand also came to favor increased political coordination, cooperation, and integration. Following the fall of the Berlin Wall, he co-authored with German Chancellor Helmut Kohl in 1990 a letter to the president of the European Council recommending and supporting European efforts toward constructing a European Political Union.

In terms of policy, with the creation of the European Economic Community (EEC) through the signing of the 1957 Treaty of Rome, France demanded that its agricultural sector (in which approximately 20 percent of the French population worked at that time) be compensated on a level comparable to that of the benefits Germany’s manufacturing industry would reap from the EEC. Thus, with the help of the CAP, French agriculture was modernized and the economy became able to support increased industrialization. Although the percentage of French agricultural workers has considerably decreased since then, they are a well-organized, widely supported group that has successfully pressured both the French national government and the European institutions in Brussels to maintain the agricultural benefits associated with the CAP. While France has participated in all aspects and policies of EU integration, the CAP undoubtedly remains one of the most crucial and at times controversial EU policies for this founding member state.

France is an essential member state of the EU. In addition to its role in the policy and decision-making processes, its city of Strasbourg is host to the plenary sessions of the European Parliament. Two of the treaties were agreed to and signed in France: the 1951 Treaty of Paris establishing the ECSC and the more recent Treaty of Nice. Nevertheless, in a national referendum held on 29 May 2005, the French citizens voted against the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe, creating a significant obstacle to the completion of the ratification process. Refer to appendix A.

FREE TRADE AREA. Consisting of two or more countries or groups of countries, a free trade area exists when agreement is reached among all participants on the removal of barriers to trade in goods. In order to have a true free trade area both tariff and non-tariff barriers should be eliminated and it should be applied to all goods traded between the countries involved. In most free trade areas, however, there are at least some exceptions to these rules. See also EUROPEAN FREE TRADE ASSOCIATION (EFTA).

FUNCTIONALISM. A conceptual framework for trying to explain integration, functionalism asserts that cooperation between countries will be enhanced when the integration process begins gradually, in specific issue areas that can be managed by technical experts (rather than political officials). Functionalists argue that once integration becomes consolidated in these areas, it will spill-over into additional related areas.

One of the most prominent functionalists was David Mitrany who developed the concept on an international level in the hopes of creating a lasting international peace. In the early years of European integration, functionalism was often used to explain the process as it began with the pooling of the coal and steel industries (specific competences) under a higher authority and spilled over into the areas of the economy and atomic energy with the Treaties of Rome in 1957. Not considered a sufficient explanatory tool for much longer, considering the complex and political elements of European integration, theorists reformed the concept in the 1960s and 1970s into a neo-functionalist approach.

FURLER, HANS. Refer to appendix D.

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GALILEO SATELLITE RADIO NAVIGATION SYSTEM. A joint initiative between the European Union (EU) and the European Space Agency, Galileo is an independent satellite navigation system. Although still in its developmental phase, Galileo will provide satellite positioning services for individual, business, and professional use in a wide variety of sectors such as transport, energy, and civil protection. The projected date for the start of commercial operations is 2008.

The EU is encouraging international cooperation and participation in this project. Thus far, China and Israel have signed agreements with the EU regarding their participation in this endeavor and negotiations are under way with several other countries including Australia, Brazil, and India. It is expected that this investment will have long-term returns given the projected future international demand for these public services.

GASPERI, ALCIDE DE (1881–1954). One of the strongest supporters of deeper European integration and a more federal union, Alcide de Gasperi was the Christian Democrat prime minister of Italy for eight consecutive governments from 1945 to 1953, during which time he accepted Robert Schuman’s proposal to pool the European coal and steel industries under a high authority. He is considered to be one of the founding fathers of the European Community. In May 1954, de Gasperi was elected president of the Assembly of the European Coal and Steel Community. Refer to appendix D.

GAULLE, CHARLES DE (1890–1970). Dedicating much of his life to a military career, Charles de Gaulle was the leader of the French resistance during World War II. He later became the first president of the French Fifth Republic (1958–1969), personally overseeing the writing of a new constitution with powers concentrated in the office of the president and a successful economic recovery. A French nationalist, de Gaulle wished for France to develop a strong independent foreign policy and its own nuclear weapons, a goal which was achieved by 1960.

During his tenure in the French presidency, de Gaulle considered French membership in the European Community (EC) as a vehicle for increased economic development in the industrial but particularly agricultural sector, for reestablishing France as a major actor in the international community, and for consolidating a Franco–German rapprochement.

In 1960, de Gaulle proposed a type of institutionalized intergovernmental cooperation in the area of foreign and security policy. His proposal was outlined in the Fouchet Plan but ultimately rejected by the other member states.

De Gaulle worked diligently toward improving relations with Germany. Largely based on de Gaulle’s initiative, the Elysée Treaty of Franco–German Friendship and Reconciliation was signed by de Gaulle and German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer on 22 January 1963.

In 1963 and 1967, de Gaulle rejected the British application for EC membership based on concerns regarding Britain’s strong ties with the United States and the possibility of the United Kingdom disrupting the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), an issue of extreme importance to de Gaulle and the French government.

European Commission President Walter Hallstein in 1965 proposed changes to the funding of the CAP, increased budgetary powers for the European Commission and European Parliament, and greater use of the qualified majority voting. De Gaulle felt these initiatives to be a threat to France’s national interests within the EC as well as to its sovereignty, and an unnecessary concentration of powers in Brussels. Failure to reach agreement on these issues resulted in one of the only institutional crises in the EC, the so-called Empty Chair Crisis, when de Gaulle recalled all French representatives to the EC institutions. This crisis was eventually resolved through the Luxembourg Compromise in January 1966.

Despite destabilizing mass protests and strikes in France in May 1968, de Gaulle survived this politically tumultuous period with overwhelming support in June elections. Nevertheless, de Gaulle retired in April 1969 and died shortly thereafter on 9 November 1970.

GENDER EQUALITY. Gender equality has been a goal and policy of the European Union (EU) since its inclusion in the 1957 Treaty of Rome. Progress in this area has remained slow yet significant steps have been taken, particularly in the 1990s in light of the United Nations Women’s Conference in Beijing, China, in 1995, to remedy this situation. Gender mainstreaming has been growing in importance for the European Commission as it attempts to ensure that the gender equality goals are incorporated into all Community policies in all stages of the policy-making process. Gender equality objectives are supported by a Community Framework Strategy on Gender Equality as well as with an action program. Equal pay for men and women holding the same positions and responsibilities is the law and maternity leave is mandatory in all of the EU member states. In order to further promote gender equality throughout the EU, the European Commission proposed on 8 March 2005 the creation of a European Institute for Gender Equality.

Levels of gender equality differ amongst the member states of the EU, with the northern states tending to be more efficient in this area than the southern member states as well as some of the member states that joined the EU in 2004. Overall in the EU, there are far less women than men holding high level positions in both the public and private sectors, a problem the Commission has been trying to resolve through awareness, related legislation, and indeed, encouraging greater gender equality in the high level positions of the EU institutions. While the European Commission has the highest ever percentage of women with seven out of the college of 25 being women, there are just two female judges and two female advocates-general on the European Court of Justice. Two female prime ministers have represented their countries in the meetings of the European Council, former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and former French Prime Minister Edith Cresson; both of whom in their own way, whether positively or negatively, have left their lasting respective marks on the EU.

GENERAL AFFAIRS COUNCIL (GAC). One of the nine configurations of the Council of the European Union, GAC is composed of the foreign ministers of each one of the member states. Along with the Economic and Finance Council, GAC is one of, if not the most influential of the Council formations. European Political Cooperation followed by Common Foreign and Security Policy as the second pillar of the European Union reinforced GAC’s status. GAC is responsible for decision-making on proposed legislation related to foreign policy.

GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE (GATT). GATT was established in October 1947 as a mechanism for increasing trade by incrementally lowering tariff and non-tariff barriers on the exchange of goods, and later services. There were eight rounds of trade promotion and barrier reduction talks under GATT. The Uruguay Round, which lasted from 1986 to 1993, was the most contentious as it dealt with an increasing number of issue areas that the European Union (EU) had, for the most part, previously been able to avoid. These issues included the reduction of non-tariff barriers to trade, including farm subsidies in the agricultural sector. Completion of the Uruguay Round was dependent upon the EU agreeing to reform the Common Agricultural Policy, a difficult task that was facilitated by the previous commitment to the Mac-Sharry agricultural reforms.

By the end of the Uruguay Round agreement was reached on the creation of a formal organization to supersede GATT, the World Trade Organization. (WTO), which began operations in 1995, headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. There are 149 members of the WTO, a significant increase from the 23 founding members of GATT. In 2001, the WTO launched a new round of trade talks, the Doha Development Round, with the aim of increasing market liberalization and negotiating agreements better suited to the developing countries.

GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS (GMOs). Any organism that has had its genetic composition intentionally altered is considered a GMO, and genetically modified food is any product that contains a GMO. Trade disputes have arisen over GMOs between the United States, the number one producer of genetically modified food in the world, and the European Union (EU), which takes a more cautionary approach to GMOs. Pressure from consumer and environmental groups related to widespread public concern about the possible impact on human health and the environment prompted the EU to ban the importation of new GMOs at the end of the 1990s (and also lead to a de facto moratorium on EU authorization for GMOs or products and feeds containing GMOs). After several years in effect, the World Trade Organization judged that preventing the importation of genetically modified food products was an altering intervention of the open market trade system. The EU now allows for the importation of GMOs under the principle of prevention; if the safety of the product has not been proven it will not be allowed, and there are strict standards for labeling these products. See also AGRICULTURAL POLICY.

GENSCHER–COLOMBO PLAN. An initiative introduced in November 1981 by German foreign minister, Hans-Dietrich Genscher, and co-supported by Italy’s foreign minister, Emilio Colombo, the Genscher–Colombo Plan was a design to give greater priority to external relations in the European Community (EC) by giving the EC institutions increased authority over foreign policy issues and by easing the decision-making process in this area. Officially known as the Draft European Act, the Genscher–Colombo Plan to increase security and foreign policy cooperation was rejected by those countries wary of integration into these sensitive areas, and therefore, did not materialize into a formal policy.

GERMANY. Germany’s eventual defeat in World War II left the country’s future in the hands of the victorious Allied powers (France, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom, and the United States). Before long, and as a result of ideological differences between the powers that occupied its territory, Germany also found itself as the symbolic epicenter of what would become a prolonged Cold War, with the Iron Curtain dividing the Federal Republic of Germany in the capitalist West and the German Democratic Republic in the Soviet East. An independent Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) was established in 1949 through the Basic Law (the equivalent of a constitutional text) with the express consent and supervision of the United States, France, and Britain, and the Soviets responded in kind later that same year with the founding of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), one of the key members of the Central and Eastern European Soviet bloc.

When Robert Schuman, the French foreign minister, proposed the pooling of the French and German coal and steel resources under a High Authority on 9 May 1950, Konrad Adenauer, the first chancellor of West Germany was convinced that participation was the means through which West Germany could recover economically and begin to regain political respectability in the international community without arousing the uncontrollable anxiety that Germany’s legacy of power and unmeasured ambition had once produced. Thus, West Germany signed the Treaty of Paris in 1951, becoming one of the six founding members of the European Coal and Steel Community. This member state participates in all aspects of European integration and has generally supported a stronger and deeper integration process. Germany, in alliance with France, has traditionally been considered the “motor” driving and guiding the European integration process.

The economic miracle experienced in West Germany in the 1950s and 1960s consolidated its dominance as the economic force behind the European Community (EC). At the same time, however, it remained relatively difficult for West Germany to pursue its political objectives in the region, largely as a result of the collective memory of World War II. In an effort to increase its political prowess, West Germany would compromise on several economic issues in exchange for attempts at deepening political cooperation within the EC.

One of the most controversial foreign policies West Germany was determined to implement in the 1970s under the Chancellorship of Willy Brandt was Ostpolitik, or the normalization of relations with the Central and Eastern European countries, and particularly East Germany. Given the international Cold War environment at the time, this strategy evoked concern from devout anti-Communists on both sides of the Atlantic. Therefore, the German government successfully supported the creation of European Political Cooperation as a method of institutionalizing (albeit weakly) EC foreign policy cooperation, converging foreign policy perceptions, and obtaining regional rather than unilateral support.

The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, and the imminent collapse of the Soviet Union and reunification of Germany, irrevocably altered the dynamics of European and international relations. In this context, French President Francois Mitterrand and German Chancellor Helmut Kohl submitted a letter to the president of the European Council recommending and supporting European efforts toward constructing a European Political Union. Strengthening the EC’s political competence would be a way to abate fears regarding Germany’s power and influence in the middle of a reunified Europe.

By 3 October 1990, less than one year after the fall of the Berlin Wall, Helmut Kohl was elected the first chancellor of a reunited Germany, giving the former East Germany de facto membership in the EC. This reunification proved to be an expensive undertaking for both the EC and the German governments. In fact, the German government is still dealing with economic difficulties including low economic growth, high levels of unemployment, and the inability to meet the deficit requirements demanded by Germany itself in the Stability and Growth Pact. Refer to appendix A.

GIL-ROBLES, JOSE MARIA. Refer to appendix D.

GISCARD D’ESTAING, VALERY (1926– ). A longtime proponent of European integration, Valéry Giscard d’Estaing is a French center-right politician who was elected to the French National Assembly in 1956, served as finance minister during the 1960s, and was elected president of the French Republic in 1974, a position he held until 1981. During his presidential administration, he encouraged the creation of the European Council and supported the creation of the European Monetary System. He also founded in 1978 the Union for French Democracy, a pro-Europe center-right political party.

Following his presidential term in office, Giscard d’Estaing has remained active in French and European politics. He was a member of the European Parliament from 1989 to 1993 and created the Institute for Democracy in Europe in 1996. From February 2002 to June 2003, Giscard d’Estaing was the chairman of the European Convention, an arena in which the future of Europe was debated, the most tangible result being the submission of a draft constitutional treaty to the European Council in Thessaloniki in June 2003. In 2004, Giscard d’Estaing assumed his seat on the French Constitutional Council, a right granted to all former French presidents.

GONZALEZ, FELIPE (1942–). After the victory of the Spanish Socialist Workers Party (PSOE) in the 1982 general elections, the secretary general of the PSOE, Felipe González, became the President of the Spanish government. With the PSOE winning four consecutive general elections, González remained the head of government until 5 May 1996 when he was replaced by the leader of the Popular Party, José María Aznar.

During Gonzalez’s first administration he successfully completed the negotiations for Spanish membership in the European Community (EC). Spain became an EC member state on 1 January 1986 and less than three months later a national referendum was held regarding continued Spanish participation in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a policy Prime Minister González had originally opposed but later effectively convinced the government and citizens to support. During his administrations and the European Union (EU) treaty negotiations that coincided with them, Felipe González became the de facto champion of the less developed EU countries (Greece, Ireland, Portugal, and Spain), consistently campaigning for more EU funding to support the cohesion policy and assist these countries with meeting the requirements to participate in all aspects of EU integration.

GOVERNANCE. Improving the quality of governance is one of the priorities of the European Union (EU) in terms of bringing the EU closer to the people and strengthening its democracy. In this respect the European Commission published a White Paper in July 2001, defining governance as “all the rules, procedures and practices affecting how powers are exercised within the European Union.” The Commission established five principles of good governance— accountability, cohesion, effectiveness, openness, and participation—which the EU works toward internally as well as in its relations with other countries and regions.

GREECE. Representing the only single-member state enlargement of the European Community (EC), Greece has a long yet sporadic history of relations with this organization. In 1962, Greece and the EC entered into their first association agreement which was subsequently suspended in 1967 due to the rise of a dictatorial regime. With the transitional return to democracy in 1974, the agreement was reinstated. Soon thereafter, on 12 July 1975, Greek Prime Minister Konstantinos Karamanlis submitted the country’s application for full EC membership in an effort to protect the country’s security and nascent democracy, particularly after the July 1974 Turkish invasion and occupation of Northern Cyprus.

Initially Greece’s application was not favorably considered based on its poor economic standing. However, political concerns prevailed and Greece became the 10th EC member state on 1 January 1981. Unexpectedly, a decade of strained relations ensued after Andreas Papandreou, who radically opposed Greek membership in the EC during his election campaign, became the Greek prime minister on 21 October 1981. During his leadership, he threatened to block Spain and Portugal’s accession if Greece was not guaranteed compensatory funding to ensure it would not be negatively affected financially as a consequence of this future enlargement process. The result was the Integrated Mediterranean Programmes which provided funding to the southern European countries in an effort to increase development and cohesion with the north. By the mid-1990s, Greece’s attitude had shifted, and it generally encouraged deeper European integration.

Despite impressive economic growth and development since its EC membership, Greece was the only member state wanting to join the final stage of the Economic and Monetary Union that did not meet the requirements by 1 January 1999. However, after implementing policies to reduce its deficit to apparently comply with the convergence criteria, Greece became a member of the euro zone on 1 January 2001. Hosting the Summer Olympic Games in 2004 brought worldwide attention to Greece, but also created a financial burden including a deficit exceeding the 3 percent stipulated in the Stability and Growth Pact, a goal that in the 21st century has been difficult for even the most developed EU member states such as France and Germany, to achieve.

The long-lasting dispute between Greece and Turkey regarding the sovereignty of a divided Cyprus has naturally influenced the EU candidacies of both Turkey and Cyprus. The Greek—Cypriots rejected a United Nations peace agreement in a referendum on 24 April 2004, and therefore, only the southern Greek—Cypriot governed Republic of Cyprus became an EU member state on 1 May 2004. EU accession negotiations with Turkey remain controversial for many reasons, not least of which is this continued conflict. Refer to appendix A.

GREEN PAPER. Documents published by the European Commission, Green Papers are intended to encourage discussion and consultations regarding specific topics being considered for future European Union legislation. Positive feedback from consultations with groups and organizations that have an interest in the results of decision-making regarding the issues in question may lead to the publication of a White Paper with more formal policy proposals.

GROUP OF THE ALLIANCE OF LIBERALS AND DEMOCRATS FOR EUROPE (ALDE). Officially established on 14 July 2004, this pro-European center parliamentary group mainly consists of former European Liberal, Democratic, and Reformist Party members, along with some significant additional membership from new member states and different political parties. ALDE is the third largest political group in the European Parliament with 88 members from 19 countries. All of the May 2004 enlargement countries are represented in this group with the exception of Slovenia, Malta, and the Czech Republic.

The members of ALDE support increased European integration as the means to achieve an economically strong and politically sound Europe. The group has designed a ten-point plan for Europe based on its core values of promoting freedom and democracy.

GROUP OF THE EUROPEAN PEOPLES’ PARTY (CHRISTIAN DEMOCRATS) AND EUROPEAN DEMOCRATS (EPP-ED). The Christian Democrats have been a dominant European political group since the 1950s, consistently obtaining representation from all European Union member states. In 1992, the European Democratic Group joined the European Peoples’ Party to form the leading center-right political party group in the European Parliament (EP).

In the 2004-2009 EP, the EPP-ED is the largest parliamentary group with a total of 268 members, and is the only European parliamentary group with representation from all 25 member states. The EPP-ED’s five priorities during this five-year period include: promoting competitiveness; strengthening security; meeting international commitments and responsibilities; working toward sustainable development; and, ensuring sound financial management.

GROUP OF THE GREENS/EUROPEAN FREE ALLIANCE (GREENS/EFA). The fourth-largest political group of the European Parliament (EP) with a total of 42 Members of the European Parliament from 13 member states, the Greens/EFA joined forces after the 1999 EP elections. The group consists of members of Green parties and parties representing national (though not necessarily state) and regional interests. They have agreed upon several common principles including the promotion of the respect for fundamental human rights and environmental protection. Among other initiatives, the group supports sustainable development, more direct democratic participation, and the development of foreign policies based on methods of peaceful resolution.

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HAIDER, JORG (1950– ). A far right and at times very controversial Austrian politician, Jörg Haider was the leader of Austria’s far right Freedom Party from 1986 to 2000. His political platform is nationalistic, anti-immigrant, and anti—European Union (EU). During his leadership, support for the Freedom Party grew significantly, to more than 20 percent in national elections. In 2000, the Freedom Party and the center-right People’s Party formed a coalition government. The formation of this government gained great public and international attention, and the question surfaced as to how Haider’s seemingly discriminatory and hateful remarks could be compatible with the principles and values of the EU. As a result, the 14 member states in an unprecedented response, suspended their diplomatic relations with Austria. Haider resigned from the leadership of the Freedom Party soon thereafter.

Haider was elected governor of Carinthia in 1991 but was forced to resign because of extreme comments. He was, however, reelected to this post in 1999 and 2004. In April 2005, Haider created a new political party which he leads, the Alliance for the Future of Austria.

HALLSTEIN, WALTER (1901–1982). A prominent figure in the embryonic stages of the European integration process, Walter Hallstein was Germany’s foreign minister during Konrad Adenauer’s administration, Germany’s representative to the European Coal and Steel Community negotiations, and the first president of the European Economic Community (EEC) Commission from 1958 to 1967. Much was accomplished under Hallstein’s energetic leadership including the development of the EEC, the European Atomic Energy Community, and the Common Agricultural Policy.

In one of his efforts to strengthen the European Community, he attempted to increase the powers of the European Commission. As a proponent of a federal Europe with a strong Commission and European Parliament, he was opposed to French President Charles de Gaulle’s vision of a “Europe of nations” with most powers retained by the national governments of the member states. Hallstein’s plan would ultimately backfire as his unwavering stand combined with the staunch political opposition from de Gaulle resulted in the Empty Chair Crisis and one of the longest periods of stagnation in Europe’s integration process. Refer to appendix B.

HAMMES, CHARLES LEON. Refer to appendix F.

HANSCH, KLAUS (1938– ). A German politician of the Social Democratic Party, Klaus Hänsch has been a member of the European Parliament (EP) in the Socialist Group since 1979. From 1994 to 1997 he was president of the EP. Hänsch subsequently served as a member of the Praesidium of the European Convention and as an EP representative at the intergovernmental conference on the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe. Refer to appendix D.

HEALTH. See PUBLIC HEALTH.

HEATH, EDWARD (1916–2005). A conservative British politician, Edward Heath was head of the Conservative Party from 1965 to 1975 and British prime minister from 1970 to 1974. Considered to be one of the most pro-European of British politicians, Heath was responsible for negotiating the United Kingdom’s entry into the European Community (EC) in the 1960s, an effort that was at first vetoed by French President Charles de Gaulle. During his premiership, however, Heath successfully oversaw Britain’s EC membership. Heath was first elected to the House of Commons in 1950 and did not retire from the parliament until 2001.

HIGH AUTHORITY. The institution established to manage the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), which was created through the signing of the Treaty of Paris by Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and The Netherlands, the High Authority was the ECSC institution responsible for its policymaking and implementation. When the Treaty of Paris came into effect in 1952 the High Authority began operations in Luxembourg with Jean Monnet as its first president. (In 1954, Monnet resigned from this post to dedicate more time to the promotion of the European integration project.) In 1967, based on the provisions of the Merger Treaty, the High Authority was combined with the Commission of the European Economic Community and the Commission of the European Atomic Energy Community, to form the Commission of the European Communities, commonly known today as the European Commission.

HIGH REPRESENTATIVE FOR THE COMMON FOREIGN AND SECURITY POLICY (CFSP). The position of High Representative for the CFSP was created in the Treaty of Amsterdam as a means of strengthening the second pillar of the European Union (EU) by improving internal cohesion and external perceptions. The high representative is also the secretary general of the Council of the EU. The first and, to date, only High Representative for the CFSP, Javier Solana, took office in October 1999. His main responsibilities were to assist the Council with CFSP issues, and to represent the EU in foreign policy matters involving third countries, along with the president of the EU and the commissioner for External Relations in what came to be known as the troika. The high representative of CFSP has control of a policy unit responsible for assessment and early warnings for crisis situations.

At the European Council meeting on 25 March 2004, following a proposal from Javier Solana, Gijs de Vries of The Netherlands was appointed as the first counterterrorism coordinator of the EU. The main responsibilities associated with this post are assisting the Council of the EU in combating terrorism, monitoring the implementation of the EU’s action Plan on Combating Terrorism, and promoting the profile and awareness of the EU’s policies in the global war on terror.

The Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe calls for the merger of the High Representative for the CFSP and the commissioner for external affairs into a single position with dual responsibilities: vice president of the European Commission and union minister for foreign affairs. Although this treaty has yet to be ratified, streamlining the EU’s foreign policy continues to be an objective, largely in response to the challenges posed in the Declaration of Laeken regarding the role of the EU in the world.

HIRSCH, ETIENNE. Refer to appendix B.

HUMAN RIGHTS. One of the core values of the European Union (EU), human rights was first included in the treaties in the Single European Act. Strengthening its commitment to the principles of human rights in subsequent treaties, the Treaty on EU guarantees the EU’s respect for the standards on individual rights and freedoms provided for in the European Convention for the protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, adopted by the Council of Europe in 1950. The Treaty of Amsterdam includes a suspension clause, outlining the appropriate actions in the case of human rights violations by any one of the EU member states. At the Nice European Council, a proclamation of the EU’s own Charter of Fundamental Rights was proclaimed and later incorporated into the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe, still pending ratification.

Consideration for EU membership is based in part on the Copenhagen criteria, which require respect for human rights, including minority rights. The EU’s overall record on the protection of human rights is strong in most areas, but work is currently being done to improve in the areas of immigrant, asylum seeker, and minority rights.

In addition to the dedication to high human rights standards in the EU, the EU promotes respect for human rights internationally. In order to support this effort, the EU funds the European Initiative for Democracy and Human Rights, which focuses on promoting democracy, good governance, and the rule of law, and cooperates with nongovernmental organizations on projects designed to help meet these objectives. Since 1992 all of the EU’s international agreements, including economic and trade agreements, contain a human rights clause.

HUMANITARIAN AID. The European Commission together with the 25 European Union (EU) member states is the largest provider of humanitarian aid in the world. In order to coordinate and control the EU’s international humanitarian aid projects, the European Community Humanitarian Aid Office (ECHO) was established in 1992. Since then ECHO has funded more than €500 million per year in humanitarian relief and preventive projects in over 85 countries to help tens of millions of people in need. The humanitarian aid projects are implemented by the EU’s partners in the field such as nongovernmental organizations, United Nations agencies, and Red Cross organizations, and provide goods and services to prevent or relieve human suffering resulting from natural disasters and violent conflict.

HUNGARY. The onset of the economic and political transitions in Central and Eastern Europe in 1989 inspired assistance from the west. Indicative of the priority given to Hungary, the European Community’s original aid program was the Poland and Hungary Assistance for the Reconstruction of the Economy (PHARE), which would only later be extended to other countries of the region.

Hungary was the first former Soviet bloc country to apply for European Union (EU) membership on 31 March 1994, and based on its relatively high level of economic development and strategic location, it was always considered to be in the lead group of Central and Eastern European candidate countries. Better treatment of the Roma minority and improved financial controls and mechanisms were among the issues addressed by the Hungarian government in conjunction with meeting the accession requirements. Negotiations were successfully completed by December 2002, and after 84 percent of Hungarians voted in favor of EU membership in a referendum on 12 April 2003, Hungary became an EU member state on 1 May 2004. Refer to appendix A.

– I –

ICELAND. Despite its close economic relations with and relative proximity to the European Union (EU), Iceland has never applied for membership in the EU, largely because of its large fishing industry. Iceland did, however, join the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) in 1970 and remains a member of this organization. As a member of EFTA Iceland has access to the EU’s single market through the European Economic Area, an agreement negotiated between the EU and all of the EFTA countries except Switzerland. Iceland, a member of the Nordic Passport Union, also participates in the Schengen Convention and the Schengen Information System. See also FISHERIES.

IMMIGRATION POLICY. In the Treaty of Amsterdam the European Union was given competence for immigration. At the 1999 Tampere European Council, the guidelines for a common immigration policy were established, including a comprehensive approach to the management of migratory flows, fair treatment of third country nationals, partnerships with countries of origin, and the development of a common asylum policy. Certain additional elements are taken into consideration in the development of the common immigration policy such as the need for migratory workers in certain areas, the need to implement stricter measures against traffickers and smugglers, and the need to account for the resources and capacity of member states on an individual basis. In 2001 the European Commission proposed the adoption of an open method of coordination for the immigration policy to facilitate the exchange of information between member states and the convergence of related policies over which the EU does not have authority.

INDEPENDENCE AND DEMOCRACY GROUP (IND/DEM). Of a total of seven European Parliamentary Groups, IND/DEM is the sixth largest in the 2004–2009 European Parliament (EP) with 37 members from 10 European Union (EU) member states. The members of the IND/DEM are Euro-skeptics who favor a loose European association of states over a deepened European integration. The largest IND/DEM delegation is from the United Kingdom with 11 members, and the second largest from Poland with a total of 10 members. As public support for European integration continues to wane in many of the member states, including those that just joined the EU in May 2004, this political group has credible possibilities for growth and increased influence.

The IND/DEM was created on 20 July 2004, after the June 2004 EP elections. It was transformed from the Group for a Europe of Democracies and Diversities which had representation in the 1999–2004 EP.

European Central Bank, Frankfort, Germany (European Central Bank).

Covers of books with EU treaties (European Commission).

Javier Solana, Valery Giscard d’Estaing (former president of France and president of the European Convention), Romano Prodi (president of the EU Commission), and Constantin Simitis (prime minister of Greece). Courtesy the European Commission.

The EU Parliament in Brussels. Courtesy the European Parliament.

The EU Parliament in Strasburg, France. Courtesy the European Parliament.

The Berlaymont Building at the EU Commission, Brussels. Photo by J. Roy.

The EU Constitution. Courtesy the European Commission.

The Treaty of Maastricht, 1992. Courtesy the European Commission.

The Schuman Declaration, 9 May 1950, Salon de l’Horloge, Quai d’Orsay, Paris. Courtesy the European Commission.

Signing of the Treaty of Paris, establishing the European Community of Coal and Steel, Paris, 18 April 1951. Courtesy the European Commission.

The Treaty of Rome, establishing the European Economic Community and the European Community of Atomic Energy, 25 March 1957. Courtesy the European Commission.

Javier Solana, high representative for common foreign and security policy. Courtesy the Council of the European Union.

Konrad Adenauer, chancellor of Germany. Courtesy the European Commission.

Jose Manuel Barroso, president of the European Commission. Courtesy the European Commission.

Robert Schuman, minister of foreign affairs of France. Courtesy the European Commission.

Building of the EU Council in Brussels, by Justus Lipsius. Courtesy the Council of the European Union.

Jean Monnet and Robert Schuman of Luxemburg. Courtesy the European Commission.

Romano Prodi. Courtesy the European Commission.

Signing of the EU Constitution, 29 October 2004, Rome. Courtesy the European Commission.

Jacques Delors, president of the EU Commission, 1986–. Courtesy the European Commission.

Jean Monnet. Courtesy the European Commission.

Valery Giscard d’Estaign. Courtesy the European Commission.

Walter Hallstein, first president of the joint European Commission. Courtesy the European Commission.

Josep Borrell, the EU Parliament president. Courtesy the European Parliament.

INFORMATION SOCIETY. As new information and communications technologies continue to emerge, the European Union (EU) has made this information society a priority on its agenda. While trying to encourage its growth and the benefits it has to offer as well as the number of people who have access to it, the EU is also trying to develop policies that will ensure the security of the information society and those who use it.

INSTRUMENT FOR STRUCTURAL POLICIES FOR PRE-ACCESSION (ISPA). Established in June 1999, ISPA funds environmental and transportation infrastructure projects in the Central and Eastern European candidate countries. Prior to the May 2004 enlargement, 10 countries were eligible for financing under the ISPA, which was allocated €1.1 billion annually until 2003. In 2004, ISPA had a budget of €452 million for Bulgaria and Romania, the remaining candidate countries from the region. The main goal of the ISPA is to promote social and economic cohesion between the Central and Eastern European candidate countries and the member states of the European Union.

INTEGRATED MEDITERRANEAN PROGRAMMES (IMPs). A financial program designed to assist southern France, Greece, and Italy with the development of agriculture, tourism, and small businesses, the completion of the IMPs was largely a result of pressures from the Greek government under the leadership of Andreas Papandreou. Papandreou threatened to derail the Portuguese and Spanish enlargement if the IMPs were not in place to help Greece adjust to the European Community membership of two new “agricultural” member states. The IMPs were finally agreed to in March 1985, providing 6.6 billion ECUs to the Mediterranean region for a period of seven years.

INTERGOVERNMENTAL CONFERENCE (IGC). Once agreement has been reached regarding a significant new step in the European integration process, an IGC is held to negotiate the treaty reforms and what will become the draft treaty. The initiative for a conference comes from a member state or the European Commission and is convened by the Council of the European Union deciding by a simple majority (after consulting the European Parliament). Representatives to IGCs are generally high level government officials, including cabinet ministers who try to arrive at a text acceptable to their heads of state and government who make the final decisions in the European Council.

The IGC has traditionally been the only method of treaty reform in the European Union. With the goal of more openness and transparency as stipulated in the Declaration of Laeken, however, the reform negotiations resulting in the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe took place in two stages; the first almost completely public European Convention, and the second IGC maintaining its prerogative to secrecy, albeit less so than had typically been the case in the past.

INTERGOVERNMENTALISM. A method of regional or international integration in which the participant member states preserve their national sovereignty, intergovernmentalism is characterized in part by decision-making based on the protection and advancement of national interests despite any ancillary benefit to the organization. In this approach to integration, intergovernmental negotiations dominate the decision-making processes in which compromises are made according to individual net cost—benefit analyses. With regard to the European Union (EU) there has been a constant debate concerning its nature and whether it is, and whether it should be, more intergovernmental or more supranational. Given the complexities of the EU, however, it is difficult to completely separate the two concepts into a zero-sum analysis.

INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT (ICC). Created by the adoption of the Rome Statute on 17 July 1998, the ICC is located in The Hague. There are 99 countries party to the Rome Statute which went into effect on 1 July 2002. The main objectives of the ICC are to promote the rule of law throughout the world and to punish the most serious international crimes.

The European Union (EU) is one of the strongest supporters of the ICC. On 16 June 2003, the Council adopted a common position on the ICC, encouraging the EU and its member states to promote additional countries participating in the ICC, and to take potential membership in the ICC into consideration in negotiations and agreements with third countries. The United States is not party to the Rome Statute, however, the EU encourages the United States to associate itself and cooperate in some way with the ICC.

IOANNINA COMPROMISE. The Ioannina Compromise was the result of a decision made at a meeting of the foreign ministers of the European Union (EU) member states on 29 March 1994. The problem was a disagreement over the change in the qualified majority weighted voting in the Council of the European Union due to the impending EU enlargement to include Austria, Finland, and Sweden as EU member states. Some member states wanted the number of blocking votes (23) to remain the same despite the increase in the total number of votes, and other countries wanted the percentage to block a vote to remain the same, therefore, increasing the actual number necessary to block a vote using qualified majority voting (QMV). The agreement reached, known as the Ioannina Compromise, states that if the members of the Council representing between 23 and 26 (the new blocking minority) votes indicate their opposition to a proposed legislation to be decided by QMV, the Council will do everything possible to reach an agreement within a reasonable amount of time in order for the proposal to be passed by at least 65 votes out of 87 (the total number of qualified majority votes following the 1995 enlargement). The Ioannina Compromise was in place from 1 January 1995 until February 2003 when the Treaty of Nice came into effect and contained a re-weighting of the votes in the Council of the EU.

IRELAND. In 1961, the United Kingdom (UK) submitted its first application for membership in the European Community (EC). Traditionally linked to Britain’s economy, it would have been unfeasible for Ireland not to follow suit. Ireland would benefit from the Common Agricultural Policy, and believed EC membership to be a means of reducing its dependence on Britain. As would become the norm in European Union (EU) enlargement processes, the applications of these two candidate countries were considered in conjunction, along with those of Denmark and Norway. Upon French President Charles de Gaulle’s rejection of British membership, therefore, Irish accession negotiations were also suspended. It was not until de Gaulle’s retirement in 1969 that the French government lifted its objection and the accession process could resume. On 10 May 1972, 83 percent of Irish voters supported EC membership in a national referendum. Ireland, Denmark, and the UK represent the member states of the first EC enlargement, joining on 1 January 1973.

Despite Ireland’s generally positive outlook toward European integration, it has delayed two treaty ratifications, and thus, their implementation. It was expected that the Single European Act (SEA) would take effect in January 1987. However, in a case questioning the political and foreign policy aspects of the treaty, the Irish Supreme Court found the SEA unconstitutional, forcing the government to hold a referendum to change the Irish constitution. After a favorable response from the Irish citizens in May 1987, the treaty finally took effect two months later in July 1987. A similar situation occurred in June 2001 when the Irish voters rejected the Treaty of Nice in a referendum. A public relations campaign and higher voter turnout in a second referendum resulted affirmatively, enabling the treaty to take effect in February 2003.

EU membership has undoubtedly contributed to Ireland’s recent economic success. Its relatively underdeveloped, agriculturally based economy prior to the launch of the single market qualified Ireland for substantial structural funding which the government was able to implement advantageously. The country has also become quite attractive to foreign investors through a combination of EU market access and national incentives. Symbolic of the opportunities associated with EU membership, today Ireland is one of the most prosperous, fastest growing economies with one of the lowest unemployment rates in the EU.

Ireland is technically a neutral country and as such has typically opposed its involvement in deeper security and defense integration. Nevertheless, recent proposals have called for a redefinition of this international position in the context of EU membership.

In the first semester 2004, Ireland held the EU presidency, and therefore, chaired the continuation of the intergovernmental conference on the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe. While the Italian presidency of the EU was unable to produce the desired result, an agreement was reached in June 2004 under the Irish direction of the negotiations. Refer to appendix A.

ISOGLUCOSE. In one of the most institutionally important cases brought before the European Court of Justice (ECJ), the Isoglucose judgment of 1980 reinforced the powers provided to the European Parliament (EP) through the consultation procedure. Consultation requires the Council of Ministers to receive an opinion from the EP before passing a proposal into law. In the Isoglucose case the ECJ nullified a law that had been enacted by the Council prior to receiving the EP’s opinion. The Council claimed the EP was intentionally delaying the legislative process, however, the consultation procedure does not include a specific time frame within which the EP must submit its opinion.

ISRAEL. See MIDDLE EAST.

ITALY. Alcide de Gasperi was the prime minister of Italy from 1945 to 1953, during which time he accepted Robert Schuman’s proposal to pool the European coal and steel industries under a High Authority. His signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1951 confirmed Italy’s participation as a founding member of the European Coal and Steel Community. Although Italy is considered a large member state, its post–World War II political instability and economic uncertainty has limited its relative influence, particularly compared to the Franco–German motor of European integration. On the other hand, Italy has traditionally been one of the strongest supporters of the European Union (EU) and increased powers for its institutions, especially the European Parliament (EP).

Italy’s economy, struggling for much of the 1990s, aroused concerns about its ability to meet the convergence criteria on course to participate in the first group of Economic and Monetary Union Stage III countries. In a concerted effort, the Italian government under the leadership of Romano Prodi (who would later become president of the European Commission) and his center-left Olive Tree coalition, implemented austerity programs to comply with the required measures, and Italy adopted the euro, along with 10 other euro zone member states on 1 January 1999.

In 2003–2004, Italy was the subject of certain controversies in the context of the EU. Immediately prior to assuming the EU presidency in June 2003, the Italian parliament approved legislation granting Italy’s prime minister, Silvio Berlusconi, immunity from prosecution, in part to avoid a potentially politically embarrassing situation and increased anxiety regarding Berlusconi’s capacity to lead the EU and chair the intergovernmental conference on the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe. This was of particular concern given that the Berlusconi government was previously perceived to have a Euro-skeptic attitude, and Berlusconi’s political rivalry with the then president of the European Commission, Romano Prodi. Less than a year and a half later, Italy’s nominee for the new European Commission, expected to take office on 1 November 2004, was Rocco Buttiglione. His divisive remarks about homosexuality, amongst other sensitive issues, resulted in the EP threatening to veto the College of Commissioners. In order to avoid this institutionally unprecedented eventuality, the president-elect of the European Commission, José Manuel Durào Barroso, suspended the official vote to reshuffle the commissioners and their portfolios. Italy’s replacement was Berlusconi’s foreign minister, Franco Frattini, who became the European commissioner for freedom, security, and justice. Refer to appendix A.

– J –

JAPAN. See ASIA.

JENKINS, ROY (1920–2003). Roy Jenkins, a career politician, entered the British House of Commons in 1948 and remained a member of Parliament until 1976. He was home secretary from 1965 to 1967; chancellor of the exchequer from 1967 to 1970; and home secretary once again from 1974 to 1976. He led the successful “yes” campaign in the ex post facto referendum on the United Kingdom’s membership in the European Community (EC).

Jenkins was the first British citizen to become president of the European Commission in 1976, and he held the office until 1981. Under his leadership and initiative, the European Monetary System was established in 1979.

A founder of the Social Democratic Party in 1981, Jenkins represented this party in the House of Commons from 1982 to 1987. Beginning in 1987, Jenkins remained in politics as a member of the House of Lords. Refer to appendix B.

JOINT ACTION. Joint actions are legal instruments to coordinate activities of the European Union member states in the fields of Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) and previously in Justice and Home Affairs (JHA). In the case of CFSP, joint actions are used to carry out agreements made either unanimously or by constructive abstention to reach common objectives. Joint actions in the field of JHA were eliminated in the Treaty of Amsterdam and since the treaty went into effect are governed by decisions and framework decisions.

JOSPIN, LIONEL (1937– ). A politician of the French Socialist Party, Lionel Jospin was a member of the National Assembly from the late 1970s to the early 1990s, serving as the minister of education from 1988 to 1992. The Socialist Party won the parliamentary elections called for by conservative French President Jacques Chirac in 1997, and in a period of cohabitation Lionel Jospin became the prime minister of France, a position he would hold in 2002. During his administration one of Jospin’s high priorities was to reduce the unemployment rate. His efforts included instituting the 35-hour work week and promoting a stronger employment policy for the European Union. Jospin was the Socialist Party’s candidate for the presidential elections in 1995 and 2002. After the 2002 elections in which he came in third, following Jacques Chirac and Jean-Marie Le Pen (the candidate of the far right National Front Party), Jospin resigned from his position as prime minister.

JUSTICE AND HOME AFFAIRS (JHA). Informal and intergovernmental cooperation between justice and interior ministers of the European Community member states began in the 1970s with the Trevi Group and information sharing in an effort to quash terrorist organizations and activities within Europe. It was not until the 1992 Treaty on European Union (TEU) that JHA cooperation was institutionalized as the third pillar of the European Union (EU), referring to cooperation in areas related to the internal security of the EU. This became a particular necessity following the completion of the single market and the free movement of people throughout the internal borders of the EU member states, and the fall of the Berlin Wall and collapse of the Soviet Union which facilitated the passage of Eastern and Central Europeans seeking greater economic opportunities and/or asylum in the west. The TEU’s framework for JHA cooperation is based on the following “common interests”: asylum, external border crossings, immigration, combating drug addiction, combating fraud, judicial cooperation in civil and criminal matters, customs cooperation, and police cooperation.

With minimal perceptible progress, there was a concerted effort made in the Treaty of Amsterdam to improve JHA. The foremost objective of JHA became the creation of an area of freedom, security, and justice for the entire EU. To this end, asylum, visas, and immigration competences were moved to the first pillar, effectively implementing a more efficient decision-making process for these policies. Furthermore, the Schengen Agreement was officially incorporated into the Treaty of Amsterdam, establishing a common external border; minimum requirements for visas, asylum, and external border checks; and the Schengen Information System common database to control the passage of people through the internal borders of the EU member states.

Since the incorporation of JHA in the Treaty of Maastricht, two European agencies have been created to support JHA objectives and policies: EUROPOL and EUROJUST. EUROPOL is the EU agency responsible for cross-border police cooperation in areas of EU competence, those involving trans-border criminal activities. Criminal justice cooperation is the primary mission of EUROJUST.

Despite this measured progress, JHA remains one of the most “flexible” EU policies. Enhanced cooperation has been a viable option as evidenced by the decision of Ireland and the United Kingdom to not participate in Schengen activities.

Since the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States and the subsequent Al-Qaeda attacks on Madrid on 11 March 2004, the focus of JHA has been global terrorism. In this context, cooperation between the EU and the United States has intensified, particularly in the areas of intelligence, law enforcement, and transport security.

– K –

KALININGRAD. After the May 2004 European Union (EU) enlargement Kaliningrad, a Russian province, became completely surrounded on land by EU member states, bordering Lithuania to its north and east and Poland to its south and east. (To the west Kaliningrad is bordered by the Baltic Sea). Kaliningrad has thus become an increasingly important topic on the EU’s agenda and for EU–Russian relations and cooperation.

Kaliningrad has been receiving financial assistance from the EU since 1991 through the Technical Assistance for the Commonwealth of Independent States (TACIS). The aid provided by the EU is primarily designated for support in the following areas: private sector development; cross border cooperation; improving environmental standards; and health and education.

KARAMANLIS, KONSTANTINOS (1907–1998). A prominent figure in 20th-century Greek politics, Konstantinos Karamanlis became a member of the Greek Parliament in 1935. He served three consecutive terms as the Greek prime minister from 1955 to 1958, 1958 to 1961, and 1961 to 1963. Subsequently, he lived in exile in France for 11 years, after which he returned to Greece following the fall of the military junta that had been in place since 1967. In 1974, Karamanlis once again became prime minister of Greece, and founded a leading conservative party, New Democracy. He remained prime minister until 1980 when he was elected as president of the Hellenic Republic. In 1990, he was reelected as president, a post he would hold until he retired from Greek politics in 1995.

During his 1974–1980 term as prime minister, Karamanlis and his government successfully negotiated and concluded Greece’s European Community (EC) accession agreement. Greece became an EC member on 1 January 1981 and was the only one-country enlargement in the history of the European Union, a distinction largely due to Karamanlis being able to separate Greece’s EC application from those of Portugal and Spain.

Konstantinos Karamanlis died in 1998 but his political legacy is carried on today by his nephew, Kostas Karamanlis, the current leader of the New Democracy Party and Greece’s prime minister since 7 March 2004.

KLEPSCH, EGON (1930– ). A politician of the Christian Democratic Party of Germany, Egon Klepsch was a member of the Bundestag from 1965 to 1980. From 1973 to 1980 he was simultaneously a member of the European Parliament (EP), part of what is known today as the Group of the European Peoples’ Party (Christian Democrats) and European Democrats, formerly the European Peoples’ Party. In 1992, Klepsch was elected president of the EP, a post he held until 1994 when he retired from the EP and joined the private sector. Refer to appendix D.

KOHL, HELMUT (1930– ). Leader of West Germany’s Christian Democratic Union since 1973, Helmut Kohl became chancellor in 1982 and would maintain this executive position for the next 16 years. During his tenure the Berlin Wall was torn down and Kohl administrated the reunification of East and West Germany into a single sovereign entity, integrating the former German Democratic Republic not only into the Federal Republic of Germany but also into the European Community (EC).

A reunited Germany in the center of a Europe no longer divided by the Iron Curtain generated a perceived advantage to increasing the EC’s political integration. On 19 April 1990, French President François Mitterrand and Chancellor Kohl co-authored a letter to the president of the European Council in support of increased European efforts toward constructing a European Political Union (EPU). EPU, which was developed into the Common Foreign and Security Policy, would complement the Economic and Monetary Union, another avant-garde EC initiative supported by Kohl, a strong believer in the merits of European integration.

KOSOVO. A traditionally autonomous mostly Albanian entity within Serbia, after years of conflict and subsequent peacekeeping missions, Kosovo continues to be a province of Serbia and Montenegro. The Serbian Parliament suspended the longstanding autonomy of Kosovo in 1989 and after years of Serbian domination the Kosovo Liberation Army began to fight for its independence. The Serbs responded with military action and after the terms of a 1998 cease-fire were disregarded, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization intervened in 1999 to end the fighting. On 10 June 1999, the United Nations Interim Administration in Kosovo (UN-MIK) was established with the European Union (EU) responsible for one of its four pillars—reconstruction and economic development. The EU is helping Kosovo recover through humanitarian aid; the financing of reconstruction and development programs through the European Agency for Reconstruction; and the EU pillar of the UNMIK which concentrates on reconstructing what was destroyed during the conflict and implementing reforms necessary to make a complete transition to an open market economy.

KUTSCHER, HANS. Refer to appendix F.

KYOTO PROTOCOL. Environmental protection has consistently been one of the internal and international policy priorities of the European Union (EU). Evidence of breaching greenhouse gas emission limits established in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) which was adopted on 9 May 1992 led the EU, a leader in promoting international environmental standards, to encourage legally binding limits on these emissions. On 11 December 1997, this goal was achieved with the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC. The Kyoto negotiations included a clause that allows the EU to be considered as a whole and not necessarily by individual countries, and therefore, the EU’s target emissions are an average of the member states.

The Kyoto Protocol went into effect on 16 February 2005, and as of 27 May 2005, 150 countries had ratified, accepted, approved, or acceded to and are bound by the Protocol, including China, Japan, and Russia. Conspicuously not participating is the United States (U.S.), a signatory to the Protocol but with no imminent intention to ratify. Conversely, more than 100 U.S. cities, including New York and Los Angeles, support the Kyoto Protocol.

– L –

LAEKEN DECLARATION. The year after the adoption of the Treaty of Nice, the European Council signed the Declaration of Laeken outside of Brussels in December 2001. The Laeken Declaration represents the impetus toward the current state of legal affairs in the European Union (EU). It contains the formal decision to continue the debate on the future of Europe, to include the results agreed to during these negotiations in a new treaty, and even in a constitutional text, and to hold a European Convention to prepare the then forthcoming Intergovernmental Conference. In this declaration, 60 targeted questions are posed, relating to the division and definition of powers; the simplification of the treaties; the institutional framework; and developing a constitutional treaty. The three principle challenges established in the Laeken Declaration are: to bring the citizens and especially the young closer to the institutions of the EU; to organize the political area of the EU in an enlarged Union; and to develop the Union as a stabilizing factor and model in the new multi-polar world.

LANGUAGES. There are more than 60 official, regional, or minority languages spoken on a regular basis in Europe. Highlighting the European Union (EU)’s unity through diversity, there are 20 official languages of the EU, which means that all official documents must be translated into all 20 languages: Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish, Portuguese, Slovak, Slovene, Spanish, and Swedish.

The EU, through several programs and specially designed activities, encourages the learning of second and third languages. In 2001, the European Commission in conjunction with the Council of Europe sponsored the European Year of Languages to disseminate information regarding language learning. The Commission also provides ongoing resources for education and training programs which contain language learning elements such as the Lingua Action of the Socrates program. See also TRANSLATION CENTRE FOR THE BODIES OF THE EUROPEAN UNION.

LATIN AMERICA. European Union (EU) relations with Latin America are developed on three different levels: regional, subregional, and bilateral, and focus on economic cooperation, political dialogue, and trade. On the regional level, the EU has institutionalized relations with the Rio Group which includes all of the Latin American countries and is the basis of the bi-regional political dialogue between the EU and Latin America. Since 1999, Summits of the Heads of State and Government of the EU, Latin American, and Caribbean countries have been convened every few years to strengthen and provide direction to the bi-regional relations. The first summit was in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, on 28–29 June 1999, the second in Madrid, Spain, on 17–18 May 2002, and the third in Guadalajara, Mexico, on 28 May 2004. Sub-regionally, the EU believes in the possible benefits of regional integration in Latin America, and attempts to support these projects through economic cooperation and dialogue with MERCOSUR, the Andean Community, and the Central American Common Market. In addition to these regional frameworks, the EU has developed bilateral relations with each of the individual Latin American countries. The most advanced and institutionalized of these relations are with Chile and Mexico with whom the EU has Economic and Political Association Agreements (Mexico, 1997 and Chile, 2002). These association agreements contain a democratic clause and establish the framework for institutionalized political dialogue, cooperation, and the eventual creation of a free trade area.

The EU is Latin America’s greatest source of foreign direct investment, and its second-largest trading partner. Development cooperation, economic cooperation, and humanitarian aid are some of the ways in which the EU provides financial and technical assistance to Latin America and contributes to the strengthening of the bi-regional relations.

LATVIA. One of the Baltic states and a former republic of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, Latvia regained its independence on 27 August 1991. On 13 October 1995, the Republic of Latvia formally submitted its application for European Union (EU) membership, which has been considered a means of safeguarding Latvia’s sovereignty and guaranteeing its democracy. With this in mind, in a nationwide referendum held on 20 September 2003, 69 percent of Latvians voted in favor of joining the EU. Despite the European Commission’s concerns regarding corruption and a weak judicial system in Latvia, the country had made enough progress to join the EU along with the other nine candidate countries on 1 May 2004. Refer to appendix A.

LAW. See EUROPEAN COMMUNITY LAW.

LECOURT, ROBERT. Refer to appendix F.

LEEMANS, VICTOR. Refer to appendix D.

LIBERAL INTERGOVERNMENTALISM. A conceptual framework for understanding European integration, liberal intergovernmentalism focuses on the role of the states in the integration process. The main idea behind liberal intergovernmentalism is that demands for integration come from different groups and actors in domestic politics and the results evolve from intergovernmental negotiations. States agree to cooperate, and even pool sovereignty in certain areas, after negotiating an acceptable compromise that appears to be in the best interest of the state. Andrew Moravcsik is one of the prominent theorists of liberal intergovernmentalism.

LISBON STRATEGY. With a view toward increasing the international economic competitiveness of the European Union (EU), the Portuguese presidency called for a special meeting of the European Council in spring 2000. The result was the European Council’s declared goal for the EU by 2010 to “become the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world capable of sustainable economic growth with more and better jobs and greater social cohesion” and the launching of the Lisbon strategy to achieve these objectives. Covering a broad range of policies and focusing on completing the single market in all areas, the Lisbon strategy is an ambitious, comprehensive action program. A progress report is presented and analyzed at the mid-term spring meetings of the European Council, dedicated specifically to this task. Policies designed with the intention of complying with the Lisbon strategy can be adopted through the traditional decision-making process or through a more flexible open method of coordination between the member states themselves.

LITHUANIA. Declaring its independence from the former Soviet Union on 11 March 1990, Lithuania began the process that would enable it to autonomously participate in several international and regional organizations such as the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, and the European Union (EU), to which it submitted its official application on 8 December 1995. Of the Baltic States, only Estonia was originally included in the predicted first wave of enlargements. Lithuania, not satisfied with its exclusion from this group, worked diligently toward economic and institutional reforms to earn a positive endorsement from the European Commission.

In a referendum held on 10–11 May 2003, Lithuanian citizens voted in favor of EU membership. On 1 May 2004, Lithuania joined the EU. Initially considered one of the worst economic cases amongst the candidate countries, in 2003 Lithuania had one of the highest EU growth rates with estimated potential to continue this trend. Refer to appendix A.

LOME CONVENTION. Named after Togo’s capital city where it was signed in February 1975, the Lomé Convention provides trade preferences and economic development aid to European Union (EU) member states’ former colonies and/or current territories, known as a group as the African–Caribbean–Pacific (ACP) countries. The details of the agreements included in the Lomé Convention were renegotiated every five years during its existence from 1975 to 2000. Despite distinct assistance programs complemented by the introduction, particularly in later renegotiations, of auxiliary policies such as environmental protection, human rights, and debt management, the Lomé Convention fell short of its desired results including poverty reduction and increased economic development. In 2000, the Lomé Convention was replaced by the Cotonou Agreement.

LUXEMBOURG. Despite the guarantee of Luxembourg’s neutrality provided for in the 1867 Treaty of London, this virtually defenseless Grand Duchy was invaded and occupied by Germany in both World War I and World II, prompting the government to seek economic and security associations in order to protect its territory and interests. Luxembourg became a founding member of the Benelux Customs Union in 1948, and joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949.

Signing the Treaty of Paris in 1951, Luxembourg became one of the original members of the European Coal and Steel Community, and also the smallest member state of the European Union (EU) until Malta’s EU accession on 1 May 2004. A strong supporter of the integration process, two European Commission presidents have come from Luxembourg (although the outcome of the Santer Commission was the only en masse resignation of this institution), and this landlocked country is also the headquarters of the European Court of Justice, the Court of Auditors, and the European Investment Bank. This international financial center boasts one of the highest standards of living in Europe, joining the third stage of Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) with no difficulty as one of the most fiscally sound EU member states. Refer to appendix A.

LUXEMBOURG COMPROMISE. In July 1965, French President Charles de Gaulle recalled his country’s representatives to the European Community institutions in protest against what he considered to be a concentration of power in the European institutions, the increased scope of qualified majority voting (QMV), and changes to the financing of the Common Agricultural Policy. The continued absence of the French officials during the entire second semester of 1965 is known as the Empty Chair Crisis. On 28–29 January 1966, an agreement known as the Luxembourg Compromise was reached, resolving this impasse in the integration process.

The Luxembourg Compromise effectively prolonged the practical implementation of QMV until the 1980s by consenting to the continued use of unanimous decision-making for sensitive national issues. This clause made it remarkably difficult to deepen integration as policy proposals could be vetoed by any member state.

By the early 1980s, French President François Mitterrand, a strong supporter of European integration, allowed for a shift away from the Luxembourg Compromise. It was institutionally abolished with the Single European Act and the essential inclusion of QMV for single market issues.

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MACEDONIA, FORMER YUGOSLAV REPUBLIC OF (FYROM). Although the FYROM declared its independence from the former Yugoslavia in 1991, it was not officially recognized by the European Union or the United Nations until 1993. Macedonia is also the name of a northern region in Greece and a controversy over the use of the name “Macedonia” ensued. In an effort to quickly and peacefully resolve this issue, international mediators named the independent country FYROM.

The FYROM experienced an escalation in ethnic tensions this same year and the EU aided in the negotiation and acceptance of a Framework Agreement to prevent further conflict. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was first responsible for the peacekeeping mission to monitor the agreement but was later replaced by the first EU Berlin Plus military mission, Operation Concordia.

On 9 April 2001, the EU and the FYROM signed a Stabilization and Association Agreement providing a comprehensive framework for their economic and political relations. The FYROM receives EU funding from the Community Assistance for Reconstruction, Development, and Stability (CARDS) program as well as from other EU specialized programs. This funding supports, among other issue areas, democracy and the rule of law; economic and social development; police reform and the fight against organized crime; Integrated Border Management; and development of local infrastructure. On 22 March 2004, the FYROM officially applied for membership in the EU and is awaiting formal candidate status and the start of membership negotiations.

MACKENZIE STUART, ALEXANDER JOHN. Refer to appendix F.

MACMILLAN, HAROLD (1894–1986). A British politician of the Conservative Party, Harold Macmillan was a member of the House of Commons from 1924 until 1963, except for several short interruptions. He served in several different cabinet positions in successive governments from 1951 to 1957. He became the British prime minister in 1957 and remained in office until 1963. During his administration the British government submitted an application for membership in the European Community, a request that was vetoed by French President Charles de Gaulle on 29 January 1963. Macmillan resigned from politics in October 1963 and went to work in his family’s publishing company. In 1984, just two years before his death, Macmillan became the Earl of Stockton.

MACSHARRY REFORMS. In an effort to quell internal controversy regarding the costs and sustainability of the Common Agricultural Policy as well as to facilitate progress in the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), negotiations to reform the agricultural policy of the European Community (EC) began in the early 1990s. Named after the European commissioner for agriculture, Ray MacSharry of Ireland, the MacSharry reforms cut the intervention price (the price at which surplus agricultural products are purchased) in exchange for direct income subsidies to European farmers. They also included guidelines for farming practices that would be less damaging to the environment. The acceptance of the MacSharry Reforms by the member states of the EC in 1992 was the basis for agreement between the EC and the United States on trade in agriculture and ultimately the conclusion of the Uruguay Round of GATT.

MADARIAGA, SALVADOR DE (1886–1978). A strong supporter of European integration and an active participant in the Congress of Europe in The Hague in 1948, Salvador de Madariaga was a Spanish politician and diplomat. In 1931 he was appointed ambassador to the United States and subsequently became ambassador to France. He was elected to the Spanish Congress of Deputies in 1933, briefly served on the government as Minister of Education, and later became Minister of Justice. During the Spanish civil war Madariaga went into exile in the United Kingdom, where he remained a strong opponent of Spanish dictator Francisco Franco.

The most tangible and lasting result of Madariaga’s work in the Congress of Europe was his founding in 1949 of the College of Europe, a truly European institution of higher education. Located in Bruges, Belgium, with a second campus in Natolin, Poland, the College of Europe provides the opportunity for students from all across Europe as well as other parts of the world to pursue postgraduate European studies. College alumni founded the Madariaga European Foundation in 1998 to support Madariaga’s ideals for European integration. The president of the foundation is Javier Solana, Madariaga’s grandson and the High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy.

MAJOR, JOHN (1943– ). A conservative member of the House of Commons since 1979, foreign secretary for a short period in 1989, and Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1989–1990, John Major replaced Margaret Thatcher as Britain’s prime minister on 28 November 1990. Given that he brought the British pound into the exchange rate mechanism (ERM) in October 1990 and claimed that his goal was to place Britain at the heart of Europe, there were expectations of a more pro-European British attitude after this change of government. Nevertheless, and albeit with a generally more congenial attitude, the economic and political positions of Major were generally a continuation of those adopted under the Thatcher administration. Major negotiated a British opt-out from the final stage of Economic and Monetary Union (EMU), rejected the inclusion of a social chapter in the Treaty on European Union (TEU), insisted on eliminating all references to federalism in the TEU, and in 1994 vetoed the European Commission presidential nomination of Belgian Prime Minister Jean-Luc Dehaene because he considered him to be too much of a federalist.

Despite attempts to reverse economic problems, Prime Minister Major was forced to withdraw from the ERM on Black Wednesday, 16 September 1992. This was seen by many in Britain as an indication of the risks associated with European integration.

It was during Major’s administration that the Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE), or mad cow disease, crisis escalated. European Union (EU) scientists declared British beef unsafe for human consumption and a ban was placed on British beef exports to the other EU member states, causing a period of tension between the EU and the British government.

On 2 May 1997, following general elections, Labour Prime Minister Tony Blair succeeded John Major. Major retired from political life in 2001 and currently works in the private sector.

MALFATTI, FRANCO MARIA. Refer to appendix B.

MALTA. One of the two Mediterranean island countries to join the European Union (EU) as part of the May 2004 enlargement, the Republic of Malta has had an ongoing relationship with the EU having signed an Association Agreement (one of the first of its kind) with the EU as early as 1970. Malta’s original application for EU membership was submitted on 16 July 1990 by the prime minister and Nationalist Party leader, Eddie Fenech Adami. The country remained on the long-term waiting list until 1996 when its application was suspended following the election of the Labour government, led by Alfred Sant. However, upon Adami’s elected return to power in 1998, Malta’s application was renewed, and negotiations began soon thereafter.

Malta was one of the first May 2004 candidate countries to complete its accession treaty ratification process through a referendum held in March 2003 and subsequent parliamentary approval in July of the same year. With a population of barely 400,000 people, Malta is the smallest of the 10 countries that joined the EU in May 2004, and the smallest of all the EU member states. Refer to appendix A.

MALVESTITI, PIERO. Refer to appendix B.

MANSHOLT, SICCO. Refer to appendix B.

MARIN, MANUEL. Refer to appendix B.

MARSHALL PLAN. Officially the European Recovery Program, the Marshall Plan was proposed by United States (U.S.) Secretary of State George Marshall in 1947 as a means of providing U.S. financial assistance to the European countries for their economic and physical recovery following the destruction caused during World War II. Between 1948 and 1951, the United States provided approximately $12.5 billion to 16 European countries.

One requirement of the Marshall Plan was that the European countries cooperate in the administration of the program’s funding. Thus, in April 1948, the European governments established the Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC), responsible for requesting and distributing the financial aid.

MARTINO, GAETANO. Refer to appendix D.

MAYER, RENE. Refer to appendix B.

MERGER TREATY. The Treaty Establishing a Single Council and a Single Commission of the European Communities was signed by the founding members of the European Community in 1965 and is commonly referred to as the Merger Treaty. This treaty, which reflects an institutional consolidation of the European integration process, went into effect in 1967 and created one Council of Ministers for the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), the European Economic Community (EEC), and the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM). The treaty also merged the High Authority of the ECSC and the Commissions of the EEC and EURATOM to form one Commission of the European Communities.

MERTENS DE WILMARS, JOSSE J. Refer to appendix F.

MESSINA CONFERENCE. In June 1955, the foreign ministers of the member states of the European Coal and Steel Community met in Messina, Italy, to discuss the future progression of European integration. The ministers decided to establish a committee headed by former Belgian Prime Minister Paul-Henri Spaak responsible for drafting such proposals. The final report submitted by the so-called Spaak Committee included designs for the creation of the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Community.

MIDDLE EAST. Peace and stability in the Middle East is a strategic concern of the European Union (EU) considering its long history and current economic and political relations with this neighboring region. Therefore, the EU is committed to active participation in the Middle East Peace Process (MEPP), and as such is a member of the International Quartet (together with Russia, the United Nations, and the United States) committed to assisting with the implementation of the Road Map for a settlement of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict by 2005. The EU’s position as established in the Seville Declaration of 22 June 2002 is the “negotiation of a settlement with the objective of establishing an independent, democratic, and viable Palestinian state, living in peace and security with Israel.” The EU emphasizes the potential of intense negotiation and persistently condemns terrorism.

In order to support its objectives, the EU engages in regional dialogue through the Euro–Mediterranean Partnership in which both Israel and the Palestinian Authority participate. In 1996, the EU established the ambassadorial post of Special Representative (EUSR) for the MEPP to support EU actions and initiatives in the region. Miguel Angel Moratinos (currently Spain’s foreign minister) served in this position from 1996 to 2003 when he was replaced by the current EUSR, Marc Otte. Furthermore, the EU’s Partnership for Peace program provides support to civil society projects that promote peace, tolerance, and non-violence.

The EU and Israel signed an Association Agreement which entered into force on 1 June 2000 and establishes the framework for free trade, political dialogue, and economic and cultural cooperation. Bilateral economic cooperation between the EU and all MEPP parties is administered through the MEDA program. In addition, the EU provides humanitarian aid and financial assistance, conditioned on reform, to the Palestinians. On 1 July 1997, an Interim Association Agreement on Trade and Cooperation between the EU and the Palestinian Authority entered into force, although it has been difficult to implement given the continuous conflict in the first few years of the 21st century.

MITTERRAND, FRANÇOIS (1916–1996). Françis Mitterrand, a veteran French politician, was elected president of France for two consecutive terms which he served from 1981 to 1995. He had been involved in French politics since World War II, and had run for president twice (once against Charles de Gaulle and once against Valéry Giscard d’Estaing) before winning the elections in 1981, becoming the first Socialist president of the Fifth Republic.

Mitterrand, unlike his political rival Charles de Gaulle, was a strong supporter of the European integration process. After assuming the French presidency, Mitterrand supported the increased qualified majority voting necessary to complete the single market. In the second semester 1989, France held the rotating presidency of the European Union (EU), and Mitterrand was able to successfully manage an unexpected and unprecedented situation during the fall of the Berlin Wall and the start of the transitions in Central and Eastern Europe.

Despite his previous actions and appreciation of friendly Franco–German relations, especially with Helmut Kohl in the German chancellery, Mitterrand was initially against the reunification of Germany. However, once the process became an imminent reality, Mitterrand’s options were limited. Rather than obstruct this history-making event, he advocated deeper economic integration to allow France increased influence over the economic policies that had been dominated by Germany in both the European Monetary System and the exchange rate mechanism. Almost simultaneously, Mitterrand and Kohl co-authored a letter to the president of the European Council recommending and supporting European efforts toward constructing a European Political Union.

MOLDOVA. The only parliamentary democracy in the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), Moldova signed a Partnership and Cooperation Agreement (PCA) with the European Union (EU) on 28 November 1994 which went into effect on 1 July 1998. The PCA establishes a framework for comprehensive economic and political relations administered through bilateral institutions created expressly for this purpose. The EU–Moldova PCA contains a clause that addresses the possibility of developing a free trade area between the EU and Moldova in the future. Moldova receives funding from the EU under the Technical Assistance for the Commonwealth of Independent States (TACIS) program as well as from direct humanitarian assistance. Moldova is also a member of the Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe.

The EU closely monitors an unresolved issue in Moldova; that of the separatist region, Transnistria, which has claimed its independence since Moldova became independent in 1991. Despite agreements to the contrary Russia continues to maintain forces in the area. Due to the unruly nature of the situation, this region has become an area prone to illegal activities and organized crime. This is of increased importance to the EU as Moldova will border the EU upon Romania’s EU membership scheduled for 2007.

MONNET, JEAN (1888–1979). A French businessman and government-appointed official and advisor, Jean Monnet is affectionately remembered by many as the “father of Europe.” Monnet had traveled widely in both his private and public roles and was appointed to develop a plan for the modernization of the French economy following the end of World War II. Based on his experience, he came to believe the only way to achieve peace and progress on the continent was through European unity. Monnet, the inspiration behind what has developed into today’s European Union (EU), proposed the pooling of the French and German coal and steel industries, an idea that was accepted by the French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman and West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer.

On 9 May 1950, Robert Schuman made his now-famous declaration based on Monnet’s proposal. In addition to West Germany and France, Belgium, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands accepted the historic offer made by Schuman on that date, now know as Europe Day. A strong believer in functional integration and the power of institutions, Monnet subsequently chaired the intergovernmental conference that would lead to the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1951 and the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) the following year. The ECSC was managed by an executive-type body, the High Authority, whose first president was Jean Monnet.

Frustrated with the progress of European integration, particularly after the rejection of the European Defence Community in the French parliament, Monnet resigned from the High Authority in 1954 to have more time and liberty to dedicate to his cause. The next year he founded the Action Committee for a United States of Europe, composed mainly of political party and trade union leaders, who would lobby those that could influence and/or make decisions regarding the future of Europe. These efforts, in part, led to the signing of the Treaties of Rome and the creation of the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Community. Until his death in 1979, Monnet remained a strong defender of his ideals for European integration. Refer to appendix B and the introduction.

MULTI-LEVEL GOVERNANCE. A conceptual approach used to help explain regional integration, and particularly European integration, multi-level governance questions the state-centric focus espoused by intergovernmentalists and liberal intergovernmentalists. Supporters of multi-level governance contend that although national governments play a significant and irreplaceable role in the integration process, that networks of interconnected actors and institutions at the supranational and sub-national levels also influence the decision-making and policy-making processes in the European Union. Two of the thinkers helping to develop the framework of multi-level governance are Liesbet Hooghe and Gary Marks.

MUTUAL RECOGNITION. First established with the 1979 Cassis de Dijon case, mutual recognition is one of the fundamental principles of the European Union’s single market. Basically, mutual recognition means that national standards of production are accepted by all member states and cannot be further regulated. European standards were established with the help of European standardization bodies. As long as products meet the stipulated standards national authorities of the member states may not place additional health, safety, or technical standards on these products or in any way impede their importation.

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NEO-FUNCTIONALISM. A theory used to explain European integration, neo-functionalism has its roots in the functionalist theory first developed by David Mitrany. Ernst Haas and Leon Lindberg were two of the pioneers of neo-functionalism. Proponents of this theory claim that integration is largely a result of economic and political spillover; after integration begins in one competence it will spread to additional competences and include a greater number of political actors and supporters at both the national and European levels. Neo-functionalism largely fell out of favor during the seeming stagnation of the European integration process in the 1970s but was revived and revised following the completion of the single European market.

THE NETHERLANDS. A constitutional monarchy known for its liberal policies and high standard of living, The Netherlands was one of the six founding members of the European Community. Two major European Union (EU) treaties were agreed to and signed in The Netherlands; the Treaty on European Union (also known as the Treaty of Maastricht), and the Treaty of Amsterdam. Today, The Netherlands is one of the strongest proponents of requiring higher environmental standards in the EU.

The Hague, The Netherlands’ administrative capital, is often referred to as the legal capital of the world. This city hosts amongst other international organizations, the International Court of Justice, the International Criminal Court, the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, the United Nations International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (UNICTY), and the headquarters of EUROPOL and EUROJUST.

In a national referendum on 1 June 2005 Dutch citizens decisively rejected the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe, creating a significant obstacle to the completion of the ratification process. Refer to appendix A.

NEWLY INDEPENDENT STATES (NIS). Composed of Russia and the other successor states of the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the European Union (EU) has significant interest in and is working toward developing strong relations with the NIS. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, the EU negotiated Partnership and Cooperation Agreements that establish a framework for comprehensive relations between the EU and the individual NIS. The EU also provides financial assistance to the NIS through the Technical Assistance for the Commonwealth of Independent States (TACIS), largely supporting Russia and the Ukraine but also including the rest of central Europe, the Caucasus, and Central Asia.

NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION (NATO). Signed in April 1949 by Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States (U.S.), the North Atlantic Treaty establishes a mutual defense alliance between its signatory members in NATO. Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty affirms that an attack on any one of the NATO members would be considered as and responded to as an attack on all its members. This organization, primarily military in nature but with significant political aspects as well, has enlarged over the years, granting membership to Greece and Turkey in 1952; West Germany in 1955; Spain in 1982; the Czech Republic, Poland, and Hungary in 1999; and Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia in 2004.

During the Cold War, NATO served as a means of thwarting a Soviet incursion into Western Europe. Complementarily, it also facilitated Germany’s rearmament and U.S. involvement in European affairs, both deemed necessary to prevent the perceived Soviet threat. Following the end of the Cold War and the enlargements of both the European Union (EU) and NATO to include former Soviet bloc members of Central and Eastern Europe and former Soviet republics, the rationale for maintaining NATO was reinvented as a political–military organization to “promote peace and stability in problem areas in Europe itself.” Today, after the 11 September attacks on the United States and the 11 March attacks on Madrid, NATO is trying to consolidate its role in the international fight against terrorism.

As the EU continues to develop its security dimension, questions have been raised regarding the relations between NATO (a North Atlantic organization including the United States and the EU (a regional organization of which the United States is not a member). Many members of the EU are also members of NATO; however there are members of NATO that are not members of the EU and vice versa, which has brought into question the sharing of resources. Nevertheless, official statements reflect that NATO and EU are meant to be complementary, that neither one is a threat to the other, and that there is much work to be done in terms of maintaining peace and security in Europe, which means there is no redundancy in maintaining the security aspects of both organizations. See also BERLIN PLUS; DEFENSE POLICY.

NORTHERN DIMENSION. The Northern Dimension became a significant component of the external relations of the European Union (EU) since the so-called EFTA enlargement (Austria, Finland, and Sweden) of 1995. It encompasses the area spanning from Iceland to Northwest Russia between the seas to the north of the Nordic countries to the southern coasts of the Baltic Sea. The overriding goal of the Northern Dimension is to address the interests and challenges particular to the region. Areas of cooperation between its members include the environment, nuclear safety, energy cooperation, Kaliningrad, infrastructure, and social development. One of the major successes of the Northern Dimension was the support it provided to the Central and Eastern European countries of the region in their quest for EU membership.

NORWAY. Participation in the method of European integration inspired by Jean Monnet and based on the pooling of national sovereignty under a High Authority, has long been a controversial topic in Norway. In the 1960s, this Scandinavian country applied twice for membership in the European Community (EC), alongside the bids of Denmark, Ireland, and the United Kingdom. Having completed its accession negotiations, a public referendum was held on 24–25 September 1972 in which 53.5 percent of the Norwegian people voted against EC membership. A similar scenario unfolded in the 1990s when Norway once again submitted an application on the eve of the completion of the single market and in light of the pending applications of Austria, Finland, Sweden, and Switzerland. After the conclusion of membership negotiations on 30 March 1994, another referendum was held in which once again the Norwegian people rejected this integration proposal.

Issues related to the protection of Norway’s fishing and agricultural industries, as well as its national sovereignty have remained the most highly contested amongst members of the Norwegian government and general population. Although Norway is not a member of the European Union (EU), it does participate in the Schengen Agreement as a member of the Nordic Passport Union. The country also has access to the EU market through the European Economic Area but has no policy-making or decision-making rights. The Norwegian economy is quite successful, even more so than many of the EU member states, supported by its oil and gas resources and the development of these industries.

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OFFICE FOR HARMONIZATION IN THE INTERNAL MARKET (TRADEMARKS AND DESIGNS) (OHIM). Established in 1994 and located in Alicante, Spain, the OHIM is an agency of the European Union (EU). It is responsible for registering Community trademarks and designs. These trademarks and designs provide their owners with rights valid in all of the member states in the EU.

OMBUDSMAN. A new institutionalized position created in the Treaty on European Union (EU), the European Ombudsman is a liaison between the citizens and legal residents of the EU and EU institutions. The ombudsman is appointed by the European Parliament (EP) and serves during its full term in office, with the possibility of reappointment. Responsible for receiving complaints from European legal residents and citizens regarding maladministration in the European institutions (except the European Court of Justice and the Court of First Instance), the ombudsman investigates these claims and tries to resolve the problem with the institution in question. A report is submitted to the EP by the ombudsman on an annual basis. The current European Ombudsman is P. Nikiforos Diamandouros, the former national ombudsman of Greece, who has held this position since April 2003.

OPT-OUT. The opt-out is an exemption granted to a European Union (EU) member state that has substantiated reasons not to participate in a particular area of Community competence. The opt-out is a way of encouraging progress in the European integration process when only a few member states oppose a particular policy.

The United Kingdom was granted an opt-out of the third stage of Economic and Monetary Union (EMU), which was considered a condition for the British government to approve the Treaty on European Union (TEU) as a whole. Opt-outs in the areas of defense policy, the third stage of EMU, legal cooperation under the Schengen Agreement, and some Justice and Home Affairs cooperation were similarly negotiated with Denmark after the Danish people rejected the TEU in the first public referendum held on this issue. Denmark and the UK might decide to opt into these policy areas, including the EMU, if they meet and maintain the convergence criteria.

ORGANIZATION FOR EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COOPERATION (OEEC). Created in April 1948, the OEEC was one of the first attempts at post–World War II institutionalized European cooperation. The OEEC was headquartered in Paris and had 16 founding member states. Its main objective was to encourage European economic cooperation and to coordinate the funding available through the United States’ European Recovery Program, commonly known as the Marshall Plan. By 1961, the OEEC was transformed into the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), an international organization for the study of global social and economic issues.

ORGANIZATION FOR SECURITY AND COOPERATION IN EUROPE (OSCE). The Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe process was founded by the 1975 Helsinki Final Act, and was developed into the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe in 1995. Originally created in order to reduce tensions and increase cooperation between the West and the Soviet bloc, the OSCE currently has 55 members from Europe, Central Asia, and North America, and addresses security issues, including but not limited to arms control, human and minority rights, and election monitoring. Providing a peaceful arena for political dialogue and cooperation in areas of mutual interest, the main focus of the OSCE is conflict prevention and crisis management.

The European Union (EU) is represented at OSCE meetings by representatives of the country holding the presidency of the EU and by representatives of the European Commission. Having many of the same objectives, the EU and the OSCE cooperate on many projects, and with the developments in the EU’s Common Foreign and Security Policy and European Security and Defence Policy, they are working toward building an efficient complementary relationship.

ORTOLI, FRANÇOIS-XAVIER. Refer to appendix B.

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PAPANDREOU, ANDREAS (1919–1996). A Greek politician from a family of Greek politicians, Andreas Papandreou was elected to the Greek parliament in 1964 and took part in the cabinet of his father, George Papandreou who had become prime minister in 1963. Although having previously lived, studied, and worked in the United States (U.S.), and even becoming a U.S. citizen, upon entering political office in Greece he renounced his U.S. citizenship and ironically developed an anti-U.S. political stance.

During the military dictatorship in Greece from 1967 to 1974, Papandreou went into exile and formed an organization in opposition to the military regime. When it collapsed in 1974, Papandreou returned to Greece and formed a new political party, the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK). His party won the 1981 elections and Papandreou became prime minister. Coming into office only shortly after Greece joined the European Community (EC) on 1 January 1981, and having campaigned against the EC, Papandreou was one of the most difficult heads of government to deal with in the EC. He threatened to veto the EC membership of Portugal and Spain if there was not first a guarantee of agricultural and other economic concessions for Greece, a demand that was answered in the form of the Integrated Mediterranean Programmes.

Papandreou remained prime minister until 1989 and assumed the position once again from 1993 to 1996 when he retired due to health problems and died later that year. His son, George Papandreou succeeds him as leader of the PASOK party.

PARTNERSHIP AND COOPERATION AGREEMENTS (PCAs). Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, the European Union (EU) negotiated PCAs that establish a framework for comprehensive relations between the EU and the individual newly independent states (NIS) of the former Soviet Union. The PCAs contain clauses that refer to the adherence to democratic principles and the respect of human rights, and they establish the legal basis for bilateral political, economic, and trade relations between the EU and each one of these countries. There are nine PCAs in effect between the EU and the following countries: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan. There is a Trade and Cooperation Agreement in effect between the EU and Mongolia, and PCAs have been signed but not yet entered into force between the EU and Belarus and the EU and Turkmenistan.

PELLA, GIUSEPPE. Refer to appendix D.

PETERSBERG TASKS. In June 1992, the foreign and defense ministers of the Western European Union issued a declaration outlining the types of military missions in which its members would become involved: humanitarian, rescue, peacekeeping, peacemaking, and crisis management, known as the Petersberg tasks after the Hotel Petersberg near Bonn, Germany, where they were endorsed. In 1997, the Petersberg tasks were adopted by the European Union (EU) and included in the Treaty of Amsterdam, and they are the basis of the EU’s European Security and Defence Policy.

PFLIMLIN, PIERRE (1907–2000). A French Christian Democratic politician, Pierre Pflimlin served as prime minister for a few weeks in 1958, directly prior to Charles de Gaulle assuming this position. He was a member of the European Parliament (EP) from 1962 to 1967. He was later elected in the first direct elections of the EP in 1979 and served as EP president from 1984 to 1987. Refer to appendix D.

PHARE PROGRAMME. Originally the Poland and Hungary Assistance for the Reconstruction of the Economy and now referred to as the Programme of Community Aid to the Countries of Central and Eastern Europe (CEECs), or simply PHARE, this is the main financial instrument for the pre-accession strategy of the European Union (EU). PHARE was launched in 1989 and at that time provided technical and financial assistance to Poland and Hungary. Within just a few years, the program was extended in number and scope to include most of the CEECs (Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia) and to address key issues associated with pre-accession, including but not limited to incorporating the acquis communautaire into national legislation, meeting environmental standards, improving infrastructure, and addressing justice and home affairs related issues. Between 2000 and 2006, the budget for the PHARE programme exceeded €10 billion. After countries accede to the EU they can no longer receive assistance from the PHARE programme, but they do become eligible for other internal funding programs.

PILLARS, THREE. The Treaty on European Union (TEU) reorganized European integration into a figurative temple with three pillars. The first pillar represents the European Community, and is the only fully integrated pillar of the European Union and considered to be its most supranational pillar. The second and third pillars are the Common Foreign and Security Policy and Justice and Home Affairs, respectively, both of which remain principally intergovernmental, based on cooperation and generally requiring all member states’ support for policy and decision-making.

During the negotiation phase of the TEU some European leaders unsuccessfully argued for a more unitary approach to integration. The symbolic pillar architectural design has come to be considered by many as an impediment to integration, particularly in the competences encompassed by the second and third pillars. If the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe is ratified in the future, the three pillar system would be eliminated in an effort to form a more cohesive Union.

PILLOTTI, MASSIMO. Refer to appendix F.

PLEVEN PLAN. In October 1950 French Prime Minister René Pleven revealed his plan for a European Defense Community (EDC). This was the first attempt to integrate in this highly sensitive area, and the EDC was designed to encourage European defense cooperation as well as to allow for the rearmament of Germany within the context of a regional organization. The treaty establishing the EDC was signed by the founding members of the European Coal and Steel Community on 27 May 1952 in Paris. In August 1954, the treaty was defeated in the ratification process, ironically by the French parliament.

PLUMB, CHARLES HENRY (1925– ). A British politician of the Conservative party, Lord Plumb was a member of the European Parliament (EP) from 1979 until 1999. He was part of what is known today as the Group of the European Peoples’ Party (Christian Democrats) and European Democrats, formerly the European Peoples’ Party. Plumb was president of the EP from 1987 to 1989. Refer to appendix D.

POHER, ALAIN. Refer to appendix D.

POLAND. The first Soviet bloc country to form a non-Communist government in 1989, Poland submitted its application for membership in the European Union (EU) on 5 April 1994. Being the largest of the 10 candidate states approved to participate in the 1 May 2004 enlargement process, negotiations proved tense, particularly over the agricultural issue. Poland’s relatively large agricultural sector which is in need of modernization and increased productivity, combined with its relatively low levels of economic development, would have placed an impracticable burden on the EU’s Common Agricultural Policy. Nevertheless, a compromise was reached and accession negotiations were completed by 2002, after which Poland was invited to become an EU member state in 2004.

Poland is considered a medium country with a population size similar to that of Spain. In fact, during the Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) on the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe, Spain and Poland allied with each other to demand weighted influence in decision-making processes, comparable to what they had obtained in the Treaty of Nice. This united diplomatic stance contributed to the delay in the approval of the treaty and prolonging the IGC into the Irish presidency of the first semester 2004. Refer to appendix A.

POLICY PLANNING AND EARLY WARNING UNIT. Created in the Treaty of Amsterdam, the Policy Planning and Early Warning Unit is an office responsible to the High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). The main responsibilities of this unit are to monitor and assess international situations and provide early warnings to the High Representative of CFSP in order to try and respond in terms of crisis prevention rather than after the fact.

POLITICAL AND SECURITY COMMITTEE. The main committee of the Council of the European Union for the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the Political and Security Committee was created in 2001 to manage the European Security and Defence Policy. The committee is composed of senior officials from the Permanent Representations of the member states, but often meets at other levels as well. The main responsibilities of the political and security committee are to monitor international situations and to help guide and define security policies and possible responses to crisis situations.

POLITICAL GROUPS IN THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT. Political activity in the European Parliament (EP) is organized by political groups which are obligatorily transnational and based on political affinity. Political groups must have at least 19 Members of the EP (MEPs) from at least one-fifth of the European Union member states. Levels of political cohesion with regard to issues and values vary amongst the different political groups.

Committee formations, speaking times, and administrative funding is determined by political groups, including independent MEPs who are “grouped” together for organizational purposes and have the same rights as the other political groups. Representing the European citizens and not the member states, during parliamentary sessions MEPs do not sit in national delegations but rather with their political groups. In addition to the independents, the 2004–2009 EP has seven political groups: Confederal Group of the European United Left-Nordic Green Left, Group of the Alliance of Liberal and Democrats for Europe, Group of the European Peoples’ Party (Christian Democrats) and European Democrats, Group of the Greens/European Free Alliance, Independence and Democracy Group, Socialist Group in the European Parliament, and Union for Europe of the Nations Group. Refer to appendix E.

POMPIDOU, GEORGES (1911–1974). With a distinct change of position from Charles de Gaulle’s administration, French President Pompidou consented to the United Kingdom’s membership in the European Community (EC), allowing accession negotiations to resume following de Gaulle’s suspension of them. In a strategic domestic political move, he called for a French referendum on the issue which was held on 23 April 1972 and, with approval from the French public, the first EC enlargement including Denmark, Ireland, and the UK took place on 1 January 1973. Pompidou also proposed the December 1969 Hague Summit where the EC leaders advocated for increased political coordination between the member states providing the impetus for European Political Cooperation, which was established the following year.

Georges Pompidou was prime minister of the French Government from 1962 to 1968 when he was dismissed by President Charles de Gaulle. He was subsequently elected to the French presidency in 1969 following de Gaulle’s resignation. Pompidou’s presidential term ended prematurely as he died from cancer in 1974 while in office.

PORTUGAL. A small and nationally homogenous country on Europe’s Atlantic periphery, Portugal was governed by the dictatorship of the Estado Novo from 1933 to 1974. Following the Carnation Revolution and the transition to democracy, European Community (EC) integration became a priority as a means of maintaining and stabilizing the new democratic regime.

Prior to EC accession, Portugal was one of the poorest countries in Western Europe with minimal foreign investment, a highly agricultural and inefficient economy, and an overall low level of economic development. On the morning of 1 January 1986, Portugal officially entered the EC and became eligible for structural and regional funding that has enabled this relatively poor country to make significant progress. Intent on participating in all aspects of the European integration process, the Portuguese government implemented strict, and not always publicly favorable, economic policies to meet the convergence criteria and participate in the third stage of Economic and Monetary Union (EMU). Portugal’s ability to meet the requirements necessary to adopt the euro demonstrates the considerable economic improvements experienced by the country since its EC membership.

Portugal and Spain joined the EC on the same day, and this Iberian enlargement has led to greater economic and political cooperation between these two countries that had previously maintained a suspicious attitude toward one another. They have similar interests in terms of the European Union (EU) agenda such as cohesion policy, immigration, Latin America, and the Mediterranean.

PRE-ACCESSION STRATEGY. The historic decision to open its doors to the Central and Eastern European countries of the former Soviet bloc upon their fulfillment of the Copenhagen criteria was made at the Copenhagen European Council in 1993, potentially doubling the number of European Union (EU) member states. In a concerted effort to ensure that the upcoming enlargements would not merely be characterized by their quantity but also by their quality, a pre-accession strategy was defined at the Essen European Council in 1994.

In order to assist the candidate countries with their preparation for membership the EU finances three pre-accession instruments: the PHARE Programme, the Instrument for Structural Policies for Pre-accession (ISPA), and the Special Accession Programme for Agriculture and Rural Development (SAPARD). Originally the PHARE Programme had two main priorities: to support institution building, and the ability to incorporate the acquis communautaire into national legislation and to sustain and implement this European Community law. In the programming period closest to the actual first enlargement processes (2000–2006), the PHARE Programme was expanded to address cohesion and structural funds. During this period the two other instruments were created; ISPA dedicated to large infrastructure projects related to transportation and the environment, and SAPARD, which focused on the acquis in terms of agriculture and rural development.

While the financial measures associated with the pre-accession strategy are some of its key elements, this is a comprehensive plan that includes technical expertise and institutionalized dialogue and negotiations. Furthermore, the candidate countries participate in specified EU programs and agencies prior to their full membership in order to gain experience and be better prepared for the accession process and the all important adoption of the acquis communautaire into their national legislation.

PRELIMINARY RULINGS. Preliminary rulings are one of the ways, in addition to direct actions, to bring a case to the European Court of Justice (ECJ). The majority of the cases filed in the ECJ are preliminary rulings, and other than certain extremely limited clearly and specifically outlined preliminary rulings, the ECJ handles all of these requests without assistance from the Court of First Instance.

The only entities capable of requesting a preliminary ruling are national courts of the member states of the European Union (EU), and they can do so when a case brought before the national court involves issues included in the EU treaties and laws. Under these circumstances the ECJ provides an interpretative ruling on the points of the case involving EU law which the national courts must subsequently recognize and apply.

PRESIDENCY OF THE EUROPEAN UNION (EU). The presidency of the EU sets the EU agenda for six months, attempts to garner consensus for legislative packages, answers to the European Parliament, and speaks on behalf of the EU in international meetings. The presidency is held on a six-month rotating basis by each of the EU member states. During this period, meetings of the Council of the EU are chaired by the minister from the member state holding the presidency, and European Council meetings are chaired by the head of state or government of that member state. Member states that acceded to the EU in the 1 May 2004 enlargement will enter the rotation in 2008 in order to provide them with a transitionary period for acclimation and preparation. Given the increase in the number of member states, the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe includes a reform of the presidency in which the European Council elects a president of the EU who has no national political commitment by a qualified majority for a period of two-and-a-half years, renewable once. If the constitutional treaty is ratified, this presidential reform would be implemented.

PRODI, ROMANO (1939– ). From April 1996 to November 1998, Romano Prodi was the prime minister of Italy, leading the Olive Tree center-left coalition. During his time as prime minister, Prodi was instrumental in passing economic policy-related legislation to ensure that, despite all odds, Italy would become a founding member of the euro zone.

With major reforms in mind, Prodi was appointed as president of the European Commission in 1999. He assumed this position at a most inauspicious moment, when public opinion regarding the Commission was at one of its lowest points in history, following the en masse resignation of the Santer Commission due to allegations of fraud and mismanagement.

Although Prodi’s performance as president of the Commission can be debated, the fact is that long-term and decisive integration objectives were attained under his leadership of this institution: implementing the euro as the common currency of 12 European Union (EU) member states; completing the largest enlargement process in the history of the EU; and reaching agreement on the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe, allowing for the ratification process to begin. While his political enemies consider him to be dull and a poor communicator, supporters might argue that his ability to compromise and his negotiating skills were the basis of his achievements as Commission president.

Romano Prodi and the Italian prime minister coinciding with Prodi’s term as Commission president, Silvio Berlusconi, are political rivals. Concerns were raised regarding the impact of this relationship on European politics, especially when Italy held the rotating presidency of the EU in the second semester 2003, at the same time chairing the Intergovernmental Conference responsible for deciding the fate of the constitutional treaty. Nevertheless, there were no overt confrontations between the two. At the end of his term as president of the European Commission in November 2004, Prodi returned to Italy to once again dedicate himself to Italian politics and his political opposition to Berlusconi. Refer to appendix B.

PUBLIC HEALTH. Although health care is primarily a member state competence, the European Union (EU) has adopted a public health strategy which focuses on a more coordinated approach to EU-wide and cross-border health concerns. The EU’s public health strategy is based on improving the quality and dissemination of information about health, creating a mechanism for quickly responding to health threats, and better understanding factors that affect health. One of the objectives is to have the same safety and quality health standards throughout the EU.

A European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, a centralized agency to coordinate measures to stop the spread of communicable diseases, began operations in Stockholm in 2005. The EU also provides financial support for general health research and funds studies to determine links between environmental factors and health problems. Given the known health risks, the EU additionally works toward preventing the use of tobacco and drug products.

PUBLIC OPINION. For more than 30 years the European Commission has monitored the public opinion of the European citizens, in large part through the Eurobarometer which conducts surveys and provides reports on the attitudes of the European people toward different European issues. In general, citizens of the European Union are divided in their feelings toward European integration, divisions that while based on the individual are also apparent in different member states and political groups. The Eurobarometer evaluates attitudes on a number of issue areas including most recently the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe, the environment, development aid, and the euro.

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QUALIFIED MAJORITY VOTING (QMV). See VOTING.

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REGIONAL INTEGRATION. An institutionalized association of countries within a defined geographical territory, regional integration varies in scope from the removal of economic barriers to economic, political, and military cooperation between all of the members of the organization. There are generally considered to be four stages of economic integration: free trade area, customs union, common market, and economic union. Considered as one of the most successful attempts at regional integration, the European Union (EU) is working toward completing its economic and monetary union and has begun institutionalized cooperation in the political, security, and military fields as well.

Recognizing the benefits regional integration has provided to the European continent—lasting peace, overall economic recovery and growth, and greater international influence, particularly in the areas of development and humanitarian aid—other regions around the world have opted to implement their own versions of regional integration. In its external relations with third countries and groups of countries, the EU prefers to deal and negotiate with other regional organizations. The EU considers regional integration to be a viable means of reducing and eventually eliminating many of the problems in developing countries and, therefore, provides funding to regional organizations directed toward strengthening their institutions, rules, and coordinating mechanisms. Different forms of regional integration exist in Europe, North America, Latin America, the Caribbean, Asia, the Middle East and Africa. Refer to appendix H.

REGIONAL POLICY. See COHESION POLICY; STRUCTURAL FUNDS.

REGULATIONS. A type of European Community (EC) law that is binding on all member states of the European Union both in terms of the methods to be implemented and the final results to be achieved. Regulations have direct effect in all of the member states.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT. An important element for increased productivity, competition, and safety, research and development in the European Union is in part financed and coordinated by the European Commission. The Commission sponsors its own research initiatives conducted by the Joint Research Centre, mainly on issues related to nuclear energy, the environment, and industrial research. It also shares costs and coordinates activities between research institutes in different European member states.

In 1984, a multi-annual framework program for research was established. The sixth framework program which covers 2000–2006 was allocated €17.5 billion, part of which is to be used toward the completion of the European Research Area.

REY, JEAN. Refer to appendix B.

RODRIGUEZ IGLESIAS, GIL CARLOS. Refer to appendix F.

RODRIGUEZ ZAPATERO, JOSE LUIS (1960– ). José Luis Rodriguez Zapatero has served as a member of the Spanish Congress of Deputies since 1986 and the general secretary of the Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party (PSOE) since 2000. After the PSOE won the general elections of 14 March 2004, Zapatero became the prime minister of the government of Spain, sworn in on 17 April 2004. A relatively young politician with third-way tendencies, he complied with his campaign promise of ordering the Spanish troops home from Iraq soon after his assumption of power, emphasizing respect for Spain’s democracy and Spain’s return to Europe. Approximately 90 percent of the public had disagreed with Prime Minister José María Aznar’s policy to support the 2003 United States intervention in Iraq and the deployment of Spanish troops to aid the Coalition of the Willing, which also went against the position of the governments of France and Germany, the traditional motor of the European integration process.

On 11 March 2004, only three days prior to the general elections, an al-Qaeda terrorist attack on Madrid killed 191 people and injured more than 1500. While it has been argued that Zapatero’s Iraq policy reversal is a demonstration of being a weak player in the war against terrorism, the Spanish prime minister claims that his government will persistently continue the fight both domestically and internationally.

ROMANIA. On 22 June 1995, Romania, formerly a Soviet bloc country, submitted its application for membership in the European Union (EU), but was one of the candidate states not invited to join the EU in 2004. Corruption, continuing discrimination against the Roma minority, and the inability to satisfactorily reform the police forces and judicial branch of government had been the main obstacles to Romania’s membership. However, accession negotiations were concluded in December 2004. Along with Bulgaria, Romania’s expected date of accession is 1 January 2007. Maintaining a traditionally close bilateral relationship, France has been one of the strongest supporters of Romania’s EU membership. Refer to appendix A.

RUSSIA. Following the collapse of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the European Union (EU) has developed its relations with Russia based on promoting political and economic stability in this newly democratic regime. Since it was initiated in 1991, the EU’s Technical Assistance for the Commonwealth of Independent States (TACIS) program has provided billions of euros in assistance geared toward completing the transition to an open market economy, consolidating democratic institutions and processes, and encouraging respect for the rule of law.

EU–Russian relations have become a heightened priority with successive enlargements that have extended the EU’s borders to those of Russia. There are five EU member states that border Russia: Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland.

Bilateral relations between the EU and Russia are regulated by their Partnership and Cooperation Agreement that entered into force in December 1997 for a period of 10 years. This agreement commits the signatories to political dialogue and cooperation in trade, justice and home affairs, and several sectoral areas. It also establishes the institutional framework for these relations including biannual summits, a newly created Permanent Partnership Council at the ministerial level, a Cooperation Committee at the senior official level, sub-committees, and a Parliamentary Cooperation Committee.

At the May 2003 St. Petersburg Summit, the EU and Russia agreed to reinforce their cooperation by working toward the creation of four common spaces: a Common European Economic Space; a common area of freedom, security, and justice; a space of coordination in the field of external security; and a space of research and education. These common spaces and a strategy for their implementation was also the focus of the 25 November 2004 EU–Russia Summit in The Hague.

The EU–Russia agenda is quite comprehensive and several additional areas of interest include but are not limited to the EU–Russia Energy Dialogue, Chechnya, and Kaliningrad. EU is dependent on the import of energy products and is attempting to consolidate its energy cooperation with Russia, finalize long-term supply contracts, and ensure environmental protection. In terms of Chechnya, the EU unreservedly condemns terrorism, demands the respect for human rights, and advocates a peaceful solution to the conflict and the creation of an environment conducive to long-term security. Since the 1 May 2004 enlargement the Russian exclave of Kaliningrad has been completely surrounded by EU territory on its land borders, requiring new regulations and the facilitation of the transit of goods and people through this territory.

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SAINT-MALO DECLARATION. Announced in December 1998, the Saint-Malo Declaration of British Prime Minister Tony Blair and French President Jacques Chirac is a declaration on European defense. It calls for a strengthened Common Foreign and Security Policy and developing an increased capacity for autonomous military action by European forces. The declaration is considered to be a decisive moment in European defense cooperation.

SANTER, JACQUES (1937– ). A center-right politician in Luxembourg and Europe for decades, Jacques Santer was a member of the European Parliament (EP) from 1974 to 1979, prime minister of Luxembourg from 1985 to 1995, and president of the European Commission from 1995 to 1999. Following in the footsteps of Jacques Delors (president of the European Commission from 1985 to 1995), considered one of the most influential presidents of this institutions, was already a difficult proposition, made more so by the fact that Santer was the compromise candidate for the position. Whilethe Santer Commission certainly achieved some success, it is most remembered for its en masse resignation in March 1999 following the publication of an independent report accusing the Commission of corruption and maladministration. Following the resignation, Santer was once again elected to the EP, where he served from 1999 to 2004. Since 2004, Santer has worked in the private sector as chairman of the board of CLT-UFA, an international film licensor and distributor, replacing Gaston Thorn, another former president of the European Commission.

SCELBA, MARIO. Refer to appendix D.

SCHENGEN AGREEMENT. The Schengen Agreement creates a single European Union (EU) external border (with no internal borders) for citizens of both EU and several non-EU member states, thus contributing to one of the fundamental objectives associated with completing the EU’s single market—the free movement of persons. The first steps toward the creation of this territory were taken in 1985 when five of the EU member states, Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, and The Netherlands, agreed to participate intergov-ernmentally in this endeavor. With slow and steady progress, it was not until 1997 that the Schengen Agreement officially became part of the EU with its incorporation in the Treaty of Amsterdam, yet it remains a policy of enhanced cooperation as Ireland and the United Kingdom do not participate. (Interestingly, Norway and Iceland as members of the Nordic Passport Union are included in the Schengen Agreement despite the fact that they are not EU member states, and Switzerland’s membership was ratified by referendum in June 2005).

Allowing the free movement of people within the EU’s internal borders required the harmonization of certain policies by all signatory member states. Minimum rules regarding visa requirements, asylum policies, and external border checks had to be commonly adopted in order for Schengen to work efficiently. Of course, this free movement of people created additional security concerns for the Schengen countries, and thus, in terms of creating an Area of Freedom, Security and Justice as outlined in the Treaty of Amsterdam, police and judicial cooperation was enhanced, especially within the context of combating typically cross-border crimes. In this regard,the Schengen Information System was designed as a common database that allows national authorities to consult and update this automated system with descriptions of “undesirable” persons and objects when passing through the internal borders of the member states.

All of the 2004 candidate states were required to adopt the Schengen “acquis” as part of their terms of accession. The development of the Schengen Information System II is currently underway, completion of which is a prerequisite for the May 2004 enlargement member states to eventually become part of the Schengen territory.

SCHENGEN INFORMATION SYSTEM (SIS). The SIS, part of the Schengen “acquis,” is a common database network maintained by each one of the Schengen member states with a technical support unit in Strasbourg, France. The 13 member states of the EU signatories to the Schengen Convention as well as Iceland, Norway, and Switzerland participate in this system.

The SIS allows national law enforcement and consular authorities the ability to contribute to and consult this automated system to obtain descriptions of lost or stolen objects and kidnapped and wanted persons when passing through the internal borders of the member states. The SIS is intended to protect the single European market which includes the free movement of goods and people. There were concerns regarding the SIS with respect to the protection of personal information which were addressed through the passage of privacy laws. The implementation of the SIS was delayed due to technical difficulties.

SCHENGEN INFORMATION SYSTEM II (SIS II). Designed to increase the capacity of the original Schengen Information System (SIS) to include the member states that joined the European Union in May 2004 as well as those that will join in expected forthcoming enlargements, SIS II, also known as the second generation SIS, is in its developmental stage. It includes updated technological and information gathering potential in line with judicial and police cooperation and common immigration and visa policies.

SCHMIDT, HELMUT (1918– ). Helmut Schmidt’s West German chancellorship from 1974 to 1982 coincided with Valéry Giscard d’Estaing’s term as the president of France. The two leaders of the traditional “motor” of European integration embraced this role not only as a means of maintaining solidarity during the European Community decade characterized by Eurosclerosis but also of reinforcing the Franco–German rapprochement.

Although not always assuming a favorable stance, Schmidt eventually came to support the European Monetary System (EMS), the precursor to Economic and Monetary Union (EMU). Without this German approval the EMS would not have become a reality in 1979.

SCHRODER, GERHARD (1944– ). A member of the Social Democratic Party (SPD), Gerhard Schröder has been chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany since 1998, serving in his second term since 2002. He is the head of a coalition government that includes the SPD and the German Green Party. In order to focus on politically sensitive reforms based on his Agenda 2010, Schröder resigned as chairman of the SPD in February 2004.

Along with French President Jacques Chirac, Chancellor Schröder was one of the European leaders most adamantly opposed to the 2003 United States intervention in Iraq. In other areas, however, Schröder has been a German military pioneer, the first post–World War II Chancellor to send German peacekeeping troops outside of NATO territory, to Afghanistan, Kosovo, and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.

Some of the policies Schröder supports have caused conflict within the European Union (EU), within Germany itself, and even within his own party. Given Germany’s sustained economic difficulties in the early 21st century, Chancellor Schröder has called for greater flexibility in applying the rules of the Stability and Growth Pact which Germany has breached for more than three consecutive years. The chancellor also supports lifting the arms embargo against China, and has been a strong supporter of Turkey’s bid for EU membership.

SCHUMAN, ROBERT (1886–1963). A member of the French Resistance during World War II and a career Christian Democrat politician in France from 1919 until two years prior to his death, Robert Schuman was a long-serving member of the French parliament, prime minister from 1947 to 1948, and foreign minister from 1948 to 1953. During his term in office as foreign minister, Schuman made the historic decision, based on his personal and political beliefs, to accept the proposal made by Jean Monnet to pool the French and German coal and steel industries. On 9 May 1950, now known as Europe Day, he made the now-famous declaration that bears his name. The offer included in the Schuman Declaration was accepted not only by France and West Germany but also by Belgium, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, who signed the Treaty of Paris in 1951 and became the founding members of the European Coal and Steel Community. From 1958 to 1960, Schuman served as the president of the European Parliamentary Assembly. He is remembered as one of the founders of the European Union. Refer to appendix D.

SCHUMAN DECLARATION. On 9 May 1950 (officially Europe Day since 1985), Robert Schuman, the minister of foreign affairs of France, made an announcement of historical proportions. The document he read has been labeled by some scholars as a “Declaration of Interdependence.”

The Declaration focused on creating a lasting peace on the continent which would be achieved through incremental steps starting with the pooling of the French and German coal and steel industries under a High Authority. This project was open to other European countries but primarily addressed the need to eliminate the longstanding animosities between France and Germany. The Schuman Declaration led to the signing of the 1951 Treaty of Paris, establishing the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC).

SERBIA AND MONTENEGRO. For most of the 1990s the Western Balkans region experienced ethnic and religious conflict. Part of the former Yugoslavia, Serbia entered into military conflict with Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Kosovo under the leadership of Slobodan Milosevic in successive wars throughout the 1990s, resulting in hundreds of thousands of deaths and millions of displaced people. After the failure of several attempts at resolution of the conflict including peace conferences organized by the European Union (EU), the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) attacked Serbia in 1995 over Bosnia and in 1999 over Kosovo, and set up subsequent peacekeeping missions.

Former Serbian President Milosevic was charged with war crimes in Croatia and Kosovo and genocide in Bosnia-Herzegovina and was on trial by the United Nations International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (UNICTY) when he was found dead in March 2006.

Serbia and Montenegro is composed of Serbia, Montenegro, and Kosovo, a fact that could cause additional problems in the future considering this is a temporary resolution and claims for independence from Montenegro and Kosovo have not been sufficiently addressed in any of the peace agreements. Nevertheless, after Milosevic was removed from power, the EU lifted the sanctions it had placed on the country and renewed its intention to develop strong relations with this possible future EU member state. Serbia and Montenegro receives EU funding in the form of Community Assistance for Reconstruction, Development, and Stability (CARDS) as well as humanitarian aid, totaling more than €2 billion since October 2000. The three main objectives of this funding are conflict management, post-conflict reconstruction and stabilization, and aiding with transitions and reforms necessary to form a closer association between Serbia and the EU and eventual EU membership for Serbia and Montenegro. On 12 April 2005, the European Commission announced that Serbia and Montenegro had made enough progress, including cooperation with the UNICTY, to begin negotiations for a Stabilization and Association Agreement.

SINGLE EUROPEAN ACT (SEA). After years of relative stagnation in the European integration process, there was a general consensus amongst the European leadership that another treaty reform was necessary; one that would address institutional reforms and the completion of the single market. Naturally there were conflicts over the extent and scope of the reforms as well as over several of the more controversial details. Nevertheless, after being signed in 1986, the SEA was ratified and came into force on 1 July 1987.

One of the main goals of the SEA was to complete the single market by 31 December 1992, facilitating the free movement of persons, goods, capital, and services across the internal borders of the European Community (EC). In an attempt to avoid the traditional obstacles to reaching this goal, qualified majority voting was introduced for more issue areas in the SEA, particularly those dealing with removing barriers to trade and harmonization and regulations necessary to complete the single market according to the established schedule. Recognizing the potential financial benefit of this integration project, European businesses took advantage of the possibilities and engaged in increased acquisitions and mergers.

The SEA was the first treaty reform since the implementation of direct elections to the European Parliament (EP), and the increase in power for this institution was small but significant. The EP was given the opportunity to have the final approval over future enlargement countries. Furthermore, the cooperation procedure was introduced in the SEA, making it mandatory for proposed legislation in specific issue areas to be submitted to the EP for its opinion. Although the Council of Ministers still had the ability to overrule the EP in this procedure, the EP gained influence in the legislative process through its ability to amend and delay proposed legislation.

For the first time European Political Cooperation was officially recognized in the SEA. The institutionalization of political cooperation would eventually lead to its transformation into the Common Foreign and Security Policy in the Treaty on European Union.

The cohesion policy and structural funds were also an important part of the SEA. Unofficially led by Spanish Prime Minister Felipe Gonzalez, the less developed EC member states lobbied for the inclusion of these funds in the SEA, basically transferring EC contributions from the wealthiest member states to the poorest member states under EC supervision and through the EC institutions. The objective of these policies in terms of the single market was to make its completion as equally beneficial to all member states as possible and to prevent the emergence of a two-speed Europe.

SINGLE MARKET. On 1 January 1993 the European Community’s single market became fully operational. Although the completion of a common market was one of the primary goals of the 1957 Treaty of Rome establishing the European Economic Community, obstacles such as the principles of the Luxembourg Compromise, hindered its development. By the early 1980s during which European goods had difficulty competing in international markets and governments were struggling economically in general, many leaders, including Margaret Thatcher, optimistically considered the idea of the single market and the benefits that would theoretically accompany this increased liberalization. Jacques Delors, president of the European Commission from 1985 to 1995, played an indispensable role in convincing national leaders of the merits of the single market as well as negotiating terms that would become acceptable to all parties to the resultant treaty. The Single European Act went into effect on 1 July 1987.

The removal of barriers to trade, investment, and other intra-state economic and financial transactions was enhanced through the harmonization of laws, the implementation of new regulations, and the elimination of a substantial amount of paperwork. The free movement of goods, persons, services, and capital through the internal borders of the European Community member states was greatly improved. Despite the unquestionable progress that has been achieved in terms of the European single market, it still has yet to be perfectly completed.

SKOURIS, VASSILIOS. Refer to appendix F.

SLOVAKIA. Gaining its sovereignty in 1993 following Czechoslovakia’s “Velvet Divorce,” the Slovak Republic submitted its application for membership in the European Union (EU) on 27 June 1995. Relations between Slovakia and the EU were complicated by the isolationist positions of Slovakia’s Prime Minister Vladimir Meciar (1994–1998), and as a result accession negotiations were delayed until 15 February 2000. Despite the limited time frame, Slovakia had successfully completed the talks in time to participate in the 1 May 2004 enlargement process. In a public referendum held on the issue on 16–17 May 2003, 92.4 percent of Slovakians overwhelmingly approved of their country’s EU membership. See also CZECH REPUBLIC. Refer to appendix A.

SLOVENIA. The Republic of Slovenia applied for European Union (EU) membership on 10 June 1996, began accession negotiations on 31 March 1998, and was officially invited to join the EU at theCopenhagen European Council on 13 December 2002. In a March 2003 referendum, 91 percent of Slovenes supported EU membership. Slovenia is the smallest continental 2004 enlargement country and has a relatively stable economy.

Slovenia, the most prosperous region of the former Republic of Yugoslavia, gained its independence in 1991. Today Slovenia is the only EU member state among the former Yugoslav republics. It is hoped that Slovenia will serve as a “bridge” between the EU and the other former Yugoslav republics wanting and expected to eventually join the EU. Refer to appendix A.

SOCIAL CHARTER. Officially the Community Charter of the Fundamental Social Rights of Workers, the Social Charter was proposed in the late 1980s to promote a social policy for the European Community (EC) in light of the imminent completion of the single European market. The Charter contains 12 categories of fundamental social rights including freedom of movement, freedom of association, equal treatment for men and women, and the protection of children. In December 1989, 11 of the then 12 heads of state or government, all except that of the government of British Conservative Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, adopted the Social Charter. The Charter remained outside the legal framework of the EC until it became the basis for the Social Protocol which was annexed to the Treaty on European Union by the same 11 member states. The Charter of Fundamental Rights included in the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe contains all of the rights originally provided by the Social Charter, and will gain legal status if the constitutional treaty is ratified.

SOCIAL POLICY. See EMPLOYMENT AND SOCIAL POLICY.

SOCIALIST GROUP IN THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT (PES). One of the two most prominent political groups in the European Parliament (EP), the PES was the largest EP political group from 1979 to 1999, with Members of the EP (MEPs) from all of the European Union (EU) member states. The results of the June 2004 EP elections show that the PES is currently the second-largest European parliamentary group with a total of 200 MEPs from 23 member states, all except Latvia and Cyprus. Characterized as a center-left political group, the PES promotes an agenda including but not limited to issues of employment, social security, equal rights, and environmental protection.

SOLANA, JAVIER (1942– ). The grandson of Salvador de Madariaga, an active supporter of European integration and founder of the College of Europe, Javier Solana was educated as a physicist but is a Spanish politician and diplomat by profession. He has been involved in Spanish and European politics since the 1960s, when he joined the Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party, illegal at the time under the dictatorship of Francisco Franco. Solana first entered the Spanish Congress of Deputies in 1977, where he would remain until 1995. During this time he served in several positions in the government of Felipe González (1982–1996), including Minister of Culture, Education, and Foreign Affairs. As the Minister of Foreign Affairs during the Spanish presidency of the European Union (EU) in 1995, Solana played a major role in the beginning of the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership. Ironically, having previously been opposed to Spanish membership in its ranks, Solana became the Secretary General of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1995.

In 1999 Solana was appointed by the European Council to a position that was created in the Treaty of Amsterdam, the High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). He is also the Secretary-General of the Council of the EU. As the High Representative for the CFSP, Solana is responsible for coordinating foreign policies of the member states and representing the EU in international negotiations and organizations. In this position, he has been involved in peacemaking in the Balkans, the Middle East peace process, and numerous negotiations for bilateral and regional agreements with the EU. He also drafted the current European Security Strategy in 2003 and created the new position of Counter-Terrorism Coordinator in 2004.

In June 2004, the European Council agreed that Solana would be the first Union Minister for Foreign Affairs, a position created in the Treaty Establishing a Constitution for Europe. While the current stalemate in the treaty ratification process prevents him from assuming this position, he continues as the High Representative of theCFSP, as in June 2004 the European Council also reappointed him to this post.

SPAAK, PAUL-HENRI (1899–1972). A member of Belgium’s socialist Labour Party, Prime Minister of Belgium four times between 1938 and 1949, Belgian foreign minister during several administrations including his own, and secretary general of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization from 1957 to 1961, Paul-Henri Spaak was truly devoted to the cause of European integration. Spaak not only presided over the Messina Conference in 1955 but also chaired the committee that drafted the final report in preparation for the 1957 Treaties of Rome and the creation of the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Community. Refer to appendix D.

SPAIN. The transition to democracy in the late 1970s opened the door to European integration, and on 28 July 1977, Spain applied for membership in the European Community (EC). From the time Spain’s accession application was favorably accepted by the EC in 1977 until the treaty was signed, Spain’s political parties worked together toward EC membership. For politicians and community leaders, EC integration was not merely a goal in and of itself but rather a guarantee of the consolidation of the key internal changes in Spain, above all the transition to democracy, and of the reestablishment of international respectability.

France and Italy were concerned about the economic implications of Spanish membership, particularly how they might be affected by this Iberian country’s inclusion in certain policy frameworks and funding allocations. Agriculture and fisheries were the most difficult aspects of the Spanish accession negotiation process. On the other hand, Spain was able to include its special relations with Latin America in its accession treaty, ensuring that this region would become a lasting element of the EC agenda.

On 1 January 1986, after six years of intense negotiations, Spain finally became an EC member state. Since becoming an EC member state, Spain has played an active role in European institutions, decisions, and policy-making. The cohesion policy, European citizenship, and the Committee of the Regions are just some of the successful policies supported by Spain. The post of High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy has been filled thus far by only person, former secretary general of NATO, Javier Solana of Spain.

Leading up to and during the Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) on the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe, Spain demanded the same or similar weighted decision-making power as it was able to so effectively negotiate in the Treaty of Nice. With no resolution on this matter by December 2003, the IGC was extended to the Irish presidency of the first semester 2004, when an acceptable compromise was reached.

In March 2004, Madrid fell victim to an Al-Qaeda terrorist attack, three days prior to the country’s general elections. Not only were there internal repercussions with a change in the government, but the urgent need for the European Union to commonly address the issue of terrorism was accentuated. See also AZNAR, JOSE MARIA; GONZALEZ, FELIPE; RODRIGUEZ ZAPATERO, JOSE LUIS. Refer to appendix A.

SPECIAL ACCESSION PROGRAMME FOR AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT (SAPARD). Established in 1999 as part of Agenda 2000, SAPARD focuses on providing financial assistance exclusively for the agricultural sector and rural areas of the 10 Central and Eastern European countries. Until 2003 the annual budget for all 10 countries was €560 million. In 2004, Bulgaria and Romania, the then two remaining candidate countries from the region, received approximately €225 million from SAPARD.

SPENALE, GEORGES. Refer to appendix D.

SPINELLI, ALTIERO (1907–1986). A European federalist, Altiero Spinelli significantly contributed to the development of the European Union (EU). He was not only an activist but also an avid thinker on the subject. While imprisoned on the island of Ventotene for participating in the Italian Resistance during World War II, he coauthored what has come to be known as the Ventotene Manifesto in support of a federal Europe as a means of creating peace on the continent.

From 1970 to 1976, Spinelli was one of the Italian representatives to the European Commission. For the next ten years he was an active member of the European Parliament (EP), during which time he founded the Crocodile Club, known as such for the restaurant where it first started meeting. Within a short period of time this club, focused on making reforms to the European Community, not only increased its membership but also transformed into the EP Committee on Institutional Affairs. In 1983 the committee presented a draft treaty on EU, which although not ratified by the member states was adopted by the EP in 1984. Spinelli was also a strong supporter and lobbyist for the adoption of the Single European Act.

STABILITY AND GROWTH PACT (SGP). The SGP was adopted in 1997 as a means of ensuring continuous fiscal discipline in the third and final stage of Economic and Monetary Union (EMU). Considered to be the key element in obtaining price stability, a strong (euro) currency, and sustainable growth, budgetary soundness has proven difficult for many of the European Union (EU) member states, including the strongest supporter of the SGP, Germany. One of the most controversial aspects upon which the SGP is based is the excessive deficit procedure which requires member states to maintain their government deficits within 3 percent of their respective gross domestic products (GDP) and government debt within 60 percent of their respective GDPs. If these obligations are breached the Council, based on reports from the European Commission, may eventually impose sanctions against a member state if it is determined that the member state has not made serious attempts and progress toward attaining the established goals.

Over the past few years many of the EU countries, including those with the typically strongest economies, have had significant difficulties meeting the deficit criteria. Due to prolonged breaches, the European Commission has recommended (unsuccessfully) giving notice to some countries including France and Germany, which has caused interstate and inter-institutional tensions. Thus, while the precise future of the Pact is uncertain, there seems to be greater agreement toward flexibility in its implementation.

STABILITY PACT FOR SOUTHEASTERN EUROPE. Proposed by French Prime Minister Edouard Balladur in 1993, and also known as the Balladur Plan, the Stability Pact for Southeastern Europe is an attempt to encourage good relations and increased cooperation between the Central and Eastern European countries (CEECs). The Pact is intended to reduce the potential for conflict in this region, particularly relevant following the outbreak of war in the former Yugoslavia in the early 1990s. A particular focus is on the resolution of border and minority disputes, a requirement for membership in the European Union (EU).

The EU provided positive support for the Balladur Plan in 1994, and it was signed in Paris in March 1995. After the launch of the Stability Pact for Southeastern Europe, the management of the implementation of its bilateral agreements was transferred to the authority of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE).

STABILIZATION AND ASSOCIATION AGREEMENTS (SAAs). A significant part of the process to strengthen relations between the European Union (EU) and the countries of the Western Balkans region (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia and Montenegro, and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia) which are considered to be future potential candidate countries, SAAs are bilateral mechanisms through which the countries of the region begin to adopt the necessary reforms to achieve a formal association with the EU. The agreements include adherence to democratic principles and the gradual development of free trade areas between the EU and the individual country signatories from the region. They also include a commitment to increase regional cooperation between the countries of the region itself. The Community Assistance for Reconstruction, Development, and Stabilization financial instrument provides funding to meet the objectives established in the SAAs.

STRUCTURAL FUNDS. Cohesion, or narrowing the gap between the rich and poor member states, has been a general strategy since the creation of the European Communities in 1957. With the Single European Act of 1987, and its goal of completing the single market by 1993, increased emphasis and concern emerged in regard to the cohesion policy. The structural funds are the instruments that financially support this cohesion policy.

The main objective of the structural funds is to provide financial support to underdeveloped regions of the European Union (EU), and particularly to projects that incorporate elements of long-term planning and its resulting development. There are four types of structural funds: European Regional Development Fund, European Social Fund, European Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee Fund, and Financial Instrument for Fisheries Guidance. Based on the principle of additionality, this EU funding is intended to complement and not substitute for national funding allocated to development plans.

SUBSIDIARITY. The principle of subsidiarity refers to the idea that decisions will be taken at the lowest level possible and only at the highest level when necessary. It was first included in the legal framework of the European Union (EU) in the Treaty on EU. This means that the EU will take actions and make decisions only when it is considered that optimal effectiveness in a specific area cannot be adequately addressed by the national or local governments of the member states and must, therefore, be handled at the EU level. One of the problems associated with the principle of subsidiarity is the ambiguity associated with it and its application.

SUPRANATIONALISM. An approach to integration in which there is a pooling of national sovereignty under a higher authority, supranationalism contends that member states are not the only influential actors, but that European Union (EU) institutions and interests also play a decisive role in the policy-making process. Through the series of treaties and treaty reforms governing this method of integration, member states have provided the EU institutions with policy and decision-making powers in certain competences that are binding on all member states. Supranationalism is unique to the EU as a regional organization and represents integration as a step beyond traditional intergovernmental international cooperation.

SUPREMACY. A fundamental principle of European Community (EC) law firmly established in the 1964 Costa v. ENEL case, supremacy means that EC law takes precedence over the national laws of the member states. If there is a conflict between EC law and national laws, the national laws are to be modified.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT. As defined by the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development, sustainable development “meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.” According to the European Commission, sustainable development refers to: “balanced and equitable economic development; high levels of employment, social cohesion and inclusiveness; a high level of environmental protection and responsible use of natural resources; coherent policy making in an open, transparent and accountable political system; and effective international cooperation to promote sustainable development globally.” Sustainable development is a vital concern of the European Union which it tries to promote both internally and externally through strategies developed by the European Commission.

SWEDEN. The Kingdom of Sweden, a founding member of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) and the Council of Europe, formally submitted its application for membership in the European Community on 1 July 1991. Due in part to Sweden’s neutrality, extensive welfare state, and high environmental standards, European Union (EU) membership had been and remains widely controversial in this Nordic country. However, motivated by economic considerations, Sweden became a member state in 1995, as part of the first enlargement of the EU.

Despite its well-known Euro-skepticism, Sweden has played an instrumental role in promoting (along with Finland) the development of the EU’s capacity for crisis management and humanitarian endeavors. Support for higher EU environmental standards and establishing gender equality as one of the Union’s goals are some of Sweden’s EU priorities.

Sweden remains one of the pre—May 2004 member states (along with Denmark and the United Kingdom) to not use the euro as its legal tender. While there is some strong government backing for Sweden to adopt the euro as its national currency, the public has not been supportive as voters rejected this possibility in a referendum in September 2003. However, the country continues to prepare for potential entry into the euro zone in the event of a change in public sentiment. Refer to appendix A.

SWITZERLAND. Completely encircled by European member states since the 1995 accession of Austria to the European Union (EU), Switzerland has a long tradition of close relations with the EU. After signing the European Economic Area (EEA) agreement, the Swiss government applied for membership in the European Community (EC) on 20 May 1992. A referendum was held on 6 December 1992 in which the Swiss citizens rejected ratification of the EEA agreement, and the Swiss government subsequently indefinitely suspended EC accession negotiations.

Switzerland is the only member of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) that does not participate in the EEA. Nevertheless, the EU and Switzerland are amongst each others’ most important trading partners, and Switzerland has signed more agreements with the EU than any other third country. Seven agreements pertaining to the free movement of people, agricultural trade, public procurement, technical barriers to trade, air transport, land transport, and research entered into force on 1 June 2002. In October 2004, nine additional agreements were signed and await the ratification process. These agreements include issues of taxation, fraud, asylum, agriculture, the environment, the free movement of people, and Switzerland’s participation in the Schengen Agreement, the European Statistical System, and the EU Media program.

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TAXATION. Large tax differentials between European Union (EU) member states can significantly debilitate the single market and fair competition. Therefore, although tax policy remains a member state competence in terms of income and corporate taxes, the EU attempts to coordinate the harmonization of indirect taxes to prevent substantial distortions. In this regard, this intergovernmental EU issue has been addressed through unanimous agreement on the setting of minimum and maximum excise tax and value-added tax (VAT). The standard VAT is 15 percent, although this remains flexible depending on specific circumstances in different member states, and subject to exemptions. The main goal of the European Commission is to achieve as much single market related tax harmonization as possible without interfering in the prerogatives of the member state governments.

TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE FOR THE COMMONWEALTH OF INDEPENDENT STATES (TACIS). Begun in 1991, TACIS provides technical financial assistance to 12 countries of Eastern Europe and Central Asia: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan), mainly to support their transitions to democracy and open market economies. The 2000–2006 TACIS regulation’s principal goal is to help achieve the objectives of the Partnership and Association Agreements by providing support for, among other issue areas, institutional and legal reforms, economic development, and environmental protection.

TERRORISM. Terrorism has long existed in post–World War II Western Europe, in Ireland, Italy, and Spain, to name just a few of the countries that have experienced repeated violent terrorist (post–September 11 definition) acts. In 1975, the Trevi Group, composed of senior officials from justice and interior ministries of the European Community member states, was established to cooperate on issues of justice and home affairs, particularly the fight against terrorism. With the creation of the third pillar on Justice and Home Affairs in the Treaty on European Union, this coordination became legally institutionalized.

Following the terrorist attacks on the United States on 11 September 2001, the European Union (EU) responded with declarations of their solidarity and support to build a strong coalition against global terrorism. On 11 March 2004, the international terrorist group, alQaeda struck Europe itself, with bombings in the capital city of Madrid that killed 191 people and wounded more than 1500. This incident instigated even greater EU cooperation and dedication to combating global terrorism, evidenced by the creation of a counterterrorism coordinator in the office of the Council Secretary General/High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy. The counter-terrorism coordinator is responsible for helping to coordinate anti-terrorism initiatives between the member states as well as managing the EU’s anti-terrorism agenda. Obviously even more work needs to be done in this area as on 7 July 2005 the United Kingdom was the target of a terrorist attack on its public transportation system, killing 56 people and injuring 700.

THATCHER, MARGARET (1925– ). With an aggressive, suspicious, and uncompromising attitude toward the European Community (EC), Margaret Thatcher became the prime minister of the United Kingdom (UK) on 4 May 1979 as the head of the Conservative Party. Thatcher was the first female to hold this executive post, and the first woman to participate as government representative in the European Council.

Thatcher strongly believed that the basis of European integration should be intergovernmentalism, often questioning the merits and intentions of the EC government in Brussels. A now infamous speech she made at the College of Europe in Bruges in September 1988 accentuated her standpoint by addressing the need to avoid being dominated by an overriding European government.

After Thatcher assumed the premiership she immediately campaigned to rectify the injustices regarding Britain’s EC budgetary contribution. Due to Britain’s export and import patterns, particularly in agricultural products, the UK’s payments to the EC budget far exceeded the financial benefits it received in return. Outraged (and for the most part rightly so) by the continuation of these unfair practices, Thatcher demanded a British budgetary rebate, a topic that would dominate European Council agendas until an agreement was reached in June 1984.

Despite her generally negative attitude toward the European integration process, Thatcher was one of the strongest proponents of the single market. She fully understood and appreciated how advantageous this liberalization program could be for Britain’s economy. She considered the single market to be a sufficient end to the EC’s economic integration and, in contrast to her position on that policy, wholeheartedly opposed the Economic and Monetary Union.

With regard to the events transpiring in Central and Eastern Europe close to the end of her term in office, Thatcher opposed such a quick and complete reunification of Germany so soon after the fall of the Berlin Wall. However, unable to delay or influence this process which she witnessed one month prior to the end of her executive administration, she supported enlargement to the former Soviet bloc countries as a means of moderating Germany’s leading influence in the region, and promoting a significantly wider EC, practically ensuring a more gradual deepening of EC integration.

For the most part, Thatcher’s term in office (1979–1990) coincided with that of the Republican president of the United States, Ronald Reagan (1980–1988). These two leaders are often referred to as each other’s ideological soul mates, and during the 1980s the special Atlantic relationship between the United States and the UK was reinforced. Thatcher was sure to include provisions or declarations confirming these relations in European policy proposals and organizations such as the European Union (EU) and Western European Union (WEU).

On 28 November 1990, after Thatcher’s own Conservative Party forced her resignation, she was replaced by her finance minister, John Major. It is believed that a combination of controversial proposed domestic policies as well as her Europessimism contributed to Thatcher’s political downfall.

THORN, GASTON EDMONT. Refer to appendix B.

TRADE POLICY. The EU Community has exclusive competence over the trade policy of the European Union (EU), which means that the EU member states, represented by the European Commission, must act commonly in all trade negotiations. The European Commission almost always represents the EU member states with a single voice in the World Trade Organization (WTO).

The EU is a customs union and has a common external tariff and a common commercial policy, all of which are the key elements of its trade policy. The EU’s position on this issue is to progressively liberalize all trade, and it plays a significant role in the WTO and its rounds of trade liberalization negotiations. Indeed, almost all barriers to trade amongst the EU member states have been eliminated, and reducing these barriers between the EU and third countries is one of the priorities of the trade policy. Thus, the EU has negotiated and signed bilateral trade agreements with many countries and regions throughout the world and has developed, or is in the process of developing, free trade areas with others. Since the early 1990s, all cooperation and association agreements between the EU and third countries, including those based predominantly on trade, contain a human rights clause.

One of the EU’s strongest trading partners is the United States. Although much news attention is given to the trade disputes that arise between these two significant trading partners and actors in international trade, only two percent of their total trade is actually contested, and many of these disputes have been resolved in the framework of the WTO.

The EU gives special trade preferences to many of the world’s developing countries, including the African–Caribbean–Pacific (ACP) countries, through its Generalized System of Preferences, allowing duty-free entry of industrial and most agricultural products from these countries into the EU. The Everything But Arms program, adopted in 2001, gives the world’s least developed countries unlimited access to the EU market, with the only exception being the importation of arms. See also DEVELOPMENT POLICY.

TRANS-EUROPEAN NETWORKS (TENs). The completion of the single European market has accentuated the need for interconnection and interoperability between the national infrastructure networks of the European Union (EU) member states. TENs are intended to address this issue through three sectors in which projects are developed: transportation, energy, and telecommunications. Funding for TENs comes from various sources; the EU budget which allocated €4.6 billion to the TENs from 2000–2006, the European Investment Bank, private investors, national and regional government contributions, and other EU funds such as the cohesion fund. Although the EU is dedicated to TENs-related projects, there are several difficulties associated with TENs including that they are generally long-term projects that require large amounts of investments, investment that is not always readily available.

TRANSLATION CENTRE FOR THE BODIES OF THE EUROPEAN UNION. Established in 1994 and located in Luxembourg, the Translation Center is an agency of the European Union (EU) and provides for the translating needs of all of the other agencies of the EU. See also LANGUAGES.

TRANSPORT POLICY. The free movement of people, capital, goods, and services through the single market of the European Union (EU) requires an open and fair transport policy to support this increased movement. A once highly regulated industry, legislation has been passed in the EU to open transportation to competition, particularly for road and air travel, in an effort to make it more efficient. The EU also supports large infrastructure projects, Trans-European Networks, to help address some of the problems associated with transportation in the EU, including congestion and pollution.

TREATIES OF ROME. Following the defeat of the European Defence Community, Jean Monnet resigned as the president of the High Authority in order to dedicate his time and energy to promoting increased European integration. He founded the Action Committee for a United States of Europe, an association composed of high ranking members of political parties and trade unions, to lobby the cause. Monnet’s efforts, in part, resulted in the signing of the Treaties of Rome in 1957.

Paul-Henri Spaak, Belgium’s foreign minister, directed the negotiations and drafting of the treaties for what came to be known as the European Community. The Treaties of Rome were signed by the six founding members of the European Coal and Steel Community, establishing both the European Atomic Energy Community and the European Economic Community. In 1965, the Merger Treaty was signed, effectively fusing the institutional frameworks of the three existing communities into one, all of which would be subsequently referred to as the European Communities.

TREATY ESTABLISHING A CONSTITUTION FOR EUROPE. The European Convention, the entity created to debate the future of Europe and incorporate its conclusions in a constitutional text, adopted by consensus the draft constitutional treaty in June 2003, subsequently submitting it to the European Council in Thessaloniki, Greece. After an Intergovernmental Conference spanning both the Italian and Irish European Union (EU) presidencies (second semester 2003 and first semester 2004, respectively), the European Council approved the final version of this treaty in Brussels in June 2004.

Signed in Rome on 29 October 2004, the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe (also referred to as the constitutional treaty) primarily eliminates the need to negotiate treaty reforms on a regular basis, and incorporates all of the previous treaties governing the EU into a single legal document. Included in this treaty are the institutional and decision-making reforms necessary to accommodate not only the May 2004 enlargement but future enlargements as well. In an effort to meet the objectives established in the Laeken Declaration, the treaty contains the Charter of Fundamental Rights, creates the post of Union Minister for Foreign Affairs, and collapses the three pillar structure which had eventually come to be considered an impediment to integration progress in many of the issue areas of the second and third pillars. Furthermore, there is an increased focus on subsidiarity which ensures that decisions are made at the closest level to the citizen as possible and that there is a proper exercise of power.

The constitutional treaty is dedicated to the fundamental theme of achieving unity through diversity as specifically elaborated in its preamble:

Convinced that, while remaining proud of their own national identities and history, the peoples of Europe are determined to transcend their ancient divisions and, united ever more closely, to forge a common destiny,

Convinced that, thus “united in its diversity,” Europe offers them the best chance of pursuing, with due regard for the rights of each individual and in awareness of their responsibilities towards future generations and the Earth, the great venture which makes of it a special area of human hope.

Unity through diversity is the motto of the EU.

Despite agreement amongst European heads of state or governments to approve this constitutional treaty, it still had to pass through what proved to be a challenging ratification process; either through established internal parliamentary procedure, or through public national referenda.

As of October 2005, 14 member states had ratified the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe: Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Spain. The citizens of France and The Netherlands rejected the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe in national referendums held on 29 May 2005 and 1 June 2005, respectively. The Treaty must be ratified by all member states before it can take effect. The ratification process has been postponed and the EU and its member states are currently engaged in period of reflection and discussion regarding the treaty.

TREATY ESTABLISHING A SINGLE COUNCIL AND A SINGLE COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES. See MERGER TREATY.

TREATY OF AMSTERDAM. Improvements to the Treaty on European Union (particularly the second and third pillars), and the need for institutional and decision-making modifications to accommodate what would become the largest enlargement in European Union (EU) history, inspired the 1996/1997 Intergovernmental Conference and the treaty reform resulting in the 1997 Treaty of Amsterdam. The proposed institutional reforms were postponed, however, as agreement could not be reached on the size and composition of the European Commission or on the system of qualified majority voting in the Council of the EU. Two of the most highly contested topics leading up to the enlargement, they would be revisited and remain controversial in both the Treaty of Nice and the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe.

The Treaty of Amsterdam was nevertheless a relative success, providing for the creation of a High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) as one means of meeting the established goal of economically and politically strengthening the CFSP, and for the creation of an area of freedom, security, and justice to enhance Justice and Home Affairs. The institutional changes that were agreed upon were largely to the benefit of the European Parliament, increasing the number of decisions to be made by the co-decision procedure and clarifying the procedure itself. The Treaty of Amsterdam also institutionalized flexibility as a working method of the EU in the form of enhanced cooperation.

TREATY OF MAASTRICHT. See TREATY ON EUROPEAN UNION.

TREATY OF NICE. The decision to approve European Union (EU) enlargement to the Central and Eastern European countries implied extensive change for the EU itself in order to accommodate this considerable increase in its membership. Unable to reach agreement regarding the institutional reforms in the intergovernmental conference that prepared the Treaty of Amsterdam, this pre-enlargement necessity became the focus of the Treaty of Nice.

Unlike the previous attempt, the Treaty of Nice contained tangible results. Qualified majority voting will be used as the decision-making method, although more complex, for additional policy areas. There was also a redistribution of the weighted votes in the Council of the EU to account for the candidate countries. In addition, the qualified majority must represent the majority of the member states and at least 62 percent of the EU’s population. The European Commission will have one representative per member state regardless of its size until the EU reaches 27 member states at which time the number of commissioners will be less than that of the member states, based on a rotation to be decided by the Council. The number of possible European parliamentarians was increased to 732, and the number of seats for each member state was reallocated accordingly. Following the enlargement, all required European Council meetings will be held in Brussels.

Despite the apparent progress, the institutional and decision-making reforms included in the Treaty of Nice remained limited, particularly in terms of simplifying the EU and bringing it closer to the people. The treaty was rejected in an Irish referendum held in June 2001, and it was not until the Irish government implemented an intense public relations campaign that this decision was reversed in a second referendum held in October 2002. By the time the treaty entered into force on 1 February 2003, the European Convention was in its third and final stage of drafting the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe. Since this constitutional treaty has not been ratified by all 25 EU member states, the EU will continue to follow the negotiated agreements of the Treaty of Nice.

TREATY OF PARIS. In response to the 9 May 1950 Schuman Declaration proposing to pool the French and German coal and steel industries, an invitation that was accepted by several other Western European countries, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and The Netherlands signed the Treaty of Paris on 18 April 1951, creating the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) which came into effect in August 1952. As per its original stipulations, the Treaty of Paris was in effect for 50 years, expiring on 23 July 2002. This initial Community treaty paved the way for the European integration process as it is known today, providing for the pooling of sovereignty into the ECSC’s High Authority as well as for a highly institutionalized organization.

TREATY ON EUROPEAN UNION (TEU). Otherwise known as the Treaty of Maastricht for the Dutch city in which it was signed in 1992, the TEU marks a significant transition in the history of European integration. Due to its comprehensive and complex nature, negotiations leading to an agreement on this treaty were some of the most intense and extensive in the history of European Union (EU) treaty reforms.

Basically the TEU reorganized European integration into a three-pillar system. The first and fully integrated pillar is the European Community (EC). The second and third pillars, Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) and Justice and Home Affairs (JHA), respectively, are based on intergovernmental cooperation between the member states. Most decisions in the first pillar can be made by qualified majority voting and relate to all policies previously considered part of the EC such as single market, economic, agricultural, and competition policies. The Maastricht Treaty also provided for the economic stages and convergence criteria necessary to complete the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU). Based on a range of broad international objectives, the EU member states agreed to more closely coordinate their foreign policies through common positions and joint actions while the competence remains the responsibility of the member state governments. Therefore, all decisions must be made unanimously as is the case with JHA. This third pillar orignally focused on the EU’s internal security and the coordination of policies related to visas, immigration, and asylum policies, as well as police and judicial cooperation (visas, immigration, and asylum were subsequently moved to the first pillar). This pillar structure served as a foundation for the deepening of integration but will cease to exist if the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe is ratified.

Some of the institutional changes that accompanied the general reorganization within the treaty include the introduction of the European System of Central Banks and the European Central Bank (ECB), the creation of the Committee of the Regions, and additional decision-making powers for the European Parliament (EP). In order to successfully complete all stages of EMU, establishment of the ECB was necessary as an autonomous and independent institution responsible for the management of the single monetary policy and common currency. The Committee of the Regions was, in part, a response to the fact that the majority of EU laws and regulations are implemented at the local and national regional levels, creating a real need for this consultative body as an outlet for those responsible to have their interests heard and considered. The EP, the only EU institution directly elected by the people, has traditionally held the least amount of power, but was granted co-decision legislative power (along with the Council of the EU).

TREVI GROUP. An informal group of senior officials from justice and home ministries of the European Community (EC) member states, the Trevi Group was formed in response to series of terrorist attacks in Europe in the 1970s. Although not within the legal framework of the EC, the Trevi Group began work in 1975 to exchange information and try to coordinate responses to acts affecting the internal security of the EC member states. Over time, the Trevi Group began to address additional security-related issues such as organized crime. With the completion of the single European market, the free movement of people, goods, services, and capital, there was a need to strengthen security on the external borders of the European Union. Justice and Home Affairs was legally institutionalized in the third pillar of the Treaty on European Union.

TRICHET, JEAN-CLAUDE. See EUROPEAN CENTRAL BANK.

TROIKA. There are two troikas in the European Union (EU): one in the context of the rotating presidency and one in the context of external relations. The troika related to the presidency is a system in which the ministers from the member states holding the outgoing, current, and future presidencies collaborate in order to maintain at least minimal continuity in what are otherwise very rapid presidency rotations. In the area of external relations, the troika refers to the international representation of the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) by representatives of the member state holding the EU presidency, the High Representative for the CFSP, and representatives of the European Commission.

TURKEY. Engaged in a prolonged battle for acceptance by Europe, an association agreement between the European Economic Community (EEC) and Turkey first entered into force in 1964. The Turkish government officially applied for full membership in 1987, several years prior to the Central and Eastern European countries that were invited to join the European Union (EU) on 1 May 2004. It was not until the Helsinki Summit in 1999 that Turkey was officially granted candidate status.

Although Turkey became a member of North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1952, relations with the European Community (EC) have been marked by controversy. One question concerns whether or not Turkey is actually a European country in that only approximately 3 percent of its territory is considered to be geographically part of the European continent. Another involves the long-standing hostility between Greece and Turkey that was magnified by the Turkish invasion and occupation of northern Cyprus in 1974. After Greece’s EC accession in 1981, this small southern Mediterranean member state gained the power to influence and, in fact, obstruct the development of closer relations between Turkey and the EC. Turkey’s human rights record has also caused contention, both in terms of the questionable practices of a systematically entrenched military and of the treatment of the large ethnic Kurdish minority.

Furthermore, the internal economic and political dynamic would be considerably altered as a result of Turkish EU membership. Currently, Turkey would have one of the largest populations in the EU, second only to Germany, which means that with no prior experience in the integration process it would have significant weighted influence in the decision-making process in the Council of the EU. Finally, Turkey’s population is approximately 99 percent Muslim, which has caused reservations regarding the traditional religious characteristics of the EU member states and how they may be changed upon Turkish membership.

At the same time, Turkey has demonstrated its willingness to accept and apply the EU membership requirements. While additional work is still necessary, significant progress has been made toward democratization and greater respect for human rights. The Turkish government has amended its penal code and a multitude of laws have been transformed in order to comply with EU criteria. Furthermore, it is argued that Turkey can serve as a bridge between Europe and the Middle East, as it shares borders with Bulgaria, Greece, Georgia, Armenia, Iran, Iraq, and Syria. Based on the undeniable effort made to meet EU standards and the positive political and social reforms reinforced by potential EU membership, in December 2004, the European Council made the decision to commence formal accession negotiations with Turkey. On 3 October 2005, this process was formally initiated. Refer to appendix A.

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UKRAINE. Part of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics until it declared its independence in 1991, Ukraine has made a transition to democracy and a developing market economy. Ukraine, bordering three of the May 2004 enlargement countries (Hungary, Poland, and Slovakia) as well as candidate country, Romania, is of key strategic importance to the European Union (EU). In this context, Ukraine is considered a priority country in the European Neighborhood Policy. A Partnership and Cooperation Agreement was signed between the EU and Ukraine on 14 June 1994 which went into effect on 1 March 1998. Ukraine (along with Russia) receives the most funding from the Technical Assistance for the Commonwealth of Independent States (TACIS) program, and a joint EU–Ukraine Action plan was adopted on 21 February 2005. The main policy areas addressed in EU–Ukraine relations and included in the Action Plan are: the approximation of Ukraine’s legislation with that of the EU; energy; environmental protection; trade and investment; transport and infrastructure; cross-border cooperation; science and technology; and justice and home affairs. Political dialogue between the EU and Ukraine focuses on four general issue areas: security threats; democracy and human rights; regional and international issues; and disarmament and non-proliferation.

With opposition public protests and a political crisis in Ukraine emerging after the presidential elections held on 21 November 2004, and reports from international organizations that the elections did not meet democratic standards, the EU played a major role in trying to ensure a peaceful resolution to the conflict. The EU monitored the electoral process in Ukraine and financially supported the Election Observation Mission to the repeat elections on 26 December 2004. Following a smooth and peaceful resolution of this short-lived crisis, relations between the EU and Ukraine were enhanced, particularly with the adoption of the EU–Ukraine Action Plan.

UNION FOR EUROPE OF THE NATIONS GROUP (UEN). The UEN is the smallest of the parliamentary groups in the 2004–2009 European Parliament (EP) with 27 members of the EP from six member states: Denmark, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland. The main interests of this political group are preserving regional identities, as well as protecting and respecting rural populations and their ways of life.

UNITED KINGDOM (UK). While the six founding members of European integration were developing the original European Communities and even attempting to create a European Defence Community, the British had a different idea regarding how this process should evolve. Favoring a more intergovernmental, free trade–based approach rather than the supranational style of integration espoused by the European Community (EC), the UK founded the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) through the signing of the Stockholm Convention on 4 January 1960, with the participation of six other European countries (Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, and Switzerland). With only a few years experience, however, it became apparent that the advantages of membership in the European Communities greatly surpassed those of the EFTA, and by 9 August 1961, the UK had submitted its first application for membership in the EC.

The UK’s economic commitments to EFTA and the Commonwealth along with its strong ties to the United States complicated the accession negotiations, and British membership was vetoed by French President Charles de Gaulle in January 1963. Insistent upon gaining access to the trade and investment benefits associated with EC membership, the UK submitted its second application for membership in May 1967, which was subsequently rejected once again by de Gaulle. It was not until his resignation and the election of Georges Pompidou to the French presidency in 1969 that Britain’s application was accepted on terms leading to approval. On 1 January 1973, the UK (along with Denmark and Ireland) joined the EC; a large state whose membership would continuously be characterized by its resolute Euro-skepticism.

When Margaret Thatcher became British prime minister in May 1979, concerns regarding Britain’s EC budgetary responsibility became a consistent component of the EC agenda. Due to the UK’s import and export patterns, particularly in the agricultural sector, its contributions far exceeded its compensation. The undeniably valid British claims were resolved in 1984 by a 66 percent rebate on its yearly budgetary payment. Recent suggestions to reopen discussions regarding the rebate have been flatly rejected by the British government.

In the 1990s, Britain’s outbreak of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE), commonly known as mad cow disease, created a public health crisis throughout the European Union (EU) and, on 27 March 1996, the EU imposed a ban on British beef in an effort to prevent the spread of BSE. Although the European Commission formally lifted the ban in 1999, France tried to unilaterally maintain it on claims that British beef still represented a health risk. After years of disputes, embittered relations, and a case brought to the European Court of Justice (ECJ), on 2 October 2002, France finally agreed to resume importation of British beef and beef products.

As the EC moved toward a single market and its transformation into the EU in the 1980s and 1990s, there has been a series of policies in which the UK has opted not to participate. As a result of the UK’s staunch opposition, the proposed Social Charter was not included in the Treaty on the European Union (TEU) despite the support of the 11 other member states. (These member states were able to engage in policy and decision-making under the auspices of the EU institutions as the UK allowed for the Social Protocol to be attached to but not included in the TEU as long as it would not be subject to its regulations.) It was not until a transition to the Labourled British government in May 1997 that the Social Protocol was approved by the UK, enabling its full inclusion in the Treaty of Amsterdam. The UK, along with Ireland, does not belong to the Schengen Agreement, and therefore is not part of the common travel and visa zone that exists between the continental EU member states.

Finally, and perhaps most visibly, the UK did not adopt the euro as its national currency, and along with other pre-2004 enlargement EU member states, Denmark and Sweden, remains outside of the euro zone. There are five internal tests that must be passed before the UK will apply for the third stage of Economic and Monetary Union (EMU). In an assessment conducted in June 2003, the British Treasury determined that while the UK was making progress, there were no clear indications that the test criteria were sustainable or that adopting the euro was in the best national interest at that time. This general British reluctance has disconcerted many who believe the integration process should evolve uniformly. Refer to appendix A.

UNITED STATES (U.S.). Since the end of World War II, the United States has been involved in European affairs economically, politically and militarily. In the early postwar period, the United States allocated billions of dollars in aid for postwar European recovery through the Marshall Plan, which required the European recipients to jointly develop and elaborate projects in order to receive the funding. The United States controlled one of the four German occupied zones that were established through the Potsdam Agreement until the western allies permitted the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1949. U.S. membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) ensured its consistent military involvement in the region, providing a guaranteed force of security in the case of an attack during the Cold War, and focusing on peacekeeping, peacemaking, and crisis management in the post–Cold War period.

Given U.S. strategic interests in the region and its strong bilateral relations with many of the European countries, the United States closely followed the developments of the European Community (EC) and established diplomatic relations early on in the integration process. The European Commission has been represented by a delegation in Washington, D.C., since 1954, and was granted full diplomatic privileges comparable to any nation-state’s embassy by 1971. The U.S. Mission to the European Communities in Brussels was established in 1961.

Close relations and cooperation between the United States and the European Union (EU) have not been absent of conflicts; from the early years of the EC to the present, trade disputes have been unavoidable and differing positions on some international crises and issues have caused political tensions. While the trade dispute over steel and the conflict regarding the 2003 U.S. intervention in Iraq receive the most media exposure, trade disputes between the United States and the EU concern less than 2 percent of their overall trade volume, and in terms of foreign policy both the EU and the United States uphold similar values regarding open markets, democracy, and human rights but do not always agree on the methods of achieving their mutual international goals. It has often been difficult, and perhaps confusing, for U.S. representatives to deal with the EU in this area given the intergovernmental nature of the EU’s foreign policy competence and the number of officials involved in the policy-making process. In many cases the United States relies on its alliances with individual member states and the relative ease of negotiations with their governments to consult and cooperate in foreign policy issues.

Transatlantic relations are sustained and cultivated through regular presidential EU–U.S. summits. Economic relations are extensive with the EU and the United States which are each others’ main trading partner and primary source of foreign direct investment. On 3 December 1995, the New Transatlantic Agenda (NTA) was signed at the EU–U.S. Summit in Madrid. Supplemented by a Joint EU–U.S. Action Plan, the NTA is designed to enhance bilateral relations and commit to active cooperation in four major areas: promoting peace, stability, development, and democracy throughout the world; responding to global challenges, contributing to the expansion of world trade and closer economic relations; and building bridges across the Atlantic. At the EU–U.S. Summit of May 1998, agreements were made on new initiatives for the Transatlantic Economic Partnership, focusing on bilateral trade agreements and institutionalized discourse on multilateral trade issues. A Joint Statement on “People to People” links was issued at the December 1998 EU–U.S. Summit, resulting in Transatlantic Dialogues between legislators, the business community, consumer organizations, environmental organizations, and between the European Trade Union College (ETUCO) and the American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO). In addition, in 1998, the European Commission launched a program to establish a network of European Union Centers in the United States Providing information, improving education, and promoting transatlantic understanding through research and programs; there are 10 of these Centers located at different universities throughout the country.

URUGUAY ROUND. One of the most complex and comprehensive negotiating rounds of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the Uruguay Round originally contained 15 subjects for discussion including tariffs, non-tariff barriers, trade in textiles, and anti-dumping measures. Negotiations on an issue particularly sensitive to the European Union (EU), which the EU had previously been successful in omitting from GATT negotiating rounds, trade in agricultural products, were also on the Uruguay Round agenda, and encouraged reforms to the Common Agricultural Policy. During the Uruguay Round, agreement was reached on the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), and the establishment of the World Trade Organization (WTO) to include formal and binding dispute settlement procedures. The Uruguay Round was launched in September 1986 in Uruguay, concluded in December 1993 in Switzerland, and signed by the trade ministers in April 1994 in Morocco. By the time of conclusion of the round, 123 countries were participating in the negotiations.

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VAN GEND EN LOOS. In this 1963 case brought before the Dutch national court, one of the main principles of EC law was established—the principle of direct effect. The Dutch company brought the case against the Dutch government claiming its rights under the Treaty of Rome had been violated when the Dutch government imposed a new tariff on a product van Gend en Loos was importing into The Netherlands. The Dutch court referred the case to the European Court of Justice (ECJ) for a preliminary ruling. The ECJ ruled that indeed the tariff was illegal according to the treaty which called for a transition period in the development of the free trade area and customs union during which no new tariffs were allowed to be imposed. Furthermore, and having the greatest impact, the ECJ ruled that EC law had a direct effect, and therefore, was directly applicable and entitled individuals, companies, and governments and other legal entities within the EC with certain rights and responsibilities under its treaties.

VEIL, SIMONE (1927– ). The first female cabinet minister in France, Simone Veil was minister of health from 1974 to 1979. In 1979, Veil became the first president of the directly elected European Parliament (EP), a post she held until 1982. She served three consecutive terms in the EP, from 1979 to 1993, when she was appointed minister of state for social affairs, health, and urban affairs, maintaining this position until 1995. The president of the French Senate appointed Veil to the Constitutional Council in February 1998, where she now serves as one of France’s highest judges. Refer to appendix D.

VISA POLICY. The completion of the single European market, and particularly the free movement of people, emphasized the need to have a common visa policy. This would be particularly important for those member countries of the Schengen Agreements. For these countries there is a common list of countries from which citizens are required to obtain a visa for entry into the European Union (EU) and common requirements for people from those countries to meet in order to be granted a visa for travel to the EU.

VOTING. In the Council of the European Union (EU), the main decision-making institution of the EU, the two principal official forms of voting on the adoption of proposed legislation are unanimity and qualified majority voting (QMV). In practice, however, the great majority of the decisions made in the EU, regardless of the issue at hand, are made by consensus.

In general, unanimity is required for issues related to the more intergovernmental second and third pillars of the EU, Common Foreign and Security Policy and Justice and Home Affairs, respectively. QMV is used for issues related to the single market, competition policy, and most other issues of the first pillar of the EU, the European Community. In QMV, each country, relatively based on the size of its population, is assigned a number of votes. Legislation is passed when the minimum number of total possible votes is attained. Prior to the Treaty of Nice, a qualified majority was reached with 62 out of a total 87 votes, with the member state vote distribution as follows:

Germany, France, Italy, United Kingdom	10
Spain	8
Belgium, Greece, The Netherlands, Portugal	5
Austria, Sweden	4
Denmark, Ireland, Finland	3
Luxembourg	2
Total	87

In order to accommodate the 2004 enlargement process, a redistribution of votes was incorporated in the Treaty of Nice. In addition to the new member state weightings, a qualified majority would also require support from the majority of the member states, as well as verification that the qualified majority votes represent at least 62 percent of the overall EU population if specifically requested. In effect since 1 November 2004, a qualified majority based on the Nice agreement is reached with 232 votes out of a total of 321, with the member state vote distribution as follows:

Germany, France, Italy, United Kingdom	29
Spain, Poland	27
The Netherlands	13
Belgium, Czech Republic, Greece, Hungary, Portugal	12
Austria, Sweden	10
Denmark, Ireland, Lithuania, Slovakia, Finland	7
Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Luxembourg, Slovenia	4
Malta	3
Total	321

One of the most controversial topics of negotiations for the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe was the allocation of votes in the qualified majority voting system. The final compromise was one of “double majority” voting to begin in 2009, in which 55 percent of the member states representing more than 65 percent of the population would be needed to pass legislation. The transition to this system in 2009 remains contingent upon future ratification and implementation of this constitutional treaty.

VRIES, GIJS DE. A Dutch politician of the Dutch People’s Party for Freedom and Democracy, Gijs de Vries was a member of the European Parliament in what is known today as the Group of the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe. He served in his government as deputy interior minister from 1998 to 2002. He was also a member of the European Convention responsible for drafting the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe. On 25 March 2004, Gijs de Vries was appointed to the newly created post of counterterrorism coordinator for the European Union (EU), responsible for coordinating information and responses between member states and the EU and proposing better and more efficient options for the EU in its fight against terrorism.

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WERNER REPORT. On 8 October 1970, Pierre Werner, who was the prime minister of Luxembourg from 1959 to 1974 and 1979 to 1984, proposed the completion of Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) for the European Community (EC) by 1980 in what is known as the Werner Report. Werner’s plan called for a three-stage process in which economic and monetary policy would become a competence of the EC, a single currency would be created with the fixing of exchange rates between the currencies of the member states, and a European system of central banks would be created. At the time, the plan was unsuccessful and its goals were abandoned in the early 1970s. Nevertheless, the Delors Report, which did lead to Economic and Monetary Union in the 1990s, was based in part on the Werner Report.

WESTERN EUROPEAN UNION (WEU). Created through the signing of the Brussels Treaty on Economic, Social and Cultural Collaboration and Collective Self-Defense by Belgium, France, Luxembourg, The Netherlands and the United Kingdom (UK) on 17 March 1948, the WEU was an instrument for closer cooperation between its signatories as well as a mutual defense mechanism. On 23 October 1954, the Paris Agreements were signed, amending the Brussels Treaty, reestablishing the WEU, and including Italy and West Germany in this organization. For the first half of the 1950s, it had been expected that the Federal Republic of Germany would be reintegrated into the western security structure through the European Defence Community (EDC). However, upon the rejection of the EDC by the French parliament in August 1954, the WEU became an alternative option. The WEU was the means through which West Germany became a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in May 1955. It also served as a liaison between the European Community (EC) and the UK until the latter became an EC member state on 1 January 1973. From that point until 1984, the WEU was essentially inactive.

The adoption of the Rome Declaration at a meeting of the foreign and defense ministers on 26–27 October 1984 reactivated the WEU. The objectives of this renewed agreement include the institutionalization of consultation on defense matters, strengthening of western European security, and working toward harmonizing defense policies among its members.

Throughout the 1990s, there were some significant developments within the WEU and between the WEU and the European Union (EU). In 1993, WEU headquarters were moved from London to Brussels, the host city of both NATO and many of the EU institutions. The option of the Council to unanimously request the WEU to carry out EU policies with defense implications was included in the Treaty on European Union. In 1992, the WEU adopted the Petersberg Declaration outlining the types of tasks (humanitarian, peacekeeping, peacemaking, and crisis management missions) in which the organization would become involved. These Petersberg tasks were adopted by the EU and incorporated in the 1997 Treaty of Amsterdam. When the Treaty of Nice went into effect on 1 February 2003, the WEU was fully incorporated into the EU as a part of the EU’s defense policy.

WHITE PAPER. White Papers are documents published by the European Commission that contain proposals for incorporating additional issue areas into the European Union agenda. If the proposals outlined in the White Paper are accepted by the Council, they may be the basis for EU action programs in that particular area.

WIDENING. Widening is a term used to refer to the enlargement of the European Union to include new member states.

WILSON, HAROLD (1916–1995). A British Labour politician, Harold Wilson was a member of the House of Commons from 1945 to 1983. He was British prime minister from 1964 to 1970 and from 1974 to 1976, when he resigned from this position.

In 1967, while Wilson held the premiership, the United Kingdom (UK) submitted its second application for membership in the European Community (EC), a petition that was vetoed by French President Charles de Gaulle. While Edward Heath, Wilson’s political rival, was head of government from 1970 to 1974, Heath successfully negotiated the UK’s membership in the EC. When Wilson resumed office in 1974, he pledged to renegotiate the terms of the UK’s membership and to hold a referendum on the results of the renegotiation. This referendum asking whether or not the UK should remain in the EC was held on 5 June 1975 with more than 60 percent of the electorate turning out to vote and more than 60 percent of the voters favoring continued UK membership in the EC.

After Wilson resigned as prime minister in 1976, he remained a member of the House of Commons until 1983. He was subsequently named Lord Wilson of Rievaulx. Harold Wilson died on 24 May 1995.

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION (WTO). Although proposed in the aftermath of World War II, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) served as the world’s predominant arena for international trade negotiations until the WTO was finally established following the end of the Uruguay Round in 1995. The WTO is now the only international organization responsible for setting the rules of global trade. Located in Geneva, Switzerland, the WTO has 149 members. Since 2005, the Director-General of the WTO is Pascal Lamy, a former European Commissioner for trade.

In addition to incorporating agreements on services and intellectual property rights, the WTO is distinct from the GATT in that it contains a permanent Dispute Settlement Body and an Appellate Body, and can enforce the rules of its dispute decisions by allowing for trade sanctions if there is not compliance with the rules. The WTO also has a Ministerial Conference, its main decision-making body, which is composed of representatives of all of the WTO’s members.

The European Commission almost always represents the member states of the EU with a single voice in the WTO. At the same time the EU has been pushing for greater global trade liberalization, it has been pushed to make changes to some protectionist measures, particularly in the agricultural industry, in order to comply with WTO rules. The EU has been both the claimant and defendant in several high-profile trade dispute cases. It plays a leading role in the WTO and the trade liberalization negotiations including the current Doha Round.

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YAOUNDE AGREEMENT. Former colonies of the European Union (EU) member states maintain close relations with the EU through development aid and preferential trade agreements signed between these countries, or groups of countries, and the EU and its member states. The first of these agreements, the Yaoundé Agreement, was negotiated in 1963 between the European Community (EC) and 17 francophone countries of the Associated African States and by Madagascar. A second Yaoundé Agreement was signed in 1969. By 1975, the Yaoundé Agreements were succeeded by the more comprehensive Lomé Convention between the EC and, at the time, 46 African–Caribbean–Pacific countries.

YUGOSLAVIA (FORMER). In 1991, after 40 years of relative peace and stability in Europe, a violent conflict erupted in Yugoslavia that would last until after the turn of the century. From brief independent secessionist movements to humanitarian crises, the Yugoslav wars posed serious concerns for regional security and stability. As an indication of the need to improve its foreign policy and enhance the instruments with which to carry it out, the European Union (EU) was independently unable to successfully respond to this crisis on its borders. In 1995, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) initiated a peacemaking mission in Bosnia-Herzegovina, and, following the settlement agreed to in the Dayton Accords, led the subsequent peacekeeping and stabilization forces.

By mid-1999, the EU was able to assume a more consolidated approach toward the former Yugoslavia. Considering the Western Balkan republics as potential future EU candidate countries, the EU developed the Stability Pact for Southeastern Europe and agreed to begin Stabilization and Association Agreements with these countries. In this context, in 2001, the Community Assistance for Reconstruction, Development, and Stability in the Balkans (CARDS) program was established in order to provide these countries with financial assistance aimed at increasing their capacity to meet economic, political, and human rights candidacy criteria.

Demonstrating that it is no longer restricted to diplomatic and economic instruments to respond to regional conflict, in 2003, the EU implemented its first two missions as part of the European Security and Defence Policy in the former Yugoslavia, one in Bosnia-Herzegovina, and one in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. On 2 December 2004, the EU replaced NATO as the primary peacekeeping force in Bosnia-Herzegovina.

In June 2003, the European Council declared that all of the Western Balkan countries would be eligible for EU membership upon progress and reforms in specified areas including economic development, democracy, stability, and the rule of law. One of the former Yugoslav republics, Slovenia, became an EU member state on 1 May 2004. Croatia submitted an application for membership in the EU in February 2003, and was officially granted candidacy status at the European Council meeting in June 2004. The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia submitted its application for EU membership on 22 March 2004 and is awaiting official candidate status. While there is still no timetable established for the other Western Balkan countries, the EU has reiterated its pledge for partnership, and eventually membership, for these former Yugoslav republics.