Palgrave Studies in Nineteenth-Century Writing and Culture

Series Editor

Joseph Bristow

Department of English, University of California - Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA

Palgrave Studies in Nineteenth-Century Writing and Culture is a monograph series that aims to represent the most innovative research on literary works that were produced in the English-speaking world from the time of the Napoleonic Wars to the fin de siécle. Attentive to the historical continuities between ‘Romantic’ and ‘Victorian’, the series will feature studies that help scholarship to reassess the meaning of these terms during a century marked by diverse cultural, literary, and political movements. The main aim of the series is to look at the increasing influence of types of historicism on our understanding of literary forms and genres. It reflects the shift from critical theory to cultural history that has affected not only the period 1800-1900 but also every field within the discipline of English literature. All titles in the series seek to offer fresh critical perspectives and challenging readings of both canonical and non-canonical writings of this era.

More information about this series at http://​www.​palgrave.​com/​gp/​series/​14607

Carla Manfredi

Robert Louis Stevenson’s Pacific ImpressionsPhotography and Travel Writing, 1888–1894

Carla Manfredi

University of Winnipeg, Winnipeg, MB, Canada

Palgrave Studies in Nineteenth-Century Writing and Culture

ISBN 978-3-319-98312-7e-ISBN 978-3-319-98313-4

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98313-4

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018954349

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

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Cover illustration: The City of Edinburgh Council Museums & Galleries

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To Peter

Note on Terminology and Spelling

In 1832, the French botanist and explorer Jules Sébastien César Dumont D’Urville proposed his tripartite division of the Pacific in his essay Sur les îles du grand océan ( On the Islands of the Great Ocean ). D’Urville classified the areas encompassing the islands of the Pacific Ocean into three categories: “Polynesia” (“many islands”), “Micronesia” (“small islands”), and “Melanesia” (“black islands”). In his Pacific writings, Robert Louis Stevenson uses all three terms, but he also refers to the region as the “South Seas” (in use in English since the early seventeenth century [ OED 2a]). In contrast, I rely on the term “Pacific Islands” to refer to the geographical and cultural areas commonly known as Polynesia (the collection of islands within the “triangle” comprised of the Hawaiian archipelago to the north, Aotearoa/New Zealand to the southwest, and Rapanui to the east), Micronesia (the islands lying east of the Philippines, from Palau, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands through the Federated States of Micronesia, Nauru, and the Marshall Islands to Kiribati), and Melanesia (the islands located north east of Australia, including New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, and Fiji). Despite increasing academic dissatisfaction with D’Urville’s tripartite cultural classification (e.g., Thomas 1989) and the uneasy association of culture with race, scholars recognize the usefulness of the terms as broadly similar groupings (Linnekin 1997a, 9). Thus, while I acknowledge the ongoing debates within Pacific scholarship concerning terminology, this book uses the tripartite division. Throughout this book I capitalize “Islanders” when referring to people of the Pacific Islands and I use lowercase for general or nonspecific terms such as the central Pacific, low-lying Pacific islands, or Pacific islands photography, but not for the Pacific Islands region.

Stevenson and his family’s spellings of proper names are far from being consistent; therefore, I have regularized, except in the case of direct quotations, their otherwise inconsistent spellings. When I am not citing from Stevenson or other nineteenth-century sources, I follow the most recent standardized spelling (words appearing in Pacific Island languages are italicized). In doing so, I have relied on the 2nd edition of Lee S. Motteler’s (2006) Pacific Island Names: A Map and Name Guide to the New Pacific . I also follow Motteler in my use of diacritical marks—the glottal stop (‘) and the macron (ā)—for Hawaiian and Samoan (not for Anglicized derivatives). For Marquesan, I have relied on Dordillon’s (2007) Grammaire et dictionnaire de la langue Marquisienne (La Société des Études Océaniennes), which does not use the glottal stop but, instead, indicates stressed vowels with an acute accent.

Acknowledgments

Many people have contributed to this project. I give warm thanks to my PhD supervisor Chris Bongie of the Department of English, Queen’s University, who guided me through the doctoral thesis from which this book grew. Today, I realize that I have adopted many elements of Prof. B’s writing style, namely his tendency to ask: “What’s at stake?”

Many thanks also to the wonderful curatorial staff at The Writers’ Museum (Edinburgh). Denise Brace helped me tremendously in the early stages of my research while Nicolas Tyack assisted in the final stages. To both, I give heartfelt thanks for the support that they have given me over the years, and for their friendship. My doctoral research at The Writers’ Museum was generously funded by an Institute for Historical Research Mellon Dissertation Fellowship (University College London).

I was privileged to be the recipient of a Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada Postdoctoral Fellowship which I held in the Department of History, University of Hawai‘i-Mānoa. I am grateful to the colleagues and friends I made while living and working in Honolulu: David Hanlon, David Chappell, and Lorenz Gonschor. Their expertise and commitment to Oceania are truly inspiring. Peter Hoffenberg and Craig Howes each deserve special thanks. Not only did Peter encourage my application for the postdoc, but he has been a tireless supporter of mine since we met in 2010 at The Victorian Interdisciplinary Studies Association of the Western United States in Honolulu. Peter introduced me to Craig, a fellow Canadian, to whom I owe a large debt of personal and professional gratitude. Within weeks of my arrival, Craig had taken me on the first of many dazzling early-morning runs around Diamond Head and pointed out the neighboring island of Moloka‘i. Craig’s quasi-encyclopedic knowledge of and passion for Hawaiian history, language, and politics were both daunting and energizing.

Three institutions helped to support financially the final revisions of this manuscript. I received fellowships from the Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library (Yale University), the Huntington Library (San Marino), and the American Philosophical Society. The APS Franklin Grant permitted me to be a fellow at the Institute of Advanced Studies in the Humanities at the University of Edinburgh (Summer 2017). My thanks also to the Center for Biographical Research (University of Hawai‘i-Mānoa), which hosted me as a visiting scholar in Fall 2017.

Thanks to my family and friends for patience and good spirits throughout the process of writing this book: my mother, Françoise; my parents-in-laws, Sheila and Tom; my good friends, Jenn and Jaspreet; and my newest friend and colleague, Melissa. My dearest friend Julia has never stopped encouraging me and can make me laugh like nobody else. Thanks also to my father, despite everything.

Finally, I owe my deepest thanks to my partner Peter Miller. His convictions, energy, and tireless curiosity buoyed me to this book’s completion.

A Select Chronology

Colonialism in the Pacific Islands	Robert Louis Stevenson
1840: annexation of Aotearoa/New Zealand by Great Britain
1842: annexation of the Marquesas by France
1844: establishment of a protectorate over Tahiti by France
	1850: Robert Louis Stevenson born in Edinburgh
1853: annexation of New Caledonia by France
1874: annexation of Fiji by Great Britain
1877: establishment of the Western Pacific High Commission by Great Britain
1880: annexation of Tahiti by France
1881: formation of the colony of French Polynesia
1883: declaration of sovereignty over New Guinea by Queensland	1883: publication of Treasure Island
1884: meeting of European powers at the Berlin Conference
1886: negotiation of a treaty of annexation over New Guinea by Germany and Great Britain	1886: publication of Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde and Kidnapped 1886–1887: The Hawaiian embassy to Sāmoa
1887: David Kalākaua signs the “Bayonet Constitution”
	June 1888: Stevenson leaves San Francisco aboard the Casco . Begins writing “Journal of Two Visits to the South Seas” (Huntington, MS. 2412)
	January 1889: arrival of the Casco in Honolulu
	June 1889: departure of the Equator from Honolulu
	December 1889: arrival of the Equator at Apia, Sāmoa
	January 1890: Stevenson purchases Vailima (Sāmoa)
	November 1890: Twenty-two copies of The South Seas: A Record of Three Cruises are printed in London
	December 1890: publication of Ballads (includes “The Feast of Famine: Marquesan Manners”)
	1891: departure of the Janet Nicoll from Sydney
	February–December 1891: “South Sea” letters serialized in the New York Sun February–December 1891: “South Sea” letters serialized in Black and White
	1892: publication of A Footnote to History: Eight Years of Trouble in Samoa
1893: overthrow of the Hawaiian Monarchy by the United States	1893: publication of Island Nights’ Entertainment (“The Beach of Falesá”; “The Bottle Imp”; “The Isle of Voices”)
	August 1894: publication of The Ebb-Tide: A Trio and a Quartette
	December 1894: Stevenson dies at Vailima
	1896: publication of In the South Seas
1898: annexation of Guam by the United States
1899: partition of the Samoan archipelago between Germany and the United States
1906: establishment of a condominium over Vanuatu (New Hebrides) by Great Britain and France
1914: capture of German Samoa by New Zealand	1914: publication of Fanny Van de Grift Stevenson’s The Cruise of the ‘Janet Nichol’ Among the South Sea Islands

Abbreviations

“FF”

“The Feast of Famine” (2003)

FH

A Footnote to History: Eight Years of Trouble in Samoa (1996)

“HT”

“The House of Tembinoka” (2003)

ISS

In the South Seas (1996)

JN

The Diary of the Cruise of the ‘Janet Nichol’ by Mrs. Robert Louis Stevenson (2004)

Letters

The Letters of Robert Louis Stevenson (1994–1995)

LSH

Lady Stair’s House (The Writers’ Museum)

“PI”

“A Pearl Island: Penrhyn” (1891)

OSA

Our Samoan Adventure (1955)

Contents

1 Introduction:​ Stevenson and Early Photography in the Pacific Islands 1

2 “We Savages”:​ Cannibal Performances in the Marquesas 27

3 “An Extraordinary State of Affairs”:​ The Hawaiian Embassy to Sāmoa 69

4 “Incongruities of Scale”:​ Encountering the Atolls of Kiribati 105

5 “Native Movement”: Islanders and the Janet Nicoll 151

6 “Little House in the Bush”:​ Specters of Vailima 187

7 Conclusion 221

Appendix:​ About Robert Louis Stevenson’s Photograph Albums 225

References 229

Index 249

List of Figures ¹

Fig. 2.1 “Moipu (chief of Atuona, Marquesas Islands) dancing (from sketch)” (Album LSH 150/91)29

 

Fig. 2.2 “Hakaiki Moipu, dispossessed chief of Atuona, in war costume” (Album LSH 150/91)51

 

Fig. 2.3 “Moipu, the captain and Lloyd” (Album LSH 150/91)52

 

Fig. 2.4 “Moipu and Paaaeua, as the past and present in Atuona” (Album LSH 150/91)54

 

Fig. 2.5 “Mr Lloyd Osbourne in Marquesas chief’s full dress” (Album LSH 150/91)56

 

Fig. 2.6 “Leg of Vaitepu with tattooing. The present queen of Marquesas Is., from sketch” (Album LSH 150/91)60

 

Fig. 3.1 “Coast view, Malua”83

 

Fig. 3.2 “A pair of warriors”84

 

Fig. 3.3 “A fighting man”85

 

Fig. 3.4 “A fisherman”86

 

Fig. 3.5 “Preparing a chicken for a meal”88

 

Fig. 3.6 “A family”88

 

Fig. 4.1 “King Tebureimoa, Queen, army artillery and national colours. Taken in front of the palace. Butaritari” (Album LSH 149/91)115

 

Fig. 4.2 “Same” [Joe Strong showing his teeth] (Album LSH 149/91)117

 

Fig. 4.3 “Butaritari: – Maka and Mary Maka, Kanoa and Mrs. Maria Kanoa—Hawaiian Missionaries of the American Board of Missions, Honolulu” (Album LSH 149/91)122

 

Fig. 4.4 “King Tembenoka writing the ‘History of Apemama’ in an account book” (Album LSH 149/91)130

 

Fig. 4.5 “The king’s carriage—as seen from the flank” (Album LSH 149/91)134

 

Fig. 4.6 “King of Apemama and adopted son” (Album LSH 149/91)135

 

Fig. 4.7 “Same” [King of Apemama and adopted son] (Album LSH 149/91)136

 

Fig. 4.8 “King Tembenoka with adopted son—standing to the front of wives” (Album LSH 149/91)137

 

Fig. 4.9 “Attempt to start a dance in open air” (Album LSH 149/91)141

 

Fig. 4.10 “Two dancing girls from Little Makin–Gilbert Islands. Belong to dancers brought by chief Karaiti to Butaritari to compete with local dancers” (Album LSH 149/91)142

 

Fig. 4.11 “Same” [Dancers from Little Makin] (Album LSH 149/91)143

 

Fig. 5.1 “A few of King Tembenoka’s wives arranging their luggage on ‘J. Nicoll’” (Album LSH 153/91)163

 

Fig. 5.2 “Harem and little son of King Tembenoka (naked) on their passage from Arinuka to Apemama—Kingsmill Islands” (Album LSH 153/91)164

 

Fig. 5.3 “Part of King’s suite on board ‘J. Nicoll’” (Album LSH 153/91)165

 

Fig. 5.4 “Kingsmill Islands: King Tembenoka and suite leaving ‘J. Nicoll’ at the King’s Island of Apemama. King’s gig waiting for King and wives” (Album LSH 153/91)166

 

Fig. 5.5 “Same” [Women leaving the Janet Nichol at Abemama] (Album LSH 153/91) 167

 

Fig. 5.6 “Black boys setting sail on ‘Janet Nicoll’” (Album LSH 153/91)173

 

Fig. 5.7 “Little girls singing—Penryn” (Album LSH 153/91)175

 

Fig. 6.1 “Bush round Vailima” (Album LSH 151/91)188

 

Fig. 6.2 “Another view of R.L.S. house height of trees and general backwood appearance” (Album LSH 151/91)189

 

Fig. 6.3 [Isobel’s sketch of Vailima property] (Album LSH 151/91)190

 

Fig. 6.4 [John Davis group of family and household on Vailima verandah] (Album LSH 151/91)213

 

Footnotes

1

All images have been reproduced with the permission of the City of Edinburgh Council Museums and Galleries: The Writers’ Museum. Figures 3.1 to 3.6 are the author’s, taken with the permission of the Hawai‘i State Archive (Kekāuluohi Building). All captions are as they appear in the original Robert Louis Stevenson photograph albums.