Canada’s Residential Schools: The Legacy: Volume 5

Notes

Introduction

1. Canadian Department of Citizenship and Immigration, Report of Indian Affairs Branch for the Fiscal Year Ended March 31, 1954, 88–89.

2. TRC, NRA, INAC file 6-21-1, volume 2, H. M. Jones to Deputy Minister, 13 December 1956. [NCA-001989-0001]

3. For a discussion that places both child welfare and residential schools in the context of the ongoing colonization of Aboriginal people, see McKenzie and Hudson, “Native Children.”

4. Sinha and Kozlowski, “The Structure of Aboriginal Child Welfare in Canada,” l.

5. Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1942, 154; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1943, 168; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1944, 177; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1945, 190; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1946, 231; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1947, 236; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1948, 234; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1948, 234; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1949, 215; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1950, 86–87; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1951, 34–35; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1952, 74–75; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1953, 82–83; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1954, 88–89; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1955, 78–79; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1956, 76–77; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1956–57, 88–89; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1958, 91; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1959, 94; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1960, 94; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1961, 102; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1962, 73; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1963, 62.

6. Canadian Human Rights Commission, Report on Equality Rights of Aboriginal People, 3, 12, 32.

7. Wilson and Macdonald, The Income Gap, 14.

8. Macdonald and Wilson, Poverty or Prosperity, 6.

9. Assembly of First Nations, Breaking the Silence, 25–26.

10. TRC, AVS, Conrad Burns, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Regina, Saskatchewan, 17 January 2012, Statement Number: SP036.

11. According to UNCESO, 36% of Canada’s Aboriginal languages are critically endangered, 18% are severely endangered, and 16% are definitely endangered. The remaining languages are all vulnerable. Moseley and Nicolas, UNESCO Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger, 117.

12. Canada, Statistics Canada, Aboriginal Peoples and Language.

13. Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 3957, file 140754-1, P. H. Bryce to F. Pedley, 5 November 1909.

14. For long-term differences in the Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal tuberculosis death rates in Canada, see Wherrett, The Miracle of the Empty Beds, 251–253.

15. Taylor, “Grollier Meeting Emotional,”Northern News.

16. Kirmayer et al., Suicide among Aboriginal People, xv, 22.

17. Canada, Indian Residential Schools Adjudication Secretariat, “Adjudication Secretariat Statistics from September 19, 2007 to January 31, 2015.” By the spring of 2015, over $2.8 billion in compensation had been awarded for sexual and serious physical abuse. Canada, Indian Residential Schools Adjudication Secretariat, “Adjudication Secretariat Statistics.”

18. Perreault, “Aboriginal Adults Are Overrepresented.”

19. Perreault, “Aboriginal Adults Are Overrepresented.”

20. Perreault, “Aboriginal Youth Are Over-Represented.”

21. Canada, Public Health Agency of Canada, “Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder”; Ospina and Dennett, Systematic Review, iii.

22. Canada, Public Safety Canada, Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder, 5.

23. MacPherson, Chudley, and Grant, Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder, iv.

24. A study done for the Aboriginal Healing Foundation drew links between the intergenerational trauma of residential schools, alcohol addictions, and the prevalence of FASD in Aboriginal communities. Tait, Fetal Alcohol Syndrome.

25. Perrerault, “Violent Victimization of Aboriginal People.”

26. Brennan, “Violent Victimization of Aboriginal Women.”

27. Canada, Royal Canadian Mounted Police, Missing and Murdered Aboriginal Women, 3.

Child welfare: A system in crisis

1. Canadian Department of Citizenship and Immigration, Report of Indian Affairs Branch for the Fiscal Year Ended March 31, 1954, 88–89.

2. Hughes, The Legacy of Phoenix Sinclair, 2:448.

3. TRC, AVS, Kay Adams, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Goose Bay, Newfoundland and Labrador, 20 September 2011, Statement Number: SP025.

4. TRC, AVS, Tim McNeil, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Goose Bay, Newfoundland and Labrador, 20 September 2011, Statement Number: SP025.

5. The complaint of inequitable funding was brought by the Assembly of First Nations and the First Nations Child & Family Caring Society of Canada. For various documents on the prolonged litigation, see the “I Am a Witness: Canadian Human Rights Tribunal Hearing” timeline and documents at http://www.fncaringsociety.ca/i-am-witness-timeline-and-documents.

6. TRC, AVS, Daniel Big George, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, 17 June 2010, Statement Number: 02-MB-17JU10-059.

7. TRC, AVS, Norma Kassi, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Inuvik, Northwest Territories, 29 June 2011, Statement Number: NNE203.

8. Davin, Report on Industrial Schools for Indians and Half-Breeds, 12.

9. Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs for the Year ended 31st December 1883, 104.

10. TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 1347, reel C-13916, W. Lemmens to W. R. Robertson, 10 February 1915. [KUP-004240]

11. For example, in 1935, a Department of Indian Affairs official told a principal of a residential school that “Indians who come from a distance might be permitted to remain over night but not for a longer period. The Indian parents from the nearby reserves should not be given meals and not be allowed to remain on the premises over night.” TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6251, file 575-1, part 3, A. F. MacKenzie to E. H. Lockhart, 1 April 1935. [AEMR-010737]

12. Oreopoulos, Canadian Compulsory School Laws, 8.

13. TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6032, file 150-40A, pt. 1, “Regulations Relating to the Education of Indian Children,” Ottawa: Government Printing Bureau, 1894. [AGA-001516-0000]

14. Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs for the Year Ended June 30, 1884, xiii.

15. TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6032, file 150-40A, pt. 1, “Regulations Relating to the Education of Indian Children,” Ottawa: Government Printing Bureau, 1894. [AGA-001516-0000]

16. Library and Archives Canada, no. 151-711-10, Minister of Justice, “Letter and copy of warrant in reply to a request by Duncan Campbell Scott, Acting Superintendent General of Indian Affairs,” 1895, 4.

17. TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 10410, Shannon box 36, 1918–1920, Untitled Circular, Duncan Campbell Scott, 9 November 1914. [AEMR-200902]

18. Parliament of Canada, Special Committee on Reconstruction and Re-establishment, Minutes of Proceedings and Evidence, no. 9, 24 May 1944, 306.

19. Canada, Special Joint Committee of the Senate and House of Commons, Minutes of Proceedings and Evidence, no. 1, 1947, 155, 161.

20. Sinha and Kozlowski, “The Structure of Aboriginal Child Welfare in Canada,” 3, 4.

21. Sinha and Kozlowski, “The Structure of Aboriginal Child Welfare in Canada,” 4.

22. Canada, Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Report, 3:24.

23. In 1983, Patrick Johnston used this term and wrote that “the wholesale apprehension of Native children during the Sixties Scoop appears to have been a terrible mistake. While some individual children may have benefitted, many did not. Nor did their families. And Native culture suffered one of many severe blows. Unfortunately, the damage is still being done. While attitudes may have changed to some extent since the Sixties, Native children continue to be represented in the child welfare system at a much greater rate than non-Native children.” Johnston, Native Children, 23, 62.

24. Sinha and Kozlowski, “The Structure of Aboriginal Child Welfare in Canada,” l.

25. Sinclair, “Identity Lost and Found,” 65–82; Kimelman, No Quiet Place; Carrière, “Connectedness and Health.”

26. TRC, NRA, INAC – Resolution Sector – IRS Historical Files collection – Ottawa, file 773/2901, volume 1, 12/63-10/71, DRSRO, J. R. Tully to Regional Supervisor, Alberta, 21 May 1965. [BPD-000248-0001]

27. TRC, NRA, DIAND HQ file 40-2-185, volume 1, 05/1966-02/1969, “Relationships between Church and State in Indian Education,” 15. [AEMR-013448A]

28. TRC, NRA, DIAND HQ file 40-2-185, volume 1, 05/1966-02/1969, “Relationships between Church and State in Indian Education,” 15. [AEMR-013448A]

29. Caldwell, Indian Residential Schools, 148–149.

30. Caldwell, Indian Residential Schools, 149.

31. Johnston, Native Children, 59–60.

32. Kimelman, No Quiet Place, 328–329.

33. Kimelman, No Quiet Place, 274.

34. TRC, AVS, [Name redacted], Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba; 26 May 2010, Statement Number: S-MB-101-007.

35. TRC, AVS, Tara Picard, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, 16 June 2010, Statement Number: 02-MB-16JU10-039.

36. TRC, AVS, Marci Shapiro, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, 20 November 2011, Statement Number: 2011-2501.

37. TRC, AVS, [Name redacted], Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, 16 June 2010, Statement Number: 02-MB-16JU10-005.

38. TRC, AVS, [Name redacted], Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, St. Albert, Alberta, 12 July 2011, Statement Number: 2011-0013.

39. TRC, AVS, [Name redacted], Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, 19 June 2010, Statement Number: 02-MB-19JU10-048.

40. TRC, AVS, Joanne Nimik, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, 4 January 2012, Statement Number: 2011-2662.

41. Brown v. Canada, 2013 ONSC 5637; Skogamhallait v. Canada (VLC-S-S-11366), Notice of Civil Claim; Merchant Law Group, “Indian and Metis Scoop Class Action.”

42. Brown v. Attorney General of Canada, 2014 ONSC 6967 (CanLII) at para. 30.

43. Canada, Auditor General of Canada, “Chapter 4: First Nations and Family Services Program,” 11.

44. Rae, Inuit Child Welfare and Family Support, 30.

45. Aboriginal Justice Inquiry of Manitoba, Aboriginal Justice Implementation Commission, Report, 1:520.

46. Sinha and Kozlowski, “The Structure of Aboriginal Child Welfare in Canada,” 8.

47. Saskatchewan Child Welfare Review Panel, For the Good of Our Children, 24.

48. Canada, Standing Committee on Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development, 15 February 2011, Evidence of Carolyn Loeppky (Assistant Deputy Minister, Child and Family Services, Government of Manitoba), 40th Parliament, 3rd Session, 1; Child and Family Services Authorities Act, CCSM c C90, s 4.

49. Kozlowski et al., “First Nations Child Welfare in Manitoba, 2011.”

50. Manitoba, Auditor General of Manitoba, Follow-up of Our December 2006 Report, 8–9.

51. Sinha and Kozlowski, “The Structure of Aboriginal Child Welfare in Canada,” 8.

52. Sinha and Kozlowski, “The Structure of Aboriginal Child Welfare in Canada,” 8.

53. Sinha and Kozlowski, “The Structure of Aboriginal Child Welfare in Canada,” 8–9.

54. Sinha et al., Kiskisik Awasisak, 13.

55. Sinha and Kozlowski, “The Structure of Aboriginal Child Welfare in Canada,” 9.

56. Sinha and Kozlowski, “The Structure of Aboriginal Child Welfare in Canada,” 9.

57. Sinha and Kozlowski, “The Structure of Aboriginal Child Welfare in Canada,” 11.

58. First Nations Child & Family Caring Society of Canada, Wen: De: We Are Coming, 89–90.

59. First Nations Child & Family Caring Society of Canada, Wen: De: We Are Coming, 17, 26.

60. Sinha and Kozlowski, “The Structure of Aboriginal Child Welfare in Canada,” 12. As described above, Ontario operates under the “1965 Canada-Ontario Welfare Agreement.” In addition, Aboriginal Affairs also provides over $18 million annually to Ontario for enhanced prevention services provided directly to First Nations and to child welfare agencies controlled by First Nations, as well as First Nations agencies that are developing but not yet mandated. Canada, Auditor General of Canada, “Chapter 4: First Nations and Family Services Program,” 20.

61. Sinha and Kozlowski, “The Structure of Aboriginal Child Welfare in Canada,” 12.

62. Canada, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, Departmental Audit and Evaluation Branch, Evaluation of the First Nations Child and Family Services Program, ii.

63. UN General Assembly, Convention on the Rights of the Child, articles 3, 5, 18, 25, and 27(3). See also United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child, Commentary 11, paras. 46–48.

64. Canada, Standing Committee on Public Accounts, 19 October 2011, Evidence of Michael Wernick (Deputy Minister, DIAAD), 41st Parliament, 1st Session, no. 8, 12.

65. Government of Canada, Government of Canada Response to the Report of the Standing Committee on Public Accounts, on Chapter 4.

66. Canada, Auditor General of Canada, “Chapter 4: Programs for First Nations on Reserves,” 24.

67. Sinha and Kozlowski, “The Structure of Aboriginal Child Welfare in Canada,” 13.

68. Canada, Standing Committee on Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development, 20 October 2009, Evidence of Mary Quinn (Director General, Social Policy and Programs Branch, Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development), 40th Parliament, 2nd Session, 10–11; Canada, Standing Committee on Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development, 15 February 2011, Evidence of Carolyn Loeppky (Assistant Deputy Minister, Child and Family Services, Government of Manitoba), 40th Parliament, 3rd Session, 1.

69. Canada, Standing Committee on Public Accounts, Report of the Standing Committee on Public Accounts. Chapter 4: First Nations Child and Family Services Program, 10.

70. Canada, Standing Committee on Public Accounts, Report of the Standing Committee on Public Accounts. Chapter 4: First Nations Child and Family Services Program, 10.

71. Canada, Standing Committee on Public Accounts, Report of the Standing Committee on Public Accounts. Chapter 4: First Nations Child and Family Services Program, 11.

72. Canada, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, Implementation Evaluation of the Enhanced Prevention Focused Approach in Alberta for the First Nations Child and Family Services Program, 18–20.

73. Canada, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, Final Report: Implementation Evaluation, 21, 51.

74. Canada, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, Final Report: Implementation Evaluation, 20.

75. Canada, Auditor General of Canada, “Chapter 4: First Nations and Family Services Program,” 2; British Columbia, Auditor General of British Columbia, Management of Aboriginal Child Protective Services, 2.

76. The First Nations Child & Family Caring Society of Canada is a non-profit organization that provides research, networking, public education, and engagement services for First Nations on children’s rights issues.

77. Human Rights Commission Complaint Form, filed against Indian and Northern Affairs Canada by Regional Chief Lawrence Joseph and Cindy Blackstock.

78. Devlin, DeForrest, and Mason, “Jurisdictional Quagmire,” 14.

79. First Nations Child and Family Caring Society v. Canada, 2011 CHRT 4 at para. 12.

80. Canada (Human Rights Commission) v. Canada (Attorney General), 2012 FC 445 (CanLII).

81. Canada (Attorney General) v. Canadian Human Rights Commission, 2013 FCA 75.

82. Canada (Attorney General) v. Canadian Human Rights Commission, 2013 FCA 75 at para. 22.

83. Cradock, “Extraordinary Costs and Jurisdictional Disputes,” 179.

84. Canadian Paediatric Society, Are We Doing Enough?, 28.

85. Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, “Jordan’s Principle.”

86. Pictou Landing Band Council v. Canada (Attorney General), 2013 FC 342 (CanLII) at para. 82.

87. Pictou Landing Band Council v. Canada (Attorney General), 2013 FC 342 (CanLII) at para. 82.

88. Canadian Paediatric Society, Are We Doing Enough?

89. Pictou Landing Band Council v. Canada (Attorney General), 2013 FC 342 (CanLII).

90. Pictou Landing Band Council v. Canada (Attorney General), 2013 FC 342 at para. 106.

91. Canada, “First Nation Child and Family Services” (presentation), 2.

92. National Collaborating Centre for Aboriginal Health, Child and Youth Health, 3.

93. National Indian Child Welfare Association, “Indian Child Welfare Act of 1978.”

94. BC Representative for Children and Youth, When Talk Trumped Service, 52.

95. First Nations Child & Family Caring Society of Canada, Wen: De: We Are Coming to the Light of Day, 38.

96. Canada, Public Health Agency of Canada, Canadian Incidence Study of Reported Child Abuse and Neglect, xiii, xxvii.

97. Canada, Public Health Agency of Canada, Canadian Incidence Study of Reported Child Abuse and Neglect—2008: Major Findings, 22.

98. Sinha et al., Kiskisik Awasisak, ix.

99. Sinha et al., Kiskisik Awasisak, x.

100. Sinha et al., Kiskisik Awasisak, 29.

101. Every region of the country was included amongst the sampled agencies, but the applicability of the findings in respect of Aboriginal child welfare is limited to the geographic jurisdiction of the sampled agencies. Sinha et al., Kiskisik Awasisak, xi, 29.

102. Sinha et al., Kiskisik Awasisak, xvi.

103. TRC, NRA, INAC File 6-21-1, volume 2, H. M. Jones to Deputy Minister, 13 December 1956. [NCA-001989-0001]

104. Canada, Statistics Canada, Aboriginal Peoples in Canada, 19.

105. Canada, Statistics Canada, Aboriginal Peoples in Canada, 19.

106. Sinha et al., Kiskisik Awasisak, 5.

107. UN General Assembly, Convention on the Rights of the Child, articles 3, 5, 18; United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child, Commentary 11, para. 48.

108. UN General Assembly, Convention on the Rights of the Child, article 8.

109. UN General Assembly, Convention on the Rights of the Child, articles 3, 5, 18, 25, and 27(3). See also United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child, Commentary 11, paras. 46–48.

110. UN General Assembly, United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, article 7(2).

111. UN General Assembly, United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, articles 11, 13, 14, 15, 16.

112. UN, Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, “Consideration of Reports,” para. 24.

113. UN, Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, “Consideration of Reports,” para. 56.

114. UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, “Concluding Observations,” para. 55.

115. UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, “Concluding Observations,”, paras. 32–33.

116. UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, “Concluding Observations,” para 55.

117. UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, “Concluding Observations,” para. 33.d.

118. Saskatchewan Child Welfare Review, For the Good of Our Children, 18.

119. Sinha et al., Kiskisik Awasisak, 48.

120. First Nations Centre, First Nations Regional Longitudinal Health Survey (RHS) 2002/03, 135.

121. First Nations Centre, First Nations Regional Longitudinal Health Survey (RHS) 2002/03, 136.

122. From the Indian Residential Schools Adjudication Secretariat website (http://www.iap-pei.ca/us-nous/us-nous-eng.php):

The Independent Assessment Process (IAP) is part of the Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement—the largest class action settlement in Canadian history. The agreement aims to bring a fair and lasting resolution to the harm caused by residential schools. It involved representatives of Aboriginal groups, churches, the government of Canada, and the legal profession. It was approved by the courts. The IAP is for former students who have a claim of sexual or serious physical abuse. It provides them with a way to settle their claim more quickly, out of court. The process is designed to be claimant-centred, but fair and neutral. It is an adjudication process. The Adjudicator resolves claims and awards compensation.

The deadline to submit an application under the Independent Assessment Process was September 19, 2012. Consult the Indian Residential Schools Adjudication Secretariat website, “Who We Are and What We Do” pages for more information.

123. Indian Residential Schools Adjudication Secretariat, “Observations on Residential School Experience,” 7.

124. Indian Residential Schools Adjudication Secretariat, “Observations on Residential School Experience,”7.

125. Indian Residential Schools Adjudication Secretariat, “Observations on Residential School Experience,” 8.

126. Indian Residential Schools Adjudication Secretariat, “Observations on Residential School Experience,” 9.

127. Canada, Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Report, 3:17.

128. TRC, AVS, Alma Scott, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, 17 June 2010, Statement Number: 02-MB-16JU10-016.

129. Sinha et al., Kiskisik Awasisak, xi. The authors concluded that there was not enough data on Metis and Inuit children and excluded them from the study. Sinha et al., Kiskisik Awasisak, ix.

130. Sinha et al., Kiskisik Awasisak, 83–87.

131. Sinha et al., Kiskisik Awasisak, xviii. The study elaborates,

The disparity in First Nations and non-Aboriginal substantiated investigation rates was smaller in the other maltreatment categories. In the population served by sampled agencies, the rate of substantiated emotional maltreatment investigations was 5.4 times greater for the First Nations population, the rate of substantiated exposure to intimate partner violence investigations involving First Nations children was 4.7 times greater than the rate for non-Aboriginal children, the rate of substantiated physical abuse investigations was 2.1 times greater for the First Nations population, and the rate of substantiated sexual abuse investigations was 2.7 times greater for the First Nations population served by sampled agencies than for the non-Aboriginal population. (Sinha et al., Kiskisik Awasisak, 85)

132. Sinha, Ellenbogen, and Trocmé, “Substantiating Neglect,” 2083, 2088.

133. Sinha, Ellenbogen, and Trocmé, “Substantiating Neglect,” 2089.

134. The authors concluded,

We found that neglect was significantly more likely to be substantiated for First Nations children than for non-Aboriginal children, and that a statistically significant difference in the odds of substantiation persisted even after controlling for investigation, child, caregiver and household characteristics. Examination of interaction effects showed that that this disproportionality in neglect substantiation of neglect is also linked to differences in the weight that workers assign to mitigating factors. Worker confirmation of caregiver substance abuse was associated with a much greater increase in the odds of neglect substantiation for First Nations than for non-Aboriginal children. The presence of a lone caregiver increased the odds of neglect substantiation for First Nations, but not non-Aboriginal children. Finally, worker identification of housing problems significantly increased the odds of neglect substantiation for non-Aboriginal children; they did not do so for First Nations children. (Sinha, Ellenbogen, and Trocmé, “Substantiating Neglect,” 2088)

135. Ruiz-Casares, Trocmé, and Fallon, “Supervisory Neglect,” 472.

136. Ruiz-Casares, Trocmé, and Fallon, “Supervisory Neglect,” 476–477.

137. Ruiz-Casares, Trocmé, and Fallon, “Supervisory Neglect,” 477.

138. Ruiz-Casares, Trocmé, and Fallon, “Supervisory Neglect,” 478.

139. Sinha et al., Kiskisik Awasisak, xii.

140. Sinha et al., Kiskisik Awasisak, xiv.

141. Sinha et al., Kiskisik Awasisak, xiv.

142. Canada, Indian and Northern Affairs, First Nation and Inuit Community Well-Being, 22.

143. Child, Youth and Family Enhancement Act, RSA 2000, c C-12, ss 34, 58.1; Adoption Act, RSBC 1996, c 5, ss 3, 17(1), 37; Adoption Act, CCSM c A2, ss 3, 19; Family Services Act, SNB 1980, c F-2.2, ss 1, 8, 71(1), 78(1); Adoption Act, SNL 1999, c A-2.1, ss 3, 13;Children and Youth Care and Protection Act, SNL 2010, c C-12.2, ss 9, 20–21; Child and Family Services Act, SNWT (Nu) 1997, c 13, ss 3, 27–28, 31, 38; Children and Family Services Act, SNS 1990, c 5, ss 2, 22, 30, 47, 78; Consolidation of Child and Family Services Act, SNWT (Nu) 1997, c 13, ss 3, 7, 27, 29.1, 38; Child and Family Services Act, RSO 1990, c C.11, ss 1(1), 49; Child Protection Act, RSPEI 1988, c C-5.1, ss 2, 9, 23, 38; Youth Protection Act, CQLR c P-34.1, ss 3, 91, 46–48.1, 62-64, 71–72.4; Child and Family Services Act, SS 1989–90, c C-7.2, ss 4, 11, 16-18, 37;Child and Family Services Act, SY 2008, c.1, ss 2, 38, 107(1).

144. Information about ethnicity was available for 94 of the 145 children who have died in foster care since 1999. Of that number, 74 were Aboriginal. Henton, “Deaths of Aboriginal Children,” Edmonton Journal.

145. Henton, “Deaths of Aboriginal Children,” Edmonton Journal.

146. Henton, “Deaths of Aboriginal Children,” Edmonton Journal.

147. Alberta Centre for Child, Family and Community Research, A Preliminary Analysis of Mortalities, 25.

148. BC Ministry of Health, Office of the Provincial Health Officer, and Child and Youth Officer for British Columbia, Health and Well-Being of Children in Care, 54, 58.

149. Ontario, Office of the Chief Coroner of Ontario, Paediatric Death Review Committee, 34.

150. Ontario, Office of the Chief Coroner of Ontario, Paediatric Death Review Committee, 42.

151. Sinha et al., Kiskisik Awasisak, 5.

152. Ontario, Office of the Chief Coroner of Ontario, Paediatric Death Review Committee, 60.

153. Hughes, The Legacy of Phoenix Sinclair, 1:19–20, 1:53.

154. Hughes, The Legacy of Phoenix Sinclair, 1:19–35.

155. Hughes, The Legacy of Phoenix Sinclair, 1:24.

156. Hughes, The Legacy of Phoenix Sinclair, 1:30.

157. Hughes, The Legacy of Phoenix Sinclair, 1:28; 2:148.

158. Hughes, The Legacy of Phoenix Sinclair, 1:28.

159. Schibler and Newton, Honouring Their Spirits, 6, 23.

160. Schibler and Newton, Honouring Their Spirits, 30, 32.

161. Schibler and Newton, Honouring Their Spirits, 47–49.

162. Schibler and Newton, Honouring Their Spirits, 57–58.

163. Schibler and Newton, Honouring Their Spirits, 76.

164. Canada, Statistics Canada, Aboriginal Peoples in Canada, 5. Issues related to Inuit history, culture, and child and family welfare discussed in this chapter focus on the Canadian context, but it is important to acknowledge that approximately 150,000 Inuit people live in the circumpolar region encompassing Canada, Alaska, Russia, and Greenland. Inuit peoples of the circumpolar region are interconnected with shared physical traits, kinships, languages, rules, concepts, myths, legends, and cultural routines. With technological and institutional progress, Inuit peoples have strengthened their connections and speak with one voice across countries on many issues of common concern, including challenges of cultural erosion and assimilation efforts directed towards them.

165. Canada, Statistics Canada, Aboriginal Peoples in Canada, 5, 14–17.

166. Tagalik, “Inuit Qaujimajatuqangit,” 1, 4.

167. Inuit Qaujimajatuqanginnut (IQ) Task Force, First Annual Report; Bonesteel, “Use of Traditional Inuit Culture.”

168. Rae, Inuit Child Welfare and Family Support, 10, 13–15.

169. Pauktuutit Inuit Women of Canada, The Inuit Way, 16.

170. Pauktuutit Inuit Women of Canada, The Inuit Way, 16.

171. Graburn, “Severe Child Abuse,” 211–225; Pauktuutit Inuit Women of Canada, The Inuit Way, 2.

172. Ochalski, “Addressing Inuit Child Welfare in Canada,” notes from 2012 focus group, in Blackstock et al., “Is It Over Yet?” 33.

173. Tagalik, “Inunnguiniq: Caring for Children the Inuit Way”; Roberts, Eskimo Identification.

174. Legacy of Hope Foundation, Inuit and the Residential School System, 3.

175. Bonesteel, Canada’s Relationship with Inuit, 10, 11.

176. Reference whether “Indians” includes “Eskimo” Inhabitants of the Province of Quebec, [1939] SCR 104; SC 1951, c 29,4 (1), P317.

177. King, Brief Report of the Federal Government, 12.

178. King, Brief Report of the Federal Government, 7.

179. King, Brief Report of the Federal Government, 11, 15, 17.

180. Graburn, “Severe Child Abuse,” 212.

181. Inuit Tuttarvingat, Inuit Men Talking about Health.

182. Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, Social Determinants of Inuit Health in Canada, 38.

183. Blackstock et al., “Is It Over Yet?,” 38.

184. Gough, “Northwest Territories’ Child Welfare System,” 1.

185. Debbie DeLancey (Deputy Minister, Department of Health and Social Services, Government of the NWT) email to Commissioner Wilson, 14 July 2015.

186. Gough, “Northwest Territories’ Child Welfare System,” 4.

187. Gough “Northwest Territories’ Child Welfare System,” 3.

188. Canada, Statistics Canada, Aboriginal Peoples in Canada, 9.

189. Trocmé et al., Canadian Incidence Study of Reported Child Abuse and Neglect, 2.

190. Gough, “Northwest Territories’ Child Welfare System,” 3.

191. Gough, “Nunavut’s Child Welfare System,” 2–3.

192. Gough, “Nunavut’s Child Welfare System,” 3–4.

193. Gough, “Nunavut’s Child Welfare System,” 2.

194. Phaneuf, Dudding, and Arreak, Nunavut Social Service Review, 19.

195. Blumenthal and Sinha, “Newfoundland and Labrador’s Child Welfare System.”

196. Gough, “Newfoundland and Labrador’s Child Welfare System,” 4.

197. Québec, Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse, Investigation, 11.

198. Québec, Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse, Investigation, 12.

199. Québec, Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse, Investigation, 7.

200. Québec, Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse, Investigation, 8.

201. Québec, Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse, Investigation, 58, 59.

202. Québec, Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse, Investigation, 59.

203. Québec, Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse, Investigation, 59.

204. Québec, Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse, Nunavik: Follow-up Report.

205. Rae, Inuit Child Welfare and Family Support, 1.

206. Canada, Auditor General of Canada, Report of the Auditor General, 2.

207. Arnold, Director of Child and Family Services Annual Report 2011–2012, 1–8.

208. Rideout, “Commission Considers Rules for Custom Adoptions,” Nunatsiaq News.

209. Rae, Inuit Child Welfare and Family Support, 6.

210. Métis National Council, “Who Are the Métis?”

211. Canada, Statistics Canada, Aboriginal Peoples in Canada, First Nations People, Métis and Inuit; Canada, Statistics Canada, Aboriginal Peoples and Language.

212. Andersen, “From Nation to Population,” 352.

213. Métis National Council, “Who Are the Métis?”

214. Canada, Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Report, 1:311.

215. Chartrand, “Métis Residential School Participation,” 23.

216. Logan, “Lost Generations,” 63.

217. Logan, “Lost Generations,” 73, emphasis in original.

218. Métis Nation of Alberta, Métis Memories of Residential Schools, in Blackstock et al., “Is It Over Yet?,” 49, 50.

219. Métis Nation of Alberta (2004), Métis Memories of Residential Schools, in Blackstock et al., “Is it Over Yet?,” 50.

220. Elmer Ghostkeeper, conversation with Jeannine Carrière at Victoria, BC, 1 October 2012, in Blackstock et al., “Is It Over Yet?,” 46.

221. Deborah Dyck, conversation with Sinéad Charbonneau at Victoria, BC, 20 December 2012, in Blackstock et al., “Is It Over Yet?,” 46.

222. Tom McCallum, conversation with Cathy Richardson at Victoria, BC, 19 October 2012, in Blackstock et al., “Is It Over Yet?,” 46.

223. Obomsawin, Richard Cardinal.

224. Obomsawin, Richard Cardinal.

225. Deborah Canada, “The Strength of the Sash,” 10.

226. TRC, AVS, Robert Doucette, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Batoche, Saskatchewan; 20 July 2010, Statement Number: 01-SK-18-25JY10-001.

227. Carrière, “Connectedness and Health”; Richardson and Nelson, “A Change of Residence”; Richardson and Seaborn, “Working with Métis Children”; Manitoba Metis Federation, They Are Taking Our Children.

228. Sinha et al., Kiskisik Awasisak, ix.

229. British Columbia, Ministry of Children and Family Development, Aboriginal Children in Care, 2, 21

230. Manitoba, Auditor General of Manitoba, Follow-up of Our December 2006 Report, 9.

231. Gonzalez-Mena, “Cross-Cultural Infant Care,” 368.

232. Carrière and Richardson, “From Longing to Belonging.”

233. Canada (Indian Affairs) v. Daniels, 2014 FCA 101 (CanLII) at para. 159.

234. Daniels v. Canada, 2013 FC 6 (CanLII).

235. Harry Daniels, et al. v. Her Majesty the Queen as represented by The Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, et al., 2014 CanLII 68707 (SCC).

236. Manitoba Metis Federation, “Departments, Portfolios and Affiliates.”

237. Gough, “Alberta’s Child Welfare System,” 1.

238. Canada, “The Strength of the Sash,” 138, 146.

239. Métis Nation of Ontario, Recommendations Concerning Métis-Specific Child and Family Services, 15.

240. Chartrand, Maskikiwenow: The Métis Right to Health.

241. Leanne Laberge, conversation with Jeannine Carrière and Sinead Charbonneau at Victoria, BC, 18 October 2012, in Blackstock et al., “Is It Over Yet?,” 46.

242. Barkwell, Dorion, and Hourie, Métis Legacy, vol. 2: Michif Culture, 56.

243. Richardson, “Métis Experiences of Social Work Practices,” 120.

244. Richardson, “Métis Experiences of Social Work Practices,” 123.

245. TRC, AVS, Mary Anne Clarke, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, 12 January 2011, Statement Number: 03-001-10-026.

246. TRC, AVS, Shirley Morris, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Halifax, Nova Scotia, 29 October 2011, Statement Number: 2011-2918.

247. Fletcher, “The Origins of the Indian Child Welfare Act,” n.p. (1).

248. Fletcher, “The Origins of the Indian Child Welfare Act,” n.p. (1).

249. Graham, “Reparations, Self-Determination,” 56.

250. Graham, “Reparations, Self-Determination, 90.

251. Fletcher, “The Origins of the Indian Child Welfare Act,” n.p. (4).

252. Basic, “Termination of Parental Rights,” 348.

253. Basic, “Termination of Parental Rights,” 348.

254. Fletcher, “The Origins of the Indian Child Welfare Act,” n.p. (4).

255. Fletcher, “The Origins of the Indian Child Welfare Act,” n.p. (5).

256. Cross, “Indian Family Exception Doctrine,” 688–689.

257. Gajewski, “Class-Action Lawsuit,” The Humanist, 48.

258. Atwood, “Voice of the Indian Child,” 129–130.

259. Atwood, “Voice of the Indian Child,” 128.

260. Blackstock et al., Reconciliation in Child Welfare, 4.

261. Blackstock et al., Reconciliation in Child Welfare, 4, 9–11.

262. Quinn and Saini, Touchstones of Hope.

263. Mishibinijima, Aboriginal Child Protection.

264. Pintarics and Sveinunggaard, “Meenoostahtan Minisiwin,” 67, 74, 75.

265. Timleck quoted in Baskin, Strong Helpers’ Teachings, 197.

266. Timleck quoted in Baskin, Strong Helpers’ Teachings, 198–199.

267. Timleck quoted in Baskin, Strong Helpers’ Teachings, 198.

268. Signs of Safety, Signs of Safety.

The failure to educate

1. TRC, AVS, Howard Stacy Jones, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Victoria, British Columbia, 4 December 2010, Statement Number: 01-BC-03DE10-001.

2. Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1883, 96.

3. TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6323, file 658-6, part 1, Department of Indian Affairs Inspector’s Report for the St. Barnabas, Indian Residential School, D. Hicks, 25 September 1928. [PAR-003233]

4. Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6205, file 468-1, part 2, S. R. McVitty to Secretary, Indian Affairs, 30 January 1928.

5. Sluman and Goodwill, John Tootoosis, 106.

6. Bougie and Senécal, “Registered Indian Children’s School Success,” 26–30; Canada, Statistics Canada, Educational Portrait of Canada, Census Year 2006, 19; Richards, Hove, and Afolabi, “Understanding the Aboriginal/Non-Aboriginal Gap,” 1.

7. UN General Assembly, United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, article 14(1).

8. TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6040, file 160-4, part 1, R. B. Heron to Regina Presbytery, April 1923. [AEMR-016371]

10. Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1942, 154; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1943, 168; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1944, 177; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1945, 190; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1946, 231; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1947, 236; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1948, 234; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1949, 215; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1950, 86–87; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1951, 34–35; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1952, 74–75; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1953, 82–83; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1954, 88–89; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1955, 78–79; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1956, 76–77; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1956–57, 88–89; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1958, 91; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1959, 94; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1960, 94; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1961, 102; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1962, 73; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1963, 62.

11. TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6342, file 750-1, part 1, Microfilm reel C-8699, J. D. McLean to Reverend E. Ruaux, 21 June 1915. [MRY-001517] For a similar report from the Battleford, Saskatchewan, school, see Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1909, 349–350. For a Manitoba example, see TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6267, file 580-5, part 4, Joseph Hamilton Inspection Report, not dated. [DRS-000570]

12. TRC, NRA, INAC – Resolution Sector – IRS Historical Files Collection – Ottawa, file 673/23-5-038, volume 1, H. L. Winter to Indian Affairs, 9 September 1932. [MRS-000138-0001]

13. Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1903, 342–343. For other examples of the emphasis on religious training in the schools, see Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1887, 27–28; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1910, 433–434; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1890, 119; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1900, 323.

14. TRC, NRA, The Presbyterian Church in Canada Archives, Toronto, Tyler Bjornson File, Presbyterian Research, “Presbyterian Indian Residential School Staff Handbook,” 1. [IRC-041206]

15. TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6327, file 660-1, part 1, J. D. McLean to Rev. J. Hugonard, 30 May 1911. [PLD-007442]

16. TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6422, file 869-1, part 2, R. H. Cairns, inspector to J. D. McLean, 5 January 1915. [COQ-000390]

17. TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6431, file 877-1, part 2, “Extract from Report of Mr. Inspector Cairns dated September 5th and 6th, 1928 on the Alberni Indian Residential School.” [ABR-001591]

18. TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6001, file 1-1-1, part 3, “Department of Indian Affairs, Schools Branch,” 31 March 1935. [SRS-000279]

19. For a British Columbia example, see TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6431, file 877-1, part 1, A. W. Neill to A. W. Vowell, 8 July 1909. [ABR-007011-0001] For a Manitoba example, see TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6262, file 578-1, part 4, W. M. Graham to Secretary, Indian Affairs, 4 February 1922. [ELK-000299]

20. For example, a 1936 United Church document on First Nations education policy stated that the staff of all United Church schools should be composed of people who had a “Christian motive, or, in other words, a missionary purpose coupled with skill in some particular field to teach his specialty to the Indians.” Staff members were expected to be “closely related to and actively interested in the work of the nearest United Church,” and be acquainted with, and sympathetic to, “the religious education programme of the United Church.” Having laid out these fairly specific requirements, the policy document added that “some minimum educational qualifications for staff members should be outlined.” TRC, NRA, United Church Archives, Acc. 83.050C, box 144-21, “Statement of Policy Re Indian Residential Schools,” June 1936. [UCC-050004]

21. For an example of the link between low pay and unqualified teachers, see TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6039, file 160-1, part 1, Martin Benson, Memorandum, 15 July 1897, 4, 25. [100.00108]

22. TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 4041, file 334503, F. H. Paget to Frank Pedley, 25 November 1908, 55. [RCA-000298]

23. TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6431, file 877-1, part 1, A. W. Vowell to Secretary, Indian Affairs, 14 July 1909. [ABR-007011-0000]

24. Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1955, 51.

25. TRC, NRA, DIAND, file 1/25-1, volume 22, R. F. Davey to Bergevin, 15 September 1959, 3. [AEMR-019616]

26. Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1921, 28.

27. TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6014, file 1-1-6 MAN, part 1, Duncan Campbell Scott to Mr. Meighen, 1 June 1920. [NCA-002403]

28. Canada, Special Joint Committee, Minutes of Evidence, D. F. Brown Presiding, 15 April 1947, 483–484.

29. Canada, Special Joint Committee, Minutes of Evidence, D. F. Brown Presiding, 17 April 1947, 505.

30. TRC, NRA, National Archives of Canada, RG10, volume 8760, file 901/25-1, part 2, R. F. Davey to Director, 14 March 1956, 4. [AEMR-120651]

31. See, for example, TRC, NRA, DIAND, file 1/25-1 (E.10), “Report on Textbooks,” 6–9 [AEMR-019193A]; Québec, Rapport Parent, para. 210; TRC, NRA, DIAND, file 1/25-1 (E.10), “Report on Textbooks,” 6–9 [AEMR-019193A]; Vanderburgh, The Canadian Indian.

32. TRC, NRA, DIAND, file 1/25-1 (E.10), “Report on Textbooks,” 1–6. [AEMR-019193A]

33. TRC, AVS, Myrna Kaminawaish, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Thunder Bay, Ontario, 7 January 2011, Statement Number: 01-ON-06JA11-004.

34. TRC, AVS, Paul Kaludjau, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, 16 June 2010, Statement Number: 02-MB-16JU10-144.

35. TRC, AVS, Walter Russell Jones, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Victoria, British Columbia, 14 April 2012, Statement Number: 2011-4008.

36. First Nations Centre, First Nations Regional Longitudinal Health Survey (RHS) 2002/03, 134.

37. Bougie, “Aboriginal Peoples Survey, 2006,” 21.

38. TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 3920, file 116818, D. L. Clink to Indian Commissioner June 4 1895. [EDM-003380]

39. For an example from Battleford, see Library and Archives Canada, RG 10, volume 3880, file 92,499, Memorandum, Hayter Reed, undated; T. Clarke, “Report of Discharged Pupils,” Sessional Papers 1894, Paper 13, 103. For an example from Brantford, see TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG 10 (Red), volume 2771, file 154,845, part 1, J. G. Ramsden to J. D. McLean, 23 December 1907 [TAY-003542]. For an example from Kenora, see TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6197, file 465-1, part 1, Minakijikok to D. C. Scott, 30 September 1924 [KNR-000804-0001]; TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6197, file 465-1, part 1, Frank Edwards to Assistant Deputy and Secretary, Indian Affairs, 8 October 1924. [KNR-000803]

40. TRC, AVS, Patricia Brooks, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Indian Brook, Nova Scotia, 12 October 2011, Statement Number: 2011-2710.

41. Bougie and Senécal, “Registered Indian Children’s School Success,” 21.

42. Bougie and Senécal, “Registered Indian Children’s School Success,” 21.

43. Indian Residential Schools Adjudication Secretariat, “Observations.”

44. Canada, Statistics Canada, The Educational Attainment of Aboriginal Peoples in Canada, 5.

45. Canada, Statistics Canada, The Educational Attainment of Aboriginal Peoples in Canada, 4, 5.

46. TRC, AVS, Violet Rupp, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Bloodvein, Manitoba, 25 January 2012, Statement Number: 2011-2565.

47. TRC, AVS, Esther Lachinette-Diabo, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Thunder Bay, Ontario, 25 November 2010, Statement Number: 01-ON-24NOV10-020.

48. TRC, AVS, Darryl Siah, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Mission, British Columbia, 18 May 2011, Statement Number: 2011-3473.

49. Indian Residential Schools Adjudication Secretariat, “Observations,” 4.

50. Canada, Statistics Canada, Portrait of Canada’s Labour Force, 14.

51. Bougie and Senécal, “Registered Indian Children’s School Success,” 3.

52. Bougie and Senécal, “Registered Indian Children’s School Success,” 7.

53. Bougie and Senécal, “Registered Indian Children’s School Success,” 28.

54. Bougie and Senécal, “Registered Indian Children’s School Success,” 26–30.

55. Bougie and Senécal, “Registered Indian Children’s School Success,” 26–29.

56. Canada, Statistics Canada, “The Education and Employment Experiences of First Nations,” 1.

57. Mendelson, “Improving Education on Reserves,” 2.

58. Sharpe and Lapointe, The Labour Market and Economic Performance, 6.

59. Canada, Auditor General of Canada, “Chapter 4: Programs for First Nations on Reserves,” 13.

60. Canada, Statistics Canada, “The Education and Employment Experiences of First Nations,” 2.

61. Clement, “University Attainment of the Registered Indian Population,” 101; Wilk, White, and Guimond, “Métis Educational Attainment,” 54.

62. Richards, Hove, and Afolabi, “Understanding the Aboriginal/Non-Aboriginal Gap,” 1.

63. Clement, “University Attainment of the Registered Indian Population,” 101.

64. Canadian Human Rights Commission, Report on Equality Rights of Aboriginal People, 3, 12, 32.

65. Canada, Statistics Canada, “Study: Aboriginal People and the Labour Market.”

66. Wilson and Macdonald, The Income Gap, 8.

67. Canada, Statistics Canada, “The Education and Employment Experiences of First Nations,” 2.

68. Wilson and Macdonald, The Income Gap, 4.

69. Macdonald and Wilson, Poverty or Prosperity, 6.

70. Wilson and Macdonald, The Income Gap, 14.

71. The poverty line is measured by the 2009 SLID Low-Income Measure (LIM), which is based on 50% of the median adjusted household income. Canada, Statistics Canada, “Low Income Lines, 2008–2009.”

72. Canadian Human Rights Commission, Report on Equality Rights of Aboriginal People, 17, 18.

73. Penney, “Formal Educational Attainment of Inuit,” 43.

74. Berger, Nunavut Land Claims Agreement, iii.

75. National Committee on Inuit Education, First Canadians, Canadians First, 7.

76. Canadian Human Rights Commission, Report on Equality Rights of Aboriginal People, 15.

77. Canadian Human Rights Commission, Report on Equality Rights of Aboriginal People, 18.

78. O’Donnell and Wallace, “First Nations, Métis and Inuit Women,” 30.

79. Carr-Stewart, “A Treaty Right to Education,” 138.

80. Kelly v. Canada (Attorney General), 2013 ONSC 1220 (striking out claims based on education rights in Treaty 3 as non-justiciable); Beattie v. Canada (Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development), 1997 CanLII 6343 (FC); Canada (Attorney General) v. Desjarlais, 2005 ABQB 416 (CanLII); Ochapowace Indian Band No. 71 v. Canada (Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development), 1998 CanLII 13768 (SK QB).

81. UN, Expert Mechanism on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, “Advice No. 1,” para. 91.

82. United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child, Commentary 11, para. 57.

83. Wilson and Macdonald, The Income Gap, 17.

84. TRC, AVS, Laverne Victor, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Mission, British Columbia, 17 May 2011, Statement Number: 2011-3463.

85. Australia, Council of Australian Governments, National Indigenous Reform Agreement.

86. Australian Government, Closing the Gap, 10–19.

87. For a 1940 assessment of building conditions, see TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6012, file 1-1-5A, part 2, R. A. Hoey to Dr. McGill, 31 May 1940. [BIR-000248]

88. Canada, Special Joint Committee, 1946, 3, 15.

89. Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1945, 168, 183; Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1955, 70, 76–78.

90. Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1949, 199.

91. An Act Respecting Indians, Statutes of Canada 1951, chapter 29, section 113, reproduced in Venne, Indian Acts, 350.

92. Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1961, 57.

93. Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1961, 63.

94. See, for example, TRC, NRA, No document location, no document file source, The Canadian Catholic Conference, “A Brief to the Parliamentary Committee on Indian Affairs,” May 1960, 8. [GMA-001642-0000]

95. Newman, Indians of the Saddle Lake Reserve, 81–87.

96. TRC, AVS, Annie Wesley, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Thunder Bay, Ontario, 25 November 2010, Statement Number: 01-ON-24NOV10-034.

97. TRC, AVS, Dorothy Ross, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Thunder Bay, Ontario, 25 November 2010, Statement Number: 01-ON-24NOV10-014.

98. TRC, AVS, Shirley Leon, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Deroche, British Columbia, 19 January 2010, Statement Number: 2011-5048.

99. FNEC, NAN, and FSIN, Report on Priority Actions, 51.

100. Haldane et al., Nurturing the Learning Spirit, 14.

101. Haldane et al., Nurturing the Learning Spirit, 14.

102. Canada, Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Report, 3:485.

103. Canada, Standing Senate Committee on Aboriginal Peoples, Reforming First Nations Education, 1.

104. Canada, Standing Senate Committee on Aboriginal Peoples, Reforming First Nations Education, 1.

105. Canada, Standing Senate Committee on Aboriginal Peoples, Reforming First Nations Education, 9.

106. Ontario, Office of the Chief Coroner of Ontario, “Schedule of Inquests.”

107. Canada, “Statement of the Government of Canada on Indian Policy, 1969”; National Indian Brotherhood, Indian Control of Indian Education; TRC, NRA, National Capital Regional Service Centre – LAC – Ottawa, File 301/25-1, volume 9, Jean Chrétien to George Manuel, 2 February 1973. [NCA-017031-0002]

108. Canada, Standing Senate Committee on Aboriginal Peoples, Reforming First Nations Education, 56.

109. Paquette and Fallon, First Nations Education Policy, 81.

110. Nicholas, “Canada’s Colonial Mission,” 16, 17.

111. McCue, “First Nations 2nd and 3rd Level Education Services,” 52.

112. Kirkness, “Aboriginal Education in Canada,” 17.

113. First Nations Education Council, “Funding Formula for First Nation Schools,” 19–22; Canada, Standing Senate Committee on Aboriginal Peoples, Reforming First Nations Education, 63.

114. Canada, Standing Senate Committee on Aboriginal Peoples, Reforming First Nations Education, 11.

115. Canada, Standing Senate Committee on Aboriginal Peoples Reforming First Nations Education, 31, 32.

116. Canada, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, Summative Evaluation, 32.

117. Canada, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, Summative Evaluation, 32–33.

118. Canada (Attorney General) v. Mohawks of the Quinte First Nation, 2012 FC 105 (CanLII) at para. 1.

119. FNEC, NAN, and FSIN, Report on Priority Actions, 22.

120. Haldane et al., Nurturing the Learning Spirit, 17.

121. Porter, “Walls Crumble,” CBC News.

122. Rajekar and Mathilakath, The Funding Requirement, 51.

123. McCue, “First Nations 2nd and 3rd Level Education Services,” 36.

124. FNEC, NAN, and FSIN, Report on Priority Actions, 60; Haldane et al., Nurturing the Learning Spirit, 12.

125. Education Act for Cree, Inuit and Naskapi Native Persons, RSQ, c I-14 at Part X.

126. Canada, Standing Senate Committee on Aboriginal Peoples, Reforming First Nations Education, 12.

127. Québec c. Commission Scolaire Crie, 2001 CanLII 20652 (QC CA) 112.

128. Canada, Standing Senate Committee on Aboriginal Peoples, Reforming First Nations Education, 9.

129. McCue, “An Overview,” 5.

130. Canada, Standing Senate Committee on Aboriginal Peoples, Reforming First Nations Education, 61.

131. Canada, Standing Senate Committee on Aboriginal Peoples Reforming First Nations Education, 61.

132. People for Education, First Nations, Metis and Inuit Education, 3, 4.

133. Little Bear, “Naturalizing Indigenous Knowledge,” 7.

134. Western Canadian Protocol for Collaboration in Basic Education, Common Curriculum Framework.

135. See Canada, Standing Senate Committee on Aboriginal Peoples, Reforming First Nations Education, 1–2; Canada, Task Force on Aboriginal Languages and Culture, Towards a New Beginning, 89.

136. Canada, Task Force on Aboriginal Languages and Culture, Towards a New Beginning, 88.

137. People for Education, First Nations, Métis and Inuit Education, 2, 9.

138. Ontario, Ontario’s New Approach, 12, 13; Ontario, A Solid Foundation.

139. Ontario, Aboriginal Education Office and Ministry of Education, Ontario First Nation, Métis, and Inuit Education Policy Framework, 27.

140. Ontario, A Solid Foundation, 16.

141. Ontario, A Solid Foundation, 28.

142. Canada, Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Report, 3:421.

143. Canada, Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Report, 3:422–423.

144. Assembly of First Nations, “Early Childhood Education.”

145. Canada, Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Report, 3:412.

146. Canada, Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Report, 3:439.

147. Canada, Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Report, 3:431.

148. Canada, Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Report, 3:435–436.

149. Canada, Health Canada, “Aboriginal Head Start on Reserve.”

150. Canada, Public Health Agency of Canada, Evaluation of the Aboriginal Head Start.

151. Preston et al., “Aboriginal Early Childhood Education,” 12–13.

152. Canada, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, Summative Evaluation, 40.

153. Mississaugas of the New Credit First Nation, “Special Education Human Rights Case.”

154. An Act Concerning Indians, Statutes of Canada 1876, chapter 18, section 86.1, reproduced in Venne, Indian Acts, 47; An Act Concerning Indians, Statutes of Canada 1927, chapter 98, section 110, reproduced in Venne, Indian Acts, 285–287.

155. Canada, Statistics Canada, Table 2: “Proportion of First Nations People, Métis, and Inuit Aged 25 to 64 by Selected Levels of Educational Attainment and Sex, Canada, 2011,” in The Educational Attainment of Aboriginal People in Canada, https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhsenm/2011/as-sa/99-012-x/2011003/tbl/tbl2-eng.cfm.

156. TRC, AVS, Jennie Thomas, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Victoria, British Columbia, 14 April 2012, Statement Number: 2011-3992.

157. TRC, AVS, Velma Jackson, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, St. Paul, Alberta, 6 January 2011, Statement Number: 01-AB-06JA11-003.

158. First Nations Education Council, “Paper on First Nations Education Funding,” 35.

159. National Committee on Inuit Education, First Canadians, Canadians First, 87.

160. FNEC, NAN, and FSIN, Report on Priority Actions, 37.

161. Canada, Standing Senate Committee on Social Affairs, Science and Technology, Opening the Door, 47.

162. First Nations Education Council, “Paper on First Nations Education Funding,” 37.

163. Ogwehoweh Skills and Trades Training Centre; Yellowquill College, “Programs.”

164. First Nations Education Council, “Paper on First Nations Education Funding,” 39.

165. Canada, Standing Senate Committee on Social Affairs, Science and Technology, Opening the Door, 48–49.

166. Hodgson-Smith, “The State of Métis Nation Learning,” 4.

167. Hodgson-Smith, “The State of Métis Nation Learning,” 17, 18.

168. Métis National Council, Toward a Canada–Métis Nation, 27, 28.

169. National Committee on Inuit Education, First Canadians, Canadians First, 7–8.

170. Canada, Statistics Canada, “The Education and Employment Experiences of First Nations,” 1.

171. National Committee on Inuit Education, First Canadians, Canadians First, 3.

172. National Committee on Inuit Education, First Canadians, Canadians First, 10–14.

173. National Committee on Inuit Education, First Canadians, Canadians First, 80.

174. National Committee on Inuit Education, First Canadians, Canadians First, 69.

175. Canada, Standing Senate Committee on Aboriginal Peoples, Reforming First Nations Education, 3.

176. Canada, Standing Senate Committee on Aboriginal Peoples, Reforming First Nations Education, 56.

177. Canada, Standing Senate Committee on Aboriginal Peoples, Reforming First Nations Education, 62.

178. Canada, Standing Senate Committee on Aboriginal Peoples, Reforming First Nations Education, 64.

179. Canada, Standing Senate Committee on Aboriginal Peoples Reforming First Nations Education, 24.

180. Haldane et al., Nurturing the Learning Spirit, iv.

181. Haldane et al., Nurturing the Learning Spirit, vii, 40.

182. Haldane et al., Nurturing the Learning Spirit, 32.

183. Haldane et al., Nurturing the Learning Spirit, 33–38.

184. FNEC, NAN, and FSIN, Report on Priority Actions, 25.

185. FNEC, NAN, and FSIN, Report on Priority Actions, 85–86.

186. Canada, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, Developing a First Nation Education Act: A Blueprint for Legislation. For information on the consultation process see AANDC, “The Consultation Process” at https://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1358799141185/1358799192535.

187. Canada, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, Developing a First Nation Education Act, 6.

188. Canada, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada Developing a First Nation Education Act, 5.

189. Canada, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, Working Together for First Nation Students.

190. Canada, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, Working Together for First Nation Students, s. 23.

191. Canada, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, Working Together for First Nation Students, s. 25.

192. Canada, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, Working Together for First Nation Students, ss. 27–30.

193. Canada, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, Working Together for First Nation Students, s. 34.

194. Bernard Valcourt, Minister of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development, to Jean Crowder, MP, 17 April 2014.

195. Anaya, “Statement upon Conclusion of the Visit to Canada, 15 October 2013.”

196. Canada, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, “First Nations Control of First Nations Education Act.”

197. Atleo, “First Nations Control.”

198. Canada, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, “First Nations Control of First Nations Education Act.”

199. Kativik School Board, “About Kativik School Board.”

200. Kativik School Board, “About Kativik School Board”; Vick-Westgate, Nunavik, 85.

201. Consolidation of Inuit Language Protection Act, SNu 2008, c 17.

202. Education Act, SNu 2008, c 15.

203. National Committee on Inuit Education, First Canadians, Canadians First, 8.

204. National Committee on Inuit Education, First Canadians, Canadians First, 75.

205. National Committee on Inuit Education, First Canadians, Canadians First, 78.

206. National Committee on Inuit Education, First Canadians, Canadians First, 75–90.

207. Marie Battiste quoted in Canada, Standing Senate Committee on Aboriginal Peoples, Reforming First Nations Education, 40.

208. Battiste, Decolonizing Education, 121.

209. Little Bear, “Naturalizing Indigenous Knowledge,” 21.

210. Haldane et al., Nurturing the Learning Spirit, 11.

211. Canada and Mi’kmaq Bands in Nova Scotia, An Agreement with respect to Mi’kmaq education in Nova Scotia, 14 February 1997. The agreement has been formalized through the Mi’kmaq Education Act, SC 1998, c 24.

212. Battiste, Decolonizing Education, 87–94.

213. Canada, British Columbia, and First Nations Education Steering Committee, Education Jurisdiction Framework Agreement, 5 July 2006.

214. First Nations Jurisdiction over Education in British Columbia Act, SC 2006, c 10.

215. First Nations Jurisdiction over Education in British Columbia Act, SC 2006, c 10, ss 18–20.

216. Canada, Standing Senate Committee on Aboriginal Peoples, Reforming First Nations Education, 43.

217. Canada, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, Government of Canada Progress Report (2006–2012), 5.

218. Canada, Standing Senate Committee on Aboriginal Peoples, Reforming First Nations Education, 43.

219. Haldane et al., Nurturing the Learning Spirit, 12, 13.

220. Haldane et al., Nurturing the Learning Spirit, 15.

221. Canada, Standing Senate Committee on Aboriginal Peoples, Reforming First Nations Education, 44–46.

222. People for Education, First Nations, Métis and Inuit Education, 11.

“I Lost My Talk”: The erosion of language and culture

1. Canada, Task Force on Aboriginal Languages and Culture, Towards a New Beginning, 21.

2. TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 7183, file 1/25-1-1-4, part 2, Panel on Indian Research – Committee on Scientific Problems of Indian Affairs. 1952–1959, Microfilm reel C-9695, FA 10-28, H. M. Jones to E. Bussiere, 13 September 1954. [AEMR-255680]

3. MacGregor, Chief, 23.

4. Willis, Geniesh, 45–46.

5. Knockwood, Out of the Depths, 28.

6. Canadien, From Lishamie, 56.

7. Dickson, Hey, Monias!, 84.

8. TRC, NRA, INAC – Resolution Sector – IRS Historical Files Collection – Ottawa, file E4974-2, volume 2, “Prince Albert District Chiefs Meeting on the Prince Albert Student Residence, 16 April 1973,” 2. [PAR-123592-0000]

9. Canada, Task Force on Aboriginal Languages and Culture, Towards a New Beginning, 58.

10. Knockwood, Out of the Depths, 100.

11. Joe, Song of Eskasoni, 32.

12. TRC, AVS, Nellie Trapper, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, 18 June 2010, Statement Number: 02-MB-16JU10-086.

13. TRC, AVS, Greg Rainville, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, 22 June 2012, Statement Number: 2011-1752.

14. Sluman and Goodwill, John Tootoosis, 106.

15. Davis, The Wayfinders, 198.

16. Canada, Task Force on Aboriginal Languages and Culture, Towards a New Beginning, 21.

17. TRC, AVS, Doris Young, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, 22 June 2012, Statement Number: 2011-3517.

18. TRC, AVS, Martin Nicholas, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Grand Rapids, Manitoba, 24 February 2010, Statement Number: 07-MB-24FB10-001.

19. TRC, AVS, Sarah McLeod, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Kamloops, British Columbia, 8 August 2008, Statement Number: 2011-5009.

20. TRC, AVS, Archie Hyacinthe, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Kenora, Ontario, 15 March 2011, Statement Number: 2011-0279.

21. TRC, AVS, Mary Courchene, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Pine Creek First Nation, Manitoba, 28 November, 2011, Statement Number: 2011-2515.

22. TRC, AVS, Hubert Nanacowop, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, 16 June 2010, Statement Number: 02-MB-16JU10-013.

23. TRC, AVS, Richard Kaiyogana, Sr., Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Inuvik, Northwest Territories, 30 June 2011, Statement Number: SC091.

24. TRC, AVS, Agnes Mills, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Inuvik, Northwest Territories, 29 June 2011, Statement Number: SC090.

25. TRC, AVS, Betsy Olson, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, 21 June 2012, Statement Number: 2011-4378.

26. TRC, AVS, Eva Lapage, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Halifax, Nova Scotia, 29 October 2011, Statement Number: 2011-2919.

27. TRC, AVS, Roy Thunder, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, 16 June, 2010, Statement Number: 02 MB-16JU10-081.

28. TRC, AVS, Sabina Hunter, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Goose Bay, Labrador, 20 September 2011, Statement Number: SP025.

29. TRC, AVS, Rosemary Paul, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Halifax, Nova Scotia, 29 October 2011, Statement Number: 2011-2933.

30. Fontaine “Re-conceptualizing and Re-imagining Canada,” 314.

31. TRC, AVS, Henry Ruck, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, 11 February 2011, Statement Number: 03-001-10-069.

32. Kinnon, Improving Population Health, 10.

33. First Peoples’ Heritage, Language and Culture Council, Report on the Status of B.C. First Nations Languages, 2010, 7.

34. First Nations Centre, First Nations Regional Longitudinal Health Survey (RHS) 2002/03, 147.

35. Canada, Standing Committee on Aboriginal Affairs, “You Took My Talk,” 31.

36. Hallet, Chandler, and Lalonde, Aboriginal Language Knowledge, 398. See also McIvor, Napoleon, and Dickie, “Language and Culture as Protective Factors for At-Risk Communities.”

37. Bougie and Senécal, “Registered Indian Children’s School Success,”18.

38. Canada, Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Report, 3:191.

39. Assembly of First Nations, Breaking the Silence, 25.

40. Assembly of First Nations, Breaking the Silence, 108.

41. Canada, Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Report, 3:563.

42. Canada, Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Report, 3:572.

43. Canada, Task Force on Aboriginal Languages and Culture, Towards a New Beginning, 3.

44. Moseley and Nicolas, UNESCO Atlas, 114; Canada, Statistics Canada, Aboriginal Peoples in Canada in 2006, 28.

45. Assembly of First Nations, “Language and Culture.”

46. Canada, Statistics Canada, Aboriginal Peoples and Language.

47. Canada, Statistics Canada, Aboriginal Peoples and Language.

48. Canada, Statistics Canada, Aboriginal Peoples in Canada in 2006, 37.

49. Canada, Statistics Canada, Aboriginal Peoples and Language.

50. R. v. Van der Peet, [1996] 2 SCR 507.

51. Slattery, “Making Sense,” 215, 222.

52. Leitch, “Canada’s Native Languages,” 107, 111.

53. Mitchell v. M. N. R., 2001 SCC 33 at para. 10.

54. Mitchell v. M. N. R., 2001 SCC 33 at para. 10.

55. United States v. Winans, 198 U.S. 371, 25 S.Ct. 662 (1905) at 381, states: “In other words, the treaty was not a grant of rights to the Indians, but a grant of rights from them a reservation of those not granted.”

56. Ford v. Quebec (Attorney General), [1988] 2 SCR 712.

57. Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, s 22, Part I of the Constitution Act, 1982, being Schedule B to the Canada Act 1982 (UK), 1982, c 11, http://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection/CH37-4-3-2002E.pdf.

58. R. v. Van der Peet [1996] 2 SCR 507.

59. Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1887, 102.

60. TRC, NRA, INAC – Resolution Sector – IRS Historical Files Collection – Ottawa file 501/23-5-076, volume 1 (Ctrl #65-5). Philip Phelan to O. Chagnon, 6 June 1938. [NCA-008168]

61. Jenness, America’s Eskimos, 14. Jenness expressed concerns that “it is only when the child begins school that he enters an atmosphere of English, and then only in relation to his teacher and the topics that are dealt with in the classroom. Moreover, as soon as school ends for the day, the door that closes behind him shuts from his mind all the English words and phrases he has been struggling to memorize; and they seldom re-enter his consciousness until the schoolbell rings again the next morning. Under such conditions progress can hardly fail to be extremely slow, and also very superficial.” Jenness, “Eskimo Administration,” 132–133. At the same time, Jenness was, to his credit, not blind to some of the faults of the mission school. He recalled that in 1916 he encountered a fifteen-year-old who had been “raised in a mission boarding school” from “very early childhood.” He recounted that the teenager “had completely forgotten his mother tongue” but “could speak French fluently” when Jenness found him living with his family “in a primitive fishing camp at Shingle Point in the Mackenzie delta – a sad, lonely boy, unfamiliar with their way of life and unable even to converse with them except by signs.” Jenness, “Eskimo Administration,” 126.

62. In 1966, a R. C. Gagne challenged Jenness’s stress on assimilation and argued that the language was connected with the preservation of culture and personality and that Aboriginal languages should be taught in the residential schools including by teachers in the community who would not necessarily have formal qualifications. See TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada – Ottawa RG85, Perm. volume 1916, file 108-4, part 8 – “Northern Conference, 1966 The Role of Eskimo culture/language/personality triplex in Northern Education,” 29 March 1966. [RCN-006953]

63. Canada, Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Report, 3:578.

64. Canada, Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Report, 3:579–580.

65. Canada, Indian Affairs and Northern Development, Gathering Strength, 7.

66. Canada, Canadian Heritage, Aboriginal Languages Initiative (ALI) Evaluation. 3.

67. Canada, Canadian Heritage, Aboriginal Languages Initiative (ALI) Evaluation Final Report, 3.

68. Canada, Task Force on Aboriginal Languages and Culture, Towards a New Beginning, 102.

69. Assembly of First Nations, Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples at 10 Years, 18.

70. Canada. House of Commons Debates, 39th Parliament, 1st session (3 November, 2006) at 1155 (Bev Oda, Minister of Canadian Heritage and Status of Women).

71. Canada, Canadian Heritage, Aboriginal Languages Initiative (ALI) Evaluation, 5, 6.

72. The Bank of Canada’s inflation calculator suggests that an increase of almost $4 million would be necessary to keep up with inflation. Bank of Canada, Inflation Calculator.

73. Canada, Canadian Heritage, Aboriginal Languages Initiative (ALI) Evaluation, 13.

74. Email from Glenn Morrison (Policy Manager of the Aboriginal Affairs Directorate in the Citizenship Participation Branch) to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, 9 July 2012.

75. Glover, 2013–2014 Departmental Performance, 80.

76. See the program description in Canada, Canadian Heritage, Summative Evaluation of the Aboriginal Peoples’ Program, 1.

77. For example, Aboriginal Friendship Centres, Cultural Connections for Aboriginal Youth, and Young Canada Works for Aboriginal Urban Youth have all been transferred to the Department of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development. Canada, Canadian Heritage, Quarterly Financial Report.

78. Canada, Canadian Heritage, 2012–2013 Report on Plans, 21; Canada, Canadian Heritage, Summative Evaluation, 79; Email from Glenn Morrison (Policy Manager of the Aboriginal Affairs Directorate in the Citizenship Participation Branch) to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, 9 July 2012.

79. Public Law 101-477, Oct. 30, 1990, 104 STAT 1153-1156.

80. Public Law 101-477, Oct. 30, 1990, 104 STAT 1153-1156.

81. Public Law 101-477, Oct. 30, 1990, 104 STAT 1153-1156.

82. Mãori Language Act, 1987 no. 176.

83. Canada, Office of the Auditor General of Canada, 2011 June Status Report, Chapter 4, 2.

84. Canada, Office of the Auditor General of Canada, 2011 June Status Report, Chapter 4, 3.

85. Official Languages Act, RSNWT 1988, c O-1.

86. Official Languages Act, RSNWT (Nu) 1988, c O-1.

87. Official Languages Act, SNu 2008, c 10.

88. Languages Act, RSY 2002, c 133.

89. First Peoples’ Heritage, Language and Culture Act, RSBC 1996, c 147, s 6.

90. First Peoples’ Heritage, Language and Culture Regulation, BC Reg 65/2011, s 1.

91. Aboriginal Languages Recognition Act, CCSM c A1.5.

92. Regulation respecting the language of instruction of children residing on Indian reserves, RRQ, c C-11, r 8.

93. Charter of the French Language, RSQ, c C-11.

94. Charter of the French Language, RSQ, c C-11, ss 88, 97.

95. United Church of Canada, “Apology to First Nations People.”

96. The Presbyterian Church, “The Confession of the Presbyterian Church.”

97. Canadian Conference of Catholic Bishops, “Pope Benedict XVI.”

98. Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate, “An Apology to the First Nations.”

99. CBC News, “‘I Am Sorry,’ NWT Bishop Says.”

100. R. J. G. v. Canada (Attorney General), 2004 SKCA 102 (CanLII).

101. Blackwater v. Plint, 2001 BCSC 997 at paras. 436–437 (Can LII).

102. C. J. Brenner stated, “There is simply no evidence of dishonesty or intentional disloyalty on the part of Canada or the United Church towards the plaintiffs which would make it permissible or desirable to engage the law relating to fiduciary obligations. I include in this conclusion the more general complaints of the plaintiffs relating to linguistic and cultural deprivation. In my view the plaintiffs have failed to demonstrate that either Canada or the Church were acting dishonestly or were intentionally disloyal to the plaintiffs.” Blackwater v. Plint, 2001 BCSC 997 at para. 247. He also dismissed the language and culture claims on the basis that the claims were made too late under statutes of limitations. Blackwater v. Plint, 2001 BCSC 997 at paras. 260–281. On appeal, the British Columbia Court of Appeal 2003 BCCA 671 at paras. 79-82 held that the language and culture loss claims were barred by statutes of limitations. Blackwater v. Plint, 2003 BCCA 671. The Supreme Court held that statutes of limitations would be subverted and the plaintiffs inappropriately compensated “for torts that have been alleged but not proven” if language and cultural loss was included as part of damages awarded for sexual assault that were not barred by statute of limitations. Blackwater v. Plint, [2005] 3 SCR 3 at para. 85.

103. Canada, Task Force on Aboriginal Languages and Culture, Towards a New Beginning, 80.

104. Brown v. Attorney General of Canada, 2014 ONSC 6967 at para. 30.

105. UN General Assembly, United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, articles 8, 13, 14, 16, 19.

106. UN General Assembly, UN Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide.

107. Borrows, “Residential Schools,” 502n48.

108. Canada, “Statement of Apology.”

109. French, My Name Is Masak, 19.

110. Gresko, “Everyday Life at Qu’Appelle Industrial School,” 80.

111. Knockwood, Out of the Depths, 160.

112. TRC, AVS, Paul Stanley, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Deroche, British Columbia, 19 January 2010, Statement Number: 2011-5057.

113. TRC, AVS, Esther Lachinette-Diabo, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Thunder Bay, Ontario, 10 November 2010, Statement Number: 01-ON-24NO10-020.

114. TRC, AVS, Matilda Lampe, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Goose Bay, Newfoundland and Labrador, 20 September 2011, (Inuktitut words translated by Wintranslation Services, Ottawa, 2015_0244-1-1), Statement Number: 2011-4249.

115. Moseley and Nicolas, UNESCO Atlas, 115.

116. Canada, Statistics Canada, Aboriginal Languages in Canada, 2–3.

117. Moseley and Nicolas, UNESCO Atlas, 115.

118. Moseley and Nicolas, UNESCO Atlas, 119.

119. First Peoples’ Heritage, Language and Cultures Council, Report on the Status of B.C. First Nations Languages, 4, 11. The First Peoples’ Heritage, Language and Culture Council (First Peoples’ Council) is a provincial Crown corporation dedicated to First Nations languages, arts, and culture. Since its formation in 1990, the First Peoples’ Council has distributed over $21.5 million to communities to fund arts, language, and culture projects. The First Peoples’ Council monitors the status of BC’s First Nations languages, cultures, and arts, and facilitates and develops strategies that help First Nations communities recover and sustain their heritage.

120. First Peoples’ Heritage, Language and Cultures Council, Report on the Status of B.C. First Nations Languages, 29–30.

121. For the expansion, see TRC, NRA, National Capital Regional Service Centre – Library and Archives Canada – Ottawa, volume 2, file 600-1, Locator #062-94, Education of Eskimos (1949–1957), Department of Northern Affairs and National Resources to Northern Administration and Land branch, 8 April 1958. [NCA-016925]

122. Canada, Advisory Committee on Northern Development, Government Activities in the North – 1958, 71.

123. For 1949 figures, see TRC, NRA, National Capital Regional Service Centre – Library and Archives Canada – Ottawa, volume 2, file 600-1, Locator #062-94, Education of Eskimos (1949–1957), Department of Northern Affairs and National Resources to Northern Administration and Land branch, 8 April 1958 [NCA-016925]. For 1959 figure, see TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada – Ottawa, RG85, permanent volume 1468, file 630/125-9, part 1, Govt. Hostel [R. C.] Inuvik, N.W.T 1956 – December 1959, F.A. 85-4, 1959–1960 Program, Inuvik, NWT, 10 August 1959. [RCN-008488]

124. Hobart, “Report on Canadian Arctic Eskimos,” 7.

125. TRC, AVS, Willy Carpenter, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Tuktoyaktuk, Northwest Territories, 20 September 2011, Statement Number: 2011-0353.

126. Moseley and Nicolas, UNESCO Atlas, 114; Canada, Statistics Canada, Aboriginal Peoples in Canada in 2006, 28.

127. Canada, Statistics Canada, Aboriginal Peoples in Canada in 2006, 28.

128. Canada, Statistics Canada, Aboriginal Languages and Selected Vitality Indicators, 3, 5.

129. Canada, Statistics Canada, Aboriginal Peoples in Canada in 2006, 28.

130. Canada, Statistics Canada, Aboriginal Languages and Selected Vitality Indicators, 9; Canada, Statistics Canada, Aboriginal Peoples in Canada in 2006, 28.

131. Canada, Statistics Canada, Aboriginal Languages and Selected Vitality Indicators,. 9.

132. Canada, Statistics Canada, Aboriginal Peoples in Canada in 2006, 29.

133. Canada, Canadian Heritage, Summative Evaluation, 28.

134. Canada, Canadian Heritage, Aboriginal Languages Initiative (ALI) Evaluation, 13.

135. Official Languages Act, RSNWT (Nu) 1988, c O-1.

136. Canada, Standing Senate Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs, Language Rights in Canada’s North, 13.

137. Education Act, SNu 2008, c 15.

138. Crosscurrent Associates, Hay River, Languages of the Land, 26.

139. Canada, Statistics Canada, Aboriginal Peoples in Canada in 2006, 29.

140. Crosscurrent Associates, Hay River, Languages of the Land, 26.

141. Crosscurrent Associates, Hay River, Languages of the Land, 26; Moseley and Nicolas, UNESCO Atlas, 120; Tulloch, Preserving Inuit Dialects in Nunavut, 10.

142. Canada, Standing Senate Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs, Language Rights in Canada’s North, 19–20.

143. McIvor, Language Nest Programs in BC, 4. The identity of the speaker was not provided in the publication.

144. Hume, Rutman, and Hubberstey, Language Nest Evaluation.

145. McIvor, Language Nest Programs in BC, 17. The identity of the speaker was not provided in the publication.

146. McIvor, Language Nest Programs in BC, 22.

147. McIvor, Language Nest Programs in BC, 22, 23.

148. Hume, Rutman, and Hubberstey, Language Nest Evaluation, iv–v.

149. Norris, “Aboriginal Languages in Canada,” 20.

150. Moseley and Nicolas, UNESCO Atlas, 119.

151. Canada, Statistics Canada, Aboriginal Languages and Selected Vitality Indicators, 6.

152. Norris, “Aboriginal Languages in Canada,” 24.

153. Canada, Task Force on Aboriginal Languages and Culture, Towards a New Beginning, 28.

154. TRC, AVS, Sabrina Williams, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Victoria, British Columbia, 13 April 2012, Statement Number: 2011-3982.

An attack on Aboriginal health: The marks and the memories

1. TRC, AVS, Ruby Firth, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Inuvik, Northwest Territories, 22 July 2011, Statement Number: 2011-0326.

2. Bryce, National Crime, 14.

3. Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs for the Year Ended June 30th, 1906, 274–275.

4. Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 4037, file 317,021, Saturday Night, untitled editorial, 23 November 1907; Montreal Star, “Death Rate Among Indians Abnormal,” 15 November 1907; Ottawa Citizen, “Schools and White Plague,” 16 November 1907.

5. Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1906, 274–275.

6. Bryce, Report on the Indian Schools, 18.

7. Bryce, Report on the Indian Schools, 17.

8. Bryce, Report on the Indian Schools, 18.

9. Scott, “Indian Affairs 1867–1912,” 615.

10. Kelm, Colonizing Bodies, 61.

11. TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6039, file 160-1, part 1, Martin Benson, to J. D. McLean, 15 July 1897. [100.00109]

12. Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1904, 204.

13. TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6012, file 1-1-5A, part 2, R. A. Hoey to Dr. McGill, 31 May 1940 [BIR-000248]. For date of Hoey’s appointment, see Manitoba Historical Society, “Memorable Manitobans: Robert Alexander Hoey (1883–1965).”

14. TRC, NRA, INAC – Resolution Sector – IRS Historical Files Collection – Ottawa, file 6-21-1, volume 4, control 25-2, The National Association of Principals and Administrators of Indian Residences Brief Presented to the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development as requested by Mr. E. A. Cote, Deputy Minister, prepared in 1967, presented 15 January 1968. [NCA-011495]

15. For Beauval fire, see TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6300, file 650-1, part 1, Louis Mederic Adam to Indian Affairs, 22 September 1927 [BVL-000879]. For Cross Lake fire, see TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6260, file 577-1, part 1, J. L. Fuller to A. MacNamara, 8 March 1930 [CLD-000933-0000]; TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6260, file 577-1, part 1, William Gordon to Assistant Deputy and Secretary, Indian Affairs, 10 March 1930. [CLD-000934]

16. For deaths, see Stanley, “Alberta’s Half-Breed Reserve,” 96–98; Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6300, file 650-1, part 1, O. Charlebois to Duncan Scott, 21 September 1927 [BVL-000874]; Louis Mederic Adam to Indian Affairs, 22 September 1927 [BVL-000879]; TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6260, file 577-1, part 1, J. L. Fuller to A. McNamara, 8 March 1930 [CLD-000933-0000]; William Gordon to Assistant Deputy and Secretary, Indian Affairs, 10 March 1930 [CLD-000934]; TRC, NRA, INAC – Resolution Sector – IRS Historical Files Collection – Ottawa, file 675/6-2-018, volume 2, D. Greyeyes to Indian Affairs, 22 June 1968. [GDC-005571]

17. Canada, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1893, 173.

18. Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 3674, file 11422-5, H. Reed to Deputy Superintendent General of Indian Affairs, 13 May 1891.

19. TRC, AVS, Paul Stanley, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Deroche, British Columbia, 19 January 2010, Statement Number: 2011-5057.

20. Brass, I Walk in Two Worlds, 25.

21. Brass, I Walk in Two Worlds, 25–26.

22. Moran, Stoney Creek Woman, 53–54.

23. Canada, Health Canada, Canada’s Food Guides from 1942 to 1992.

24. TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6306, file 652-5, part 6, L. B. Pett to P. E. Moore, 8 December 1947. [SMD-001897-0000]

25. TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG29, volume 973, file 388-6-1, part 2, Nutrition Division, Department of National Health and Welfare “Illness Found in Indian Residential Schools” undated. [AEMR-174244].

26. TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG29, volume 973, file 388-6-1, part 1, L. B. Pett to P. E. Moore, 8 December 1947. [PAR-000365-0000]

27. TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 8796, file 1/25-13, part 4, L. B. Pett to H. M. Jones, 21 March 1958. [NPC-400776]

28. TRC, AVS, David Charleson, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Deroche, British Columbia, 20 January 2010, Statement Number: 2011-5043.

29. Canada, Indian Residential Schools Adjudication Secretariat, “Adjudication Secretariat Statistics.”

30. First Nations Centre, First Nations Regional Longitudinal Health Survey (RHS) 2002/03, 135.

31. TRC, AVS, Jean Pierre Bellemare, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, La Tuque, Québec, 5 March 2013, Statement Number: SP104.

32. TRC, AVS, Andrew Yellowback, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Kamloops, British Columbia, 9 August 2009, Statement Number: 2011-5015.

33. See, for example, TRC, AVS, [Name redacted], Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, 18 June 2010, Statement Number: 02-MB-18JU10-055; TRC, AVS, Myrna Kaminawaish, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Thunder Bay, Ontario, 7 January 2011, Statement Number: 01-ON-06JA11-004; TRC, AVS, Percy Tuesday, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, 18 June 2010, Statement Number: 02-MB-18JU10-083; TRC, AVS, Isaac Daniels, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, 22 June 2012, Statement Number: 2011-1779.

34. TRC, AVS, Marlene Kayseas, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Regina, Saskatchewan, 16 January 2012, Statement Number: SP035. For gifts of candy, see TRC, AVS, Elaine Durocher, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, 16 June 2010, Statement Number: 02-MB-16JU10-059; TRC, AVS, John B. Custer, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, 19 June 2010, Statement Number: 02-MB-19JU10-057; TRC, AVS, Louise Large, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, St. Paul, Alberta, 7 January 2011, Statement Number: 01-AB-06JA11-012. For field trips, see TRC, AVS, Ben Pratt, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Regina, Saskatchewan, 18 January 2012, Statement Number: 2011-3318.

35. See, for example, TRC, AVS, [Name redacted], Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, 18 June 2010, Statement Number: 02-MB-18JU10-055; TRC, AVS, Leona Bird, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, 21 June 2012, Statement Number: 2011-4415; TRC, AVS, Barbara Ann Pahpasay Skead, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, 17 June 2010, Statement Number: 02-MB-16JU10-159.

36. TRC, AVS, Josephine Sutherland, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Timmins, Ontario, 8 November 2010, Statement Number: 01-ON4-6NOV10-013.

37. TRC, AVS, [Name redacted], Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Val d’Or, Québec, 6 February 2012, Statement Number: SP101.

38. Corrado and Cohen, Mental Health Profiles, 19.

39. TRC, AVS, Anita Lenoir, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Yellowknife, Northwest Territories, 14 April 2011. Statement Number: 2011-0239.

40. TRC, AVS, Paul Kaludjau, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, 16 June 2010, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Statement Number: SC093.

41. TRC, AVS, Doris Young, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, 22 June 2012, Statement Number: 2011-3517.

42. TRC, AVS, Shirley Waskewitch, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, 24 June 2012, Statement Number: 2011-3521.

43. TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG29, volume 2764, file 822-1-A779, part 1, F. R. Decosse to W. L. Falconer, 17 April 1958. [NPC-601091a]

44. TRC, AVS, Rose Marie Prosper, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Halifax, Nova Scotia, 28 October 2011, Statement Number: 2011-2868.

45. TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG29, volume 3404, file 823-1-A974, Victor Rassier to Department of Indian Affairs Medical Branch, 5 June 1934. [NPC-603124]

46. Archibald, Final Report of the Aboriginal Healing Foundation, 3:97.

47. TRC, AVS, Charles Cardinal, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, St. Paul, Alberta, 7 January 2011, Statement Number: 01-AB-06JA11-005.

48. Meyercook and Labelle, “Namaji: Two-Spirit Organizing,” 30.

49. TRC, AVS, Laurie McDonald, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Beausejour, Manitoba, 4 September 2010, Statement Number: 01-MB-3-6SE10-005.

50. Allan and Smylie, First Peoples, Second Class Treatment, 43.

51. TRC, AVS, Ken Ward, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Gambier Island, British Columbia, 29 July 2011, Statement Number: 2011-3279.

52. TRC, AVS, Ken Ward, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Gambier Island, British Columbia, 29 July 2011, Statement Number: 2011-3279.

53. Smylie, Fell, and Ohlsson, “A Review of Aboriginal Infant Mortality Rates,” 143.

54. Smylie, Fell, and Ohlsson, “A Review of Aboriginal Infant Mortality Rates,”145.

55. Smylie, Fell, and Ohlsson, “A Review of Aboriginal Infant Mortality Rates,” 147.

56. Oliver, Peters, and Kohen, “Mortality Rates among Children and Teenagers,” 2.

57. Canada, Statistics Canada, “Life Expectancy.”

58. Tjepkema and Wilkins, “Remaining Life Expectancy.”

59. First Nations Centre, First Nations Regional Longitudinal Health Survey (RHS) 2002/03, 78.

60. First Nations Centre, First Nations Regional Longitudinal Health Survey (RHS) 2002/03, 274–275.

61. Oliver, Peters, and Kohen, “Mortality Rates among Children and Teenagers,” 3.

62. Karmali et al., “Epidemiology of Severe Trauma,” 1007.

63. TRC, AVS, Ida Ralph, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Thunder Bay, Ontario, 24 November 2010, Statement Number: 01-ON-24NOV10-002.

64. Oliver, Peters, and Kohen, “Mortality Rates among Children and Teenagers,” 3.

65. Kirmayer et al., Suicide among Aboriginal People in Canada, xv, 14–15, 21–22.

66. TRC, AVS, Katherine Copenace, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, 16 June 2010, Statement Number: 02-MB-16JU10-129.

67. TRC, AVS, Maurice Marceau, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, 17 June 2010, Statement Number: 02-MB-17JU10-011.

68. TRC, AVS, Tanya Tungilik, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Rankin Inlet, Northwest Territories, 21 March 2011, Statement Number: 2011-0159.

69. Laliberté and Tousignant, “Alcohol and Other Contextual,” 215–221.

70. Kirmayer et al., Suicide among Aboriginal People in Canada, 26.

71. Kirmayer et al., Suicide among Aboriginal People in Canada, 24.

72. TRC, AVS, Florence Horassi, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Tulita, Northwest Territories, 10 May 2011, Statement Number: 2011-0394.

73. First Nations Centre, First Nations Regional Longitudinal Health Survey RHS) 2002/03, 115.

74. Pearce, “The Cedar Project,” 322.

75. Tait, Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, xv.

76. Tait, Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, 251.

77. TRC, AVS, [Name redacted] Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Deroche, British Columbia, 19 January 2010, Statement Number: 2011-5055.

78. Tait, Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, xv.

79. Edward John as quoted in Milloy, A National Crime, 295.

80. Barlow, Residential Schools, Prisons and HIV/AIDS, 15–16.

81. Canada, Public Health Agency of Canada, “Chapter 8: HIV/AIDS among Aboriginal People.”

82. Jackson and Reimer, Canadian Aboriginal People Living with HIV/AIDS, 53.

83. Ship and Norton, “HIV/AIDS and Aboriginal Women,” 25–31.

84. Craib et al., “Risk Factors for Elevated HIV Incidence,” 168.

85. TRC, AVS, Leona Bird, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, 21 June 2012, Statement Number: 2011-4415.

86. Canada, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, Evaluation of Community-Based Healing Initiatives, 5.

87. First Nations Centre, First Nations Regional Longitudinal Health Survey (RHS) 2002/03, 136.

88. TRC, AVS, Anne Thomas, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, 17 June 2010, Statement Number: 02-MB-17JU10-058.

89. TRC, AVS, Angus Havioyak, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Kugluktuk, Nunavut, 13 April 2011, Statement Number: 2011-0518.

90. TRC, AVS, Mabel Brown, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Inuvik, Northwest Territories, 28 September 2011, Statement Number: 2011-0325.

91. Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, “Social Determinants of Inuit Health in Canada,” 17.

92. First Nations Information Governance Centre, Regional Health Survey (RHS) Phase 2, 19.

93. Kirmayer et al., Suicide among Aboriginal People in Canada, 102; Kinnon, Improving Population Health, 17.

94. Environics Institute, Urban Aboriginal Peoples Study, 116.

95. Garner et al., “The Health of First Nations,” 4–5.

96. Archibald, Final Report of the Aboriginal Healing Foundation, 3:97.

97. Canada, Statistics Canada, “Study: Select Health Indicators.”

98. Council of Canadian Academics, Aboriginal Food Security, xiv.

99. Willows et al., “Associations between Household Food.”

100. Canada, Statistics Canada, “Study: Select Health Indicators.”

101. First Nations and Inuit Regional Health Survey National Steering Committee, Regional Health Survey, 49.

102. Allan and Smylie, First Peoples, Second Class Treatment, 44.

103. Beeby, “Aboriginal Affairs Spending,” CBC News; Staniforth, “Where Did Aboriginal Affairs?,” The Nation.

104. Aboriginal Healing Foundation, 2009 Annual Report, 19.

105. Canada, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, Evaluation of Community-Based Healing Initiatives, 4.

106. Canada, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, Evaluation of Community-Based Healing Initiatives, 4, 5.

107. Aboriginal Healing Foundation, 2014 Annual Report, 13.

108. Canada, Standing Senate Committee on Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development, Study and Recommendations, 10.

109. TRC, Interim Report, 10.

110. Aboriginal Healing Foundation, 2009 Annual Report, 4.

111. Canada, Standing Senate Committee on Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development, Study and Recommendations, 4, 5, 16.

112. Canada, Health Canada, “First Nations, Inuit and Aboriginal Health: Indian Residential Schools Resolution Health Support Program.”

113. TRC, AVS, [Name redacted] Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, 1 July 2011, Statement Number: 2011-0306.

114. Aboriginal Healing Foundation, 2009 Annual Report, 8.

115. Canada, Standing Senate Committee on Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development, Study and Recommendations, 5–7.

116. Canada, Standing Senate Committee on Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development, Study and Recommendations, 9–10.

117. TRC, AVS, Jackie Fletcher, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Spanish, Ontario, 12 September 2009, Statement Number: 2011-5025.

118. TRC, Interim Report, “Recommendation 10,” 28.

119. TRC, AVS, Helen Doyle, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Halifax, Nova Scotia, 29 October 2011, Statement Number: 2011-2881.

120. Picard, “Harper’s Disregard for Aboriginal Health,” Globe and Mail; National Aboriginal Health Organization, “Announcement.”

121. Young, “Review of Research on Aboriginal Populations,” 327.

122. Murphy, “Pauktuutit Wants Action,” Nunatsiaq Online.

123. Quoted in Stout and Peters, kiskinohamâtôtâpânâsk, 70.

124. Reimer et al., The Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement’s Common Experience Payment and Healing, xiii–xv, 37.

125. Canada, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, “Water”; Canada, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, “Backgrounder.”

126. Canada, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, Progress Report 2006–2012, 12.

127. Neegan Burnside Ltd., National Assessment of First Nations Water and Wastewater Systems, i–iii.

128. Canada, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, Final Report: Evaluation of First Nations Water and Wastewater Action Plan, 18.

129. Safe Drinking Water for First Nations Act, SC 2013, c 21.

130. See Safe Drinking Water for First Nations Act, SC 2013, c 21, s. 3; Canada, Standing Senate Committee on Aboriginal Peoples, Sixth Report: Bill S-8.

131. Canada, Standing Senate Committee on Aboriginal Peoples, Sixth Report: Bill S-8.

132. Canada, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, Final Report: Evaluation of First Nations Water and Wastewater Action Plan, iii.

133. Canada, Standing Committee on Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development, Seventh Report.

134. Canada, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, Progress Report 2006–2012, 12.

135. Canada, Minister of Indian and Northern Affairs, Government Response to the Seventh Report.

136. United Nations General Assembly, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, para. 24.

137. Canada, Statistics Canada, “Study: Select Health Indicators.”

138. “The active TB reported incidence rate for First Nations living on-reserve in the seven regions of Health Canada’s First Nations and Inuit Health Branch was 26.6 per 100,000 in 2008, which was 29.6 times higher than the Canadian-born non-Aboriginal population.” Canada, Health Canada, “Summary of Epidemiology of Tuberculosis.

139. Curry, “Aboriginals in Canada,” Globe and Mail.

140. Canada, Statistics Canada, “Study: Life Expectancy.”

141. Council of Australian Governments, National Indigenous Reform Agreement.

142. Australian Government, Closing the Gap, 6–18.

143. Canadian Medical Association, “Aboriginal Health Programming,” E739.

144. Canadian Medical Association, “Aboriginal Health Programming,” E739.

145. Canadian Medical Association, “Aboriginal Health Programming,” E739

146. Canadian Medical Association, “Aboriginal Health Programming,” E739.

147. National Collaborating Centre for Aboriginal Health, Looking for Aboriginal Health, 24.

148. First Nations Centre, First Nations Regional Longitudinal Health Survey (RHS) 2002/03, 132.

149. National Collaborating Centre for Aboriginal Health, Looking for Aboriginal Health, 6, 24–25.

150. National Collaborating Centre for Aboriginal Health, Looking for Aboriginal Health, 50.

151. National Collaborating Centre for Aboriginal Health, Looking for Aboriginal Health, 8.

152. National Collaborating Centre for Aboriginal Health, Looking for Aboriginal Health, 8.

153. British Columbia and First Nations Health Society, British Columbia Tripartite Framework Agreement on First Nation Health Governance, s 6.3 and Schedule 3 s 1, 19, 49.

154. British Columbia and First Nations Health Society, British Columbia Tripartite Framework Agreement on First Nation Health Governance, Schedule 5, s 2; British Columbia, Tripartite Governance Committee, “Implementing the Vision,” 10.

155. British Columbia and First Nations Health Society, British Columbia Tripartite Framework Agreement on First Nation Health Governance, s I.

156. Kinnon, Improving Population Health, 17–18.

157. National Collaborating Centre for Aboriginal Health, Looking for Aboriginal Health, 7.

158. Canada (Indian Affairs) v. Daniels, 2014 FCA 101 (CanLII) at para.

159. 159. Daniels v. Canada, 2013 FC 6 (CanLII); Canada (Indian Affairs) v. Daniels, 2014 FCA 101 (CanLII).

160. Chansonneuve, Addictive Behaviours, 37.

161. Archibald, Final Report of the Aboriginal Healing Foundation, 3:87.

162. Aboriginal Healing Foundation, List of Contacts.

163. Ontario, Ministry of Community and Social Services, “Aboriginal Health and Wellness Strategy.”

164. National Aboriginal Health Organization, An Overview of Traditional Knowledge, 8.

165. Chansonneuve, Addictive Behaviours, 1.

166. Canada, Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Report, 3:148.

167. Chansonneuve, Addictive Behaviours, 60.

168. Kirmayer et al., Suicide among Aboriginal People in Canada, 106.

169. Chandler and Lalonde, “Cultural Continuity,” 12.

170. Hallett, Chandler, and Lalonde, “Aboriginal Language Knowledge,” 398

171. Hallett, Chandler, and Lalonde, “Aboriginal Language Knowledge,” 398.

172. Madeleine Keteskwew Dion Stout quoted in Allan and Smylie, First Peoples, Second Class Treatment, 28.

173. Manitoba, Provincial Court of Manitoba, Report under the Fatality Inquiries Act into the Death of Brian Lloyd Sinclair, 66–71, 181.

174. Manitoba, Provincial Court of Manitoba, Report under the Fatality Inquiries Act into the Death of Brian Lloyd Sinclair, 186–187.

175. Health Council of Canada, Empathy, Dignity and Respect, 10.

176. Smylie, “A Guide for Health Professionals Working with Aboriginal Peoples,” 1.

177. Smylie, “A Guide for Health Professionals Working with Aboriginal Peoples,” 5.

178. UN General Assembly, United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, articles 7, 21, 22, 24.

179. UN General Assembly, United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, article 23.

180. UN General Assembly, United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, articles 24, 31.

181. Boyer, “The International Right to Health for Indigenous Peoples,” 5, 10, 11.

182. See, for example, Chartrand “Maskikiwenow: The Métis Right to Health,” 27.

183. National Collaborating Centre for Aboriginal Health, Looking for Aboriginal Health, 43–50.

184. Boyer, “Aboriginal Health: A Constitutional Rights Analysis,” 5, 20–21.

185. Boyer, “Aboriginal Health: A Constitutional Rights Analysis,” 20–21, 23.

186. Boyer, “Aboriginal Health: A Constitutional Rights Analysis,” 18, 19.

187. National Collaborating Centre for Aboriginal Health, Looking for Aboriginal Health, 43–50. See, for example, James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement, Northeastern Quebec Agreement, Inuvialuit Final Agreement, Sechelt Indian Band Self-Government Act, Metis Settlements Accord, Gwich’in Comprehensive Land Claims Agreement, Carcross/Tagish First Nations Agreement, Nunavut Land Claim Agreement, Nisga’a Final Agreement, Tlicho Agreement.

188. Tait, Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, xix. See also Chandler and Lalonde, “Cultural Continuity”; and Kirmayer, Suicide among Aboriginal People.

189. Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, “Social Determinants of Inuit Health in Canada,” 21.

190. Benoit, Carroll, and Chaudhry, “In Search of a Healing Place,” 821, 826.

191. Canada, Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Report, 3:184.

192. Canada, Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Report, 3:102.

193. Canada, Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Report, 3:240.

194. Canada, Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Report, 3:246.

195. Lecompte, “Aboriginal Health Human Resources,” 17, 21.

196. Canada, Evaluation Directorate of Health Canada and Public Health Agency Canada, Evaluation of the First Nations and Inuit Health, 11.

197. Canada, Health Canada, “Aboriginal Health Human Resources Initiative”; Canada, Health Canada, Pan-Canadian Health; Canada, Health Canada, “First Nations and Inuit Health”; Canada, Evaluation Directorate of Health Canada and Public Health Agency Canada, Evaluation of the First Nations and Inuit Health.

198. Canada, Evaluation Directorate of Health Canada and Public Health Agency Canada, Evaluation of the First Nations and Inuit Health, iii, iv.

199. Canada, Evaluation Directorate of Health Canada and Public Health Agency Canada, Evaluation of the First Nations and Inuit Health, ii.

200. Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement, Official Court Notice, Schedules O-1, O-2, O-4; Presbyterian Church in Canada Archives, “Brief Administrative History”; Anglican Church of Canada, “Anglican Healing Fund”; United Church of Canada, “The Healing Fund.”

201. United Church of Canada, “Fall 2013 Healing Fund Grants.”

202. Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement, Schedule O-3, “Catholic Entities Church Agreement,” 47.

203. Canada Health Act, RSC 1985, c C-6, s 3.

204. Yukon Health Act, SY 2002, c 106 s 5.

205. Yukon Health Act, SY 2002, c 106 s 5.

206. Ontario, Ministry of Community and Social Services, “Aboriginal Healing and Wellness Strategy.”

207. National Aboriginal Health Organization, An Overview of Traditional Knowledge, 8.

208. Jiwa, Kelly, and St. Pierre-Hansen, “Healing the Community.”

209. Hamilton Health Sciences Corp. v. D. H.,2014 ONCJ 603 (CanLII) at paras. 79–81.

210. Hamilton Health Sciences Corp. v. D. H., 2015 ONCJ 229 at paras. 83(a)–83(b).

211. TRC, AVS, Trudy King, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Fort Resolution, NWT, 28 April 2011, Statement Number: 2011-0381.

212. Canada, Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Report, 3:201.

213. Canada, Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Report, 3:289.

A denial of justice

1. TRC, AVS, Norman Courchene, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, 16 June 2010, Statement Number: 02-MB-16JU10-065.

2. TRC, AVS, Norman Mirasty, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, 21 June 2012, Statement Number: 2011-4391.

3. TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6032, file 150-40A, part 1, Appointment of Truant Officers, D. C. Scott, 7 February 1927. [MRS-000045]

4. TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6371, file 764-1, part 1, W. J. Dilworth to Assistant Deputy and Secretary, Indian Affairs, 8 August 1914 [PUL-000900]. For other examples of the police being used to force parents to send their children to school, see TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6445, file 881-10, part 5, Agent’s Report on Stuart Lake Agency for September, Robert Howe, 2 October 1940 [LEJ-002079]; TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6445, file 881-10, part 6, Report of Corporal L. F. Fielder, 14 October 1943 [LEJ-001389]; TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6445, file 881-10, part 7, R. Howe to Indian Affairs, 7 October 1946. [LEJ-001830]

5. TRC, AVS, Robert Keesick, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, 16 June 2010, Statement Number: 02-MB-16JU10-038.

6. LeBeuf, The Role of the Canadian Mounted Police, 75–77.

7. TRC, NRA, Report on Allegations of Flogging at Shubenacadie Indian Residential School, L. A. Audette to T. G. Murray, Superintendent General, DIAND, Ottawa, from Deschatelets Archives, Oblates of Mary Immaculate, Ottawa HR 6811.C73 R, Doc #1, Sent from J. R. Miller to I. Knockwood on Sept. 17, 1934, 4–5. [SRS-000187]

8. TRC, NRA, Report on Allegations of Flogging at Shubenacadie Indian Residential School, L. A. Audette to T. G. Murray, Superintendent General, DIAND, Ottawa, from Deschatelets Archives, Oblates of Mary Immaculate, Ottawa HR 6811.C73 R, Doc #1, Sent from J. R. Miller to I. Knockwood on Sept. 17, 1934, 6–7. [SRS-000187]

9. TRC, NRA, Report on Allegations of Flogging at Shubenacadie Indian Residential School, L. A. Audette to T. G. Murray, Superintendent General, DIAND, Ottawa, from Deschatelets Archives, Oblates of Mary Immaculate, Ottawa HR 6811.C73 R, Doc #1, Sent from J. R. Miller to I. Knockwood on Sept. 17, 1934, 8. [SRS-000187]

10. TRC, NRA, Report on Allegations of Flogging at Shubenacadie Indian Residential School, L. A. Audette to T. G. Murray, Superintendent General, DIAND, Ottawa, from Deschatelets Archives, Oblates of Mary Immaculate, Ottawa HR 6811.C73 R, Doc #1, Sent from J. R. Miller to I. Knockwood on Sept. 17, 1934, 14. [SRS-000187]

11. TRC, NRA, Report on Allegations of Flogging at Shubenacadie Indian Residential School, L. A. Audette to T. G. Murray, Superintendent General, DIAND, Ottawa, from Deschatelets Archives, Oblates of Mary Immaculate, Ottawa HR 6811.C73 R, Doc #1, Sent from J. R. Miller to I. Knockwood on Sept. 17, 1934, 16. [SRS-000187]

12. TRC, NRA, Report on Allegations of Flogging at Shubenacadie Indian Residential School, L. A. Audette to T. G. Murray, Superintendent General, DIAND, Ottawa, from Deschatelets Archives, Oblates of Mary Immaculate, Ottawa HR 6811.C73 R, Doc #1, Sent from J. R. Miller to I. Knockwood on Sept. 17, 1934, 17. [SRS-000187]

13. Canada, Department of Indian Affairs Canada, Memorandum from William Cameron to the Deputy Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 2552, file 112-220-1, Martin Benson to Deputy Superintendent General of Indian Affairs, Ottawa, 25 September 1903.

14. TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6320, file 658-1, part 1, Microfilm reel C-9802, M. Benson to Deputy Superintendent General, Indian Affairs, 21 February 1907. [120.00284]

15. Canada, Department of Indian Affairs, Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, 1910, 273.

16. Miller, Shingwauk’s Vision, 357. For account of trial, see Public Archives Canada, “Damages for Plaintiff in Miller v. Ashton Case: Girls Too Severely Punished,” in Brantford Expositor, 1 April 1914, RG10, volume 2771, file 154, 845, part 1.

17. The first successful prosecution of a staff member for the sexual abuse of a student that the Truth and Reconciliation Commission has identified took place in 1945. See TRC, NRA, Library and Archives Canada, RG10, volume 6309, file 654-1, part 3, Royal Canadian Mounted Police, Constable A. Zimmerman, 28 July 1945. [GDC-010369-0001]

18. For examples of dismissal, rather than prosecution and a failure to contact parents, see F. S. M. v. Clarke, 1999 CanLII 9405 (BC SC) and R. v. Frappier [1990] YJ No 163 (Territorial Court).

19. The inquiries described later in this chapter in British Columbia; Chesterfield Inlet; and Fort Albany, Ontario were all established in response to Aboriginal pressure.

20. TRC, AVS, Doris Young, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation of Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, 22 June 2012, Statement Number: 2011-3517.

21. TRC, AVS, Doris Young, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation of Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, 22 June 2012, Statement Number: 2011-3517.

22. LeBeuf, The Role of the Canadian Mounted Police, 91.

23. Nuu-chah-nulth Tribal Council, Indian Residential Schools, 201.

24. TRC, ASAGR, Royal Canadian Mounted Police, M. W. Pacholuk, Final Report of the Native Indian Residential School Task Force, Project E-NIRS, Royal Canadian Mounted Police, no date, 1. [RCMP-564517]

25. TRC, ASAGR, Royal Canadian Mounted Police, M. W. Pacholuk, Final Report of the Native Indian Residential School Task Force, Project E-NIRS, Royal Canadian Mounted Police, no date, 17. [RCMP-564517]

26. TRC, ASAGR, Royal Canadian Mounted Police, M. W. Pacholuk, Final Report of the Native Indian Residential School Task Force, Project E-NIRS, Royal Canadian Mounted Police, no date, 40. [RCMP-564517]

27. Section 139 of the Criminal Code of Canada, previously “Special Provisions” (including “Corroboration,” “Marriage a defence,” “Burden of Proof,” and “Previous sexual intercourse with accused”), was repealed by An Act to amend the Criminal Code in relation to sexual offences and other offences against the person and to amend certain other Acts in relation thereto or in consequence thereof, SC 1980-81-82-83, c 125, s 5, and in 1985, the An Act to amend the Criminal Code and the Canada Evidence Act, RSC 1985 (3d Supp.), c 19, s 11, was introduced, which created the existing Criminal Code of Canada, RSC, 1985, c C-46, s 274.

28. TRC, ASAGR, Royal Canadian Mounted Police, M. W. Pacholuk, Final Report of the Native Indian Residential School Task Force, Project E-NIRS, Royal Canadian Mounted Police, no date, 109. [RCMP-564517]

29. TRC, ASAGR, Royal Canadian Mounted Police, M. W. Pacholuk, Final Report of the Native Indian Residential School Task Force, Project E-NIRS, Royal Canadian Mounted Police, no date, 45. [RCMP-564517]

30. TRC, ASAGR, Royal Canadian Mounted Police, M. W. Pacholuk, Final Report of the Native Indian Residential School Task Force, Project E-NIRS, Royal Canadian Mounted Police, no date, 43. [RCMP-564517]

31. Skelton and Kines, “School Abuse Queries,” Vancouver Sun; TRC, ASAGR, Royal Canadian Mounted Police, Affidavit of Stephen Thatcher-Investigator, no style of cause, no court file number, no date, paras. 23–25. [RCMP-564327]

32. TRC, ASAGR, Royal Canadian Mounted Police, M. W. Pacholuk, Final Report of the Native Indian Residential School Task Force, Project E-NIRS, Royal Canadian Mounted Police, no date, 19, 28. [RCMP-564517]

33. TRC, ASAGR, Marius Tungilik, “A Report on the Turquetil Hall Reunion, In the Spirit of Healing: A Special Reunion, Chesterfield Inlet, NWT,” 19–23 July 1993, 14. [AGCA-563571]

34. Gyorgy, “Bishop’s Apology Falls Flat,” Gazette (Montréal).

35. Gyorgy, “Bishop’s Apology Falls Flat,” Gazette (Montréal).

36. Howard, “Probes Document Abuse at NWT Church Schools,” Globe and Mail.

37. Peterson, Sir Joseph Bernier Federal Day School, 7.

38. Peterson, Sir Joseph Bernier Federal Day School, 6–7.

39. Howard, “Probes Document Abuse at NWT Church Schools,” Globe and Mail.

40. Gregoire, “Marius Tungilik,” Nunatsiaq Online.

41. Moon, “Hundreds of Cree and Ojibwa Children Violated,”Globe and Mail.

42. Canada, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development, Report of the Testimonial/Panel Component, 3.

43. TRC, ASAGR, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development, St. Anne’s Residential School Reunion and Conference, Report of the Testimonial/Panel Component, Fort Albany First Nation, 20 August 1992, 3.

44. TRC, ASAGR, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development, St. Anne’s Residential School Reunion and Conference, Report of the Testimonial/Panel Component, Fort Albany First Nation, 20 August 1992, 5.

45. Mary Anne Nakogee-Davis, “Summary Report–St. Anne’s Residential School 1992 Reunion and Keykaywin Conference,” 21 April 1994, 9. [AANDC-906125]

46. O’Grady, “School’s Former Staff Face Assault Charges,” Toronto Star.

47. Shea, Institutional Child Abuse, 10–15.

48. As quoted in R. v. O’Connor [1995] 4 SCR 411 at para. 39.

49. R. v. O’Connor [1992] BCJ No 2569 at paras. 19–20.

50. R. v. O’Connor [1992] BCJ No 2569 at paras. 66–68.

51. Neel, “Two Faces of Justice,” The Province (Vancouver).

52. R. v. O’Connor, [1995] 4 SCR 411 at para. 91.

53. Criminal Code of Canada, s 278.3(4) as amended by SC 1997 c 30, s 1.

54. R. v. O’Connor, 1996 CanLII 8458 (BCSC).

55. R. v. O’Connor, 1996 CanLII 8393 (BCCA).

56. R. v. O’Connor, 1997 CanLII 4071 (BCCA).

57. R. v. O’Connor, 1998 CanLII 14987 (BCCA).

58. McLintock, “He Finally Confesses,” The Province (Vancouver).

59. Vancouver Sun, “Bishop O’Connor Diverted.”

60. Carter, Lost Harvests.

61. Carter, Lost Harvests.

62. St. Catharine’s Milling and Lumber Company v. The Queen, [1888] UKPC 70, [1888] 14 AC 46 (12 December 1888).

63. Calder v. Attorney General (B.C.), [1973] SCJ No 56 (SCC).

64. TRC, NRA, Trevor Sutter, “Starr Admits to Sexual Assaults,” The Leader-Post (Regina), Library and Archives Canada Reel NJ FM 752, 3 February 1993, A3 [GDC-026641]; Treble and O’Hara, “Residential Church School Scandal.”

65. B. (D.) v. Canada (Attorney General), 2000 SKQB 574(CanLII). For another case dismissing a claim brought against Starr see C.M. v. Canada (A.G.), 2004 SKQB 175(CanLII) at paras. 13–15, 32.

66. B. (D.) v. Canada (Attorney General), 2000 SKQB 574(CanLII) at para. 49.

67. B. (D.) v. Canada (Attorney General), 2000 SKQB 574 (CanLII) at para. 63.

68. B. (D.) v. Canada (Attorney General), 2000 SKQB 574 (CanLII) at paras. 63–64.

69. Moran, “The Role of Reparative Justice,” 534.

70. Law Commission of Canada, Restoring Dignity, 409.

71. M.M. v. Roman Catholic Church of Canada et al., 2001 MBCA 148 (CanLII) at paras. 41–42, 64.

72. Limitation of Actions Amendment Act, SM 2002 c 5, s 2.1(2).

73. Limitations Act, RSA 2000 c L-2, s 3.

74. Limitations Act, RSA 2000 c L-2, s 13.

75. Arishenkoff v. British Columbia, 2004 BCCA 299 (CanLII).

76. Limitations of Actions Act, RSS 1978 c L-15, s 3.1 (statute repealed).

77. P.(W.) v. Canada (Attorney General), 1999 SKQB 17; M.A. v. Canada (Attorney General), [1999] SJ No 538 (SKQB).

78. Roach, “Blaming the Victim.”

79. W. (D.) v. Canada (Attorney General), 1999 SKQB 187 (CanLII) at para. 38.

80. Q. (A.) v. Canada (Attorney General), 1998 CanLII 13810 (SKQB) at paras. 62, 76. Justice Matheson concluded that “there is nothing in the treatment plan which identifies the alcohol problem as being attributable, in any manner, to the sexual assaults on Mr. [C. C.]. Thus, the claim for the cost of alcohol treatment cannot be viewed as justified.”

81. In Q.(A.) v. Canada (Attorney General), 1998 CanLII 13810 (SKQB) at paras. 54, 57, Justice Matheson rejected the fitness club proposal stating, “No doubt many unfit individuals would feel better if they engaged in a consistent fitness program. But in what manner has it been revealed that Mr. [J. M.]’s unfitness was in any way related to the injury—sexual assault—caused to him by one of the defendants? … The recommended expenditure for a family membership for two years at the Lawson Aquatic Centre appears to be not only a luxury but addressing a matter wholly unrelated to the injuries suffered by Mr. [J. M.]. In any event, the recommendation does not fall within the concept of ‘treatment and counselling’ and cannot therefore be justified.”

82. F. S. M. v. Clarke, 1999 CanLII 9405 (BCSC) at paras. 191, 196.

83. “Fresh as Amended Statement of Claim,” in court file 00-CV-192059 CP, (Baxter v. Canada [Attorney General]) at paras. 68, 71, 72.

84. Re Residential Schools, [2000] AJ No 47 (ABQB); Bonaparte v. Canada (Attorney General), [2003] OJ No 1046.

85. T. W. N. A. v. Clarke, 2001 BCSC 1177 (CanLII) at para. 305.

86. Canada, Treaties No. 1 and No. 2.

87. Canada, Treaties No. 3, No. 5, No. 6.

88. M. C. C. v. Canada, [2001] OJ No 4163 at para. 45, affirmed by [2003] OJ No 2698.

89. Eizenga et al., Class Actions Law and Practice.

90. Jones, Theory of Class Actions, 110.

91. Class Proceedings Act, 1992, SO 1992, c 6.

92. Class Proceedings Act, RSBC 1996, c 50.

93. Saskatchewan: The Class Actions Act, SS 2001, c C-12.01; Newfoundland and Labrador: Class Actions Act, SNL 2001, c C-18.1; Manitoba: Class Proceedings Act, CCSM c C130; Alberta: Class Proceedings Act, SA 2003, c C-16.5; New Brunswick: Class Proceedings Act, RSNB 2011, c 125; Nova Scotia: Class Proceedings Act, SNS 2007, c 28. (All statutes cited are the provincial class proceedings act in their contemporary form.)

94. “Statement of Claim” in Court File No. 29762 (Cloud v. Canada (Attorney General).

95. Cloud v. Canada (Attorney General), [2001] OJ No 4163 at para. 7.

96. “Statement of Claim” in Court File No. 29762 (Cloud v. Canada (Attorney General).

97. “Statement of Claim issued 13 June 2000,” in Court File No. 00-CV-192059CP (Baxter v. Canada [Attorney General]).

98. “Joint Factum of the Plaintiffs, Motion for Settlement Approval – Returnable August 29-31 2006,” in Court File No. 00-CV-192059CP (Baxter v. Canada [Attorney General]) at para. 256.

99. Cloud v. Canada (Attorney General), [2001] OJ No 4163 at paras. 63, 74, 80.

100. Cloud v. Canada (Attorney General), [2003] OJ No 2698 at paras. 18–36.

101. Cloud v. Canada (Attorney General), [2004] OJ No 4924.

102. Cloud v. Canada (Attorney General), 2004 CanLII 45444 (ONCA) at para. 88.

103. Gatehouse, “The Residential Schools Settlement Biggest Winner”; Government of Canada and Merchant Law Group, “Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement, Schedule V.” See also Fontaine v. Canada (Attorney General), 2013 SKCA 22, outlining ongoing legal disputes over fees.

104. Kraus, “Merchant Law Group in Legal Battle of Its Own,” Global News.

105. Canadian Bar Association, Resolution 00-04-A.

106. Regan, Unsettling the Settler Within, 121.

107. Assembly of First Nations, Report on Canada’s Dispute Resolution Plan, 15.

108. Assembly of First Nations, Report on Canada’s Dispute Resolution Plan, 15.

109. Assembly of First Nations, Report on Canada’s Dispute Resolution Plan, 41.

110. Assembly of First Nations, Report on Canada’s Dispute Resolution Plan, 2, 24.

111. Assembly of First Nations, Report on Canada’s Dispute Resolution Plan, 107–116.

112. Assembly of First Nations, Report on Canada’s Dispute Resolution Plan, 3.

113. Assembly of First Nations, Report on Canada’s Dispute Resolution Plan, 5.

114. Quoted in Regan, Unsettling the Settler Within, 128.

115. Canada, House of Commons Standing Committee on Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development, Study on the Effectiveness of the Government Alternative Dispute Resolution Process.

116. “Agreement in Principle,” 1.

117. Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement.

118. Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement, Schedule M, Funding Agreement, s 3.03, 5.

119. Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement.

120. For example, Baxter v. Canada (Attorney General), 2006 CanLII 41673 (ONSC).

121. “Affidavit of Phillip Fontaine,” in court file 05-CV-294716CP, Fontaine v. Canada, 2006 at para. 17.

122. “Affidavit of Phillip Fontaine,” in court file 05-CV-294716CP, Fontaine v. Canada, 2006 at para. 18.

123. “Affidavit of Phillip Fontaine,” in court file 05-CV-294716CP, Fontaine v. Canada, 2006 at para. 18.

124. TRC, AVS, Rosalie Webber, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Halifax, Nova Scotia, 26 November 2011, Statement Number: 2011-2891.

125. Canada, Truth and Reconciliation Commission, Internal Report of the Inuit Sub-Commission, 11.

126. TRC, AVS, Leona Bird, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, 21 June 2012, Statement Number: 2011-4415.

127. TRC, AVS, Myrtle Ward, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, 22 June 2012, Statement Number: 2011-4162.

128. TRC, AVS, Geraldine Bob, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Fort Simpson, Northwest Territories, 23 November 2011, Statement Number: 2011-2685.

129. TRC, AVS, Joseph Martin Larocque, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, 21 June 2012, Statement Number: 2011-4386.

130. TRC, AVS, Mabel Brown, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Inuvik, Northwest Territories, 28 September 2011, Statement Number: 2011-0325.

131. TRC, AVS, Marie Brown, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, 21 June 2012, Statement Number: 2011-4421.

132. TRC, AVS, Theresa Hall, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Timmins, Ontario, 10 November 2010, Statement Number: 01-ON-8-10Nov10-007.

133. TRC, AVS, Amelia Thomas, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Victoria, British Columbia, 13 April, 2012, Statement Number: 2011-3975.

134. TRC, AVS, Darlene Thomas, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Vancouver, British Columbia, 19 September 2013, Statement Number: 2011-3200.

135. Perreault, “Admissions to Adult Correctional Services.”

136. Canada, Office of the Correctional Investigator, “Backgrounder: Aboriginal Offenders.”

137. Perreault, “Aboriginal Adults Are Overrepresented.”

138. Perreault, “Aboriginal Youth Are Over-Represented.”

139. Perreault, “Aboriginal Adults Are Overrepresented.”

140. Canada, Statistics Canada, “Youth Custody and Community Services in Canada, 1998–99”; Perreault, “Aboriginal Youth Are Over-Represented.”

141. TRC, AVS, David Charleson, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Deroche, British Columbia, 20 January 2010, Statement Number: 2011-5043.

142. TRC, AVS, Daniel Andre, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Whitehorse, Yukon, 23 May 2011, Statement Number: 2011-0202.

143. TRC, AVS, Raymond Blake-Nukon, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, 23 May 2011, Statement Number: 2011-0201.

144. Aboriginal Healing Foundation, Mental Health Profiles, 47.

145. TRC, AVS, Willy Carpenter, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Tuktoyaktuk, Northwest Territories, 20 September 2011, Statement Number: 2011-0353.

146. TRC, AVS, Ruth Chapman, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, 16 June 2010, Statement Number: 02-MB-16JU10-118.

147. TRC, AVS, Diana Lariviere, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Little Current, Ontario, 13 May 2011, Statement Number: 2011-2011.

148. First Nations Centre, First Nations Regional Longitudinal Health Survey (RHS) 2002/03, 115.

149. Canada, Public Health Agency of Canada, “Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD)”; Ospina and Dennett, Systematic Review, iii.

150. Streissguth et al., “Risk Factors for Adverse Life Outcomes,” 233.

151. MacPherson, Chudley, and Grant, Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) in a Correctional Population.

152. Tait, Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, 75.

153. Canada, Public Safety Canada, Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder and the Criminal Justice System, 2.

154. Canada, Public Safety Canada, Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder and the Criminal Justice System, 21.

155. R. v. Harris, 2002 BCCA 152 at para. 26.

156. Institute of Health and Economics, Consensus Statement on Legal Issues, 10.

157. Institute of Health and Economics, Consensus Statement on Legal Issues, 22–23.

158. R. v. C. L. K., 2009 MBQB 227 (CanLII) at paras. 9–11.

159. R. v. C. L. K., 2009 MBQB 227 (CanLII) at para. 13.

160. R. v. George, 2010 ONSC 6017 at para. 7.

161. R. v. George, 2010 ONSC 6017 at paras. 8–9.

162. R. v. George, 2010 ONSC 6017 at para. 11.

163. R. v. George, 2010 ONSC 6017 at paras. 52–53.

164. R. v. Charlie, 2012 YKTC 5 at para. 6.

165. R. v. Charlie, 2012 YKTC 5 at para. 9.

166. R. v. Ominayak, 2007 ABQB 442 at para. 150.

167. R. v. Paulette, 2010 NWTSC 31 (CanLII) at para. 6.

168. R. v. Jimmie, 2009 BCCA 215 at para. 9.

169. Sousa et al., “Longitudinal Study on the Effects of Child Abuse,” 118.

170. R. v. Rossi, [2011] OJ No 4736 at para. 27.

171. R. v. Snake, [2010] OJ No 5445 at para. 17.

172. Martin et al., “The Enduring Significance of Racism,” 662.

173. R. v. G. (D. M.), 2006 NSPC 58 (CanLII) at para. 14.

174. R. v. Paulin, 2011 ONSC 5027; R. v. Cappo, 2005 SKCA 134; R. v. Tymiak, 2012 BCCA 40; R. v. Pauchay, 2009 SKPC 35; R. v. Leaney, 2002 BCCA 67; R. v. W. R. B., 2010 MBQB 102; R. v. Shawn Curtis Keepness, 2011 SKQB 293; R v. Renschler, 2005 MBPC 53233; R. v. Klymok, 2002 ABPC 95; R. v. R.L., 2012 MBPC 22; R. v. Boisseneau, 2006 ONSC 562; R. v. Corbiere, 2012 ONSC 2405; R. v. Sharkey, 2011 BCSC 1541; R. v. Makela, 2006 BCPC 320; R. v. Loring, 2009 BCCA 166.

175. LaPrairie, “Aboriginal Crime and Justice,” 287.

176. Filbert and Flynn, “Developmental and Cultural Assets,” 563.

177. Burton, “Male Adolescents.”

178. McCloskey and Bailey, “The Intergenerational Transmission of Risk,” 1032.

179. R. v. J. O., 2007 QCCQ 716 at paras. 28–30.

180. R. v. W. R. G., 2011 BCPC 330 at para. 25.

181. R. v. W. R. G., 2011 BCPC 330 at para. 34.

182. Bennett, Holloway, and Farrington, “The Statistical Association between Drug Misuse and Crime,” 117.

183. Phillips, “Substance Abuse and Prison Recidivism”; Looman and Abracen, “Substance Abuse among High-Risk Sexual Offenders”; Hirschel, Hutchinson, and Shaw, “The Interrelationship between Substance Abuse”; Tripodi and Bender, “Substance Abuse Treatment.”

184. Canada, Statistics Canada, “Victimization and Offending among the Aboriginal population in Canada,” 9.

185. Perreault, “Violent Victimization of Aboriginal People,” 9.

186. R. v. Battaja, 2010 YKTC 145; R. v. E.K., 2012 BCPC 132; R. v. O. S., 2005 BCPC 727; R. v. Simon, 2006 ABPC 21; R. v. McLeod, 2006 YKTC 118; R. v. Joe, 2005 YKTC 21.

187. R. v. Craft, 2010 YKTC 127 at para. 12.

188. R. v. M. L. W., 2004 SKPC 90 at para. 8.

189. Kerr et al., “Intergenerational Influences on Early Alcohol Use,” 889–901; Handley and Chassin, “Intergenerational Transmission of Alcohol Expectancies”; Campbell and Oei, “A Cognitive Model for the Intergenerational Transference of Alcohol Use Behavior”: Belles et al., “Parental Problem Drinking”; Thornberry, Krohn, and Freeman-Gallant, “Intergenerational Roots,” 1; Dunlap et al., “Mothers and Daughters,” 21.

190. R. v. C. G., 2011 NWTSC 47 at para. 20.

191. Aboriginal Healing Foundation, Mental Health Profiles, 50, 51.

192. Aboriginal Healing Foundation, Mental Health Profiles, 46, 47.

193. R. v. Land, 2013 ONSC 6526 at paras. 65 and 69.

194. R. v. Land, 2013 ONSC 6526 at para. 76.

195. Canada, Canadian Human Rights Commission, Report on Equality Rights of Aboriginal People, 18–19.

196. Bougie, Kelly-Scott, and Arriagana, “The Education and Employment Experiences of First Nations,” 24.

197. Canada, Canadian Human Rights Commission, Report on Equality Rights of Aboriginal People, 3, 12, 32; Anderson and Hohban, “Labour Force Characteristics of the Métis,” 12.

198. Canada, Statistics Canada, Table 99-014-039, 2011 National Household Survey: Data Tables.

199. Macdonald and Wilson, Poverty or Prosperity, 6.

200. Some recent studies include Hooghe et al., “Unemployment, Inequality, Poverty and Crime”: Gustafson, “The Criminalization of Poverty”; Sabates, “Educational Attainment and Juvenile Crime”; Atkins, “Racial Segregation, Concentrated Disadvantage, and Violent Crime”; Case, “The Relationship of Race and Criminal Behavior.”

201. Some recent studies include Eitle, D’Alessio, and Stolzenberg, “Economic Segregation, Race, and Homicide”; Pizarro and McGloin, “Explaining Gang Homicides in Newark, New Jersey”; Pridemore, “A Methodological Addition to the Cross-National Empirical Literature on Social Structure and Homicide.”

202. Spano, Frielich, and Bolland, “Gang Membership, Gun Carrying, and Employment.”

203. Moore “Understanding the Connection Between Domestic Violence, Crime, and Poverty,” 455; Purvin, Diane, “Weaving a Tangled Safety Net.”

204. Bougie and Senécal, “Registered Indian Children’s School Success,” 28.

205. R. v. C. G. O., 2011 BCPC 145 at paras. 4, 61.

206. 206. R. v. C. G. O., 2011 BCPC 145 at paras. 62–63.

207. Ryan and Testa, “Child Maltreatment and Juvenile Delinquency.”

208. Ryan et al., “Juvenile Delinquency in Child Welfare.”

209. DeGue and Widom, “Does Out-Of-Home Placement,” 350.

210. R. v. J. E. R., 2012 BCPC 103 at paras. 30–34.

211. Allan Rock quoted in R. v. Gladue, [1999] 1 SCR 688; Canada, House of Commons Standing Committee on Justice and Legal Affairs, Minutes of Proceedings and Evidence, No. 62, 17 November 1994, 62:15.

212. R. v. Gladue, [1999] 1 SCR 688 at para. 60, quoting Michael Jackson “Locking Up Natives in Canada,” UBC Law Review 23 (1988–89): 215–216.

213. R. v. Gladue, [1999] 1 SCR 688 at para. 64.

214. R. v. Gladue, [1999] 1 SCR 688 at para. 37.

215. Makin, “Aboriginal Sentencing Rules Ignored,” Globe and Mail.

216. Legal Services Society of British Columbia, Gladue Report Disbursement, 61.

217. Legal Services Society of British Columbia, Gladue Report Disbursement, 62.

218. R. v. Armitage, 2015 ONCJ 64 (CanLII) at paras. 3–5.

219. R. v. Armitage, 2015 ONCJ 64 (CanLII) at para. 55.

220. R. v. Ipeelee, 2012 SCC 13 at para. 60.

221. Some legal commentators have suggested that even after Ipeelee some judges are insisting on a causal connection between the commission of a crime and background factors and are underestimating the intergenerational impact of residential schools. See Roach, “Blaming the Victim.”

222. R. v. Ipeelee, 2012 SCC 13 at para. 66.

223. Rudin, “Incarceration of Aboriginal Youth in Ontario,” 265.

224. Rudin, “Incarceration of Aboriginal Youth in Ontario,” 268–269.

225. Tim Quigley quoted in R. v. Ipeelee, 2012 SCC 13 at para. 67.

226. TRC, AVS, Gerald McLeod, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Whitehorse, Yukon, 27 May 2011, Statement Number: 2011-1130.

227. TRC, AVS, Gerald McLeod, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Whitehorse, Yukon, 27 May 2011, Statement Number: 2011-1130.

228. Canada, Nicholson, Toews, Kenney, and Boisvenu, “Statement of the Government of Canada on the Royal Assent of Bill C-10,” Reuters.com.

229. Criminal Code of Canada, RCS 1985 c C-46, ss 151–153.

230. Bill C-10 amended the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act to impose a minimum punishment of imprisonment for a term of two years if certain other aggravating factors apply, including that the offence was committed in or near a school, on or near school grounds, or in or near any other public place usually frequented by persons under the age of eighteen. As enacted: Controlled Drugs and Substances Act, SC 1996, c 19, s 5(3)(a).

231. Controlled Drugs and Substances Act, SC 1996, c 19, s 7(3)(a); Library of Parliament, Legal and Legislative Affairs Division, Bill C-10: An Act to enact the Justice for Victims of Terrorism Act and to amend the State Immunity Act, the Criminal Code, the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act, the Corrections and Conditional Release Act, the Youth Criminal Justice Act, the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act and Other Acts, Publication no. 41-1 C10-E, 5 October 2011, revised 17 February 2012.

232. Criminal Code of Canada, RCS 1985 c C-46, s 742.1(e) removes judicial discretion to grant a conditional sentence where the offence has a ten-year maximum sentence, is prosecuted by way of indictment, and either has resulted in bodily harm, involved drug import, export, trafficking, or production, or involved a weapon.

233. Criminal Code of Canada, RCS 1985 c C-46, s 742.1(b).

234. TRC, AVS, Joann May Cunday, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, 21 September 2011, Statement Number: 2011-0133.

235. R. v. Elias, 2009 YKTC 59 at para. 25 (quoting R. v. Quash, 2009 YKTC 54 at para. 56). There have been some recent cases in which courts have made decisions counter to the mandatory minimum provisions. See, for example, R. v. Smickle, 2012 ONSC 602.

236. Canada, House of Commons, Bill C-32.

237. Perreault, “Admissions to Adult Correctional Services.”

238. Manitoba, Aboriginal Justice Implementation Commission, Report of the Aboriginal Justice Inquiry of Manitoba, 1: ch 11.

239. British Columbia, Ministry of Justice, Corrections Branch, Strategic Plan 2012–2016.

240. See, for example: R. v. NB, 2012 SKPC 99 (CanLII) at para. 24; R. v. Alkenbrack, 2011 BCPC 424 at para. 67.

241. See for example: R. v. Badger, 2013 SKQB 347.

242. Corrections and Conditional Release Act, SC 1992 c 20, s 80.

243. Corrections and Conditional Release Act, SC 1992, c 20, s 81.

244. Corrections and Conditional Release Act, SC 1992, c 20, s 83.

245. Corrections and Conditional Release Act, SC 1992, c 20, s 84.

246. Canada, Office of the Correctional Investigator, Spirit Matters.

247. Canada, Office of the Correctional Investigator, Spirit Matters.

248. R. v. J. T., 2011 ONSC 7275 (CanLII) at para. 58.

249. Corrections and Conditional Release Act, SC1992, c 20, s 30.

250. Blanchette, Verbrugge, and Wichmann, The Custody Rating Scale, 35.

251. Corrections and Conditional Release Act, SOR/92-620, s 17.

252. Blanchette, Verbrugge, and Wichmann, The Custody Rating Scale, 11. Other differentiating factors between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal women in this case included severity of current offence and “street (in)stability.”

253. Canada, Task Force of Federally Sentenced Women, Creating Choices.

254. Elizabeth Fry Society, “Discrimination against Aboriginal Women Rampant.”

255. Welsh and Ogloff, “Full Parole and the Aboriginal Experience,” 469, 479.

256. Canada, Canadian Human Rights Commission, Protecting Their Rights, 28.

257. Walsh, “Is Corrections Correcting?,” 109.

258. Holsinger, and Lowenkamp, and Lotessa, “Ethnicity, Gender, and the Level of Service,” 314; Welsh and Ogloff, “Full Parole and the Aboriginal Experience,” 469; Hann and Harman, Predicting Release Risk, 50.

259. Moore, First Nations, Métis, Inuit and Non-Aboriginal Offenders, 44.

260. Moore, First Nations, Métis, Inuit and Non-Aboriginal Offenders, 16.

261. Canada, Correctional Service Canada, Commissioner’s Directive: Security Classification and Penitentiary Placement.

262. Blanchette and Taylor, “Development and Validation of a Security Reclassification Scale for Women,” 29.

263. Blanchette and Taylor, “Development and Validation of a Security Reclassification Scale for Women,” 29.

264. For a study that involved interviews with inmates in a minimum security institution designed specifically for Aboriginal inmates, see Waldram, The Way of the Pipe, 129–150; Heckbert and Turkington, “Turning Points”; Crutcher and Trevethan, “An Examination of Healing Lodges for Aboriginal Offenders in Canada,” 52.

265. TRC, AVS, Joanne Nimik, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, 4 January 2012, Statement Number: 2011-2662.

266. TRC, AVS, Joanne Nimik, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, 4 January 2012, Statement Number: 2011-2662.

267. TRC, AVS, Chris Gargan, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Yellowknife, Northwest Territories, 30 October 2012, Statement Number: 2011-0430.

268. R. v. Gingell, [1996] YJ No 52 at para. 63.

269. Zellerer, “Culturally Competent Programs.”

270. Zellerer, “Culturally Competent Programs,” 183.

271. Sioui and Thibault, The Relevance of a Cultural Adaptation, 43.

272. Sioui and Thibault, The Relevance of a Cultural Adaptation, 42.

273. Sioui and Thibault, The Relevance of a Cultural Adaptation, 44.

274. Heckbert and Turkington, “Turning Points,” 56.

275. Sapers, “Speaking Notes for Mr. Howard Sapers.”

276. Saskatchewan, Commission on First Nations and Métis Peoples and Justice Reform, Legacy of Hope, Recommendation 6.23, 6.34.

277. Canada, Correctional Service of Canada, Evaluation Report.

278. Canada, Correctional Service of Canada, Evaluation Report.

279. Crutcher and Trevethan, “An Examination of Healing Lodges for Aboriginal Offenders in Canada,” 54.

280. Moore, First Nations, Métis, Inuit and Non-Aboriginal Offenders, 23.

281. Bonta, “Native Inmates”; Bonta, LaPrairie, and Wallace-Capretta, “Risk Prediction and Re-offending”; Bonta, Lipinski, and Martin, “The Characteristics of Aboriginal Recidivists.”

282. John Howard Society of Alberta, Offender Risk Assessment, 3. The studies being referred to are Gendreau, Little, and Goggin, A Meta-Analysis of the Predictors of Adult Offender Recidivism; Hanson and Bussière, Predictors of Sexual Offender Recidivism.

283. LaPrairie, Examining Aboriginal Corrections in Canada, 80–83.

284. Petten, “New Healing Lodge Opens for Offenders,” 1.

285. Brown et al., “Housing for Aboriginal Ex-Offenders.”

286. Perreault, “Admissions to Youth Correctional Services in Canada, 2011/12.”

287. R. v. D. B., [2008] 2 SCR 3 at paras. 1, 41, 47–59.

288. Youth Criminal Justice Act, SC 2002, c 1, s 3(1)(b).

289. UN General Assembly, Convention on the Rights of the Child, article 40.

290. Youth Criminal Justice Act, SC 2002, c 1, s 38(1).

291. Youth Criminal Justice Act, SC 2002, c 1, s 38(2)(d).

292. Youth Criminal Justice Act, SC 2002, c 1, s 3(1)(c)(iv).

293. Chartrand, “Aboriginal Youth and the Criminal Justice System,” 326.

294. Chartrand, “Aboriginal Youth and the Criminal Justice System,” 315.

295. Canada, Statistics Canada, “Youth Court Statistics 2011/2012”; Munch, “Youth Correctional Statistics in Canada, 2010/2011,” 5; Canadian Bar Association, Submission on Bill C-10, 8. Not all provinces/territories have seen a decrease in youth in correctional services; in fact, Munch reported that, since 2004/05, rates have increased in Manitoba, Yukon, and Alberta.

296. Perreault, “Admissions to Youth Correctional Services in Canada, 2011/12.” The study excluded data from Nova Scotia, Québec, Saskatchewan, and Nunavut. Overrepresentation of Aboriginal youth is evident in all provinces and territories surveyed, with the exception of Newfoundland and Labrador.

297. British Columbia, Office of the Provincial Health Officer, Health, Crime and Doing Time, 32.

298. BC Representative for Children and Youth, When Talk Trumped Service, 21.

299. Totten, “Aboriginal Youth and Violent Gang Involvement in Canada,” 141.

300. British Columbia, Office of the Provincial Health Officer, Health, Crime and Doing Time, 32.

301. Chartrand, “Aboriginal Youth and the Criminal Justice System,” 320.

302. Howe, “Children’s Rights as Crime Prevention,” 467.

303. Howe, “Children’s Rights as Crime Prevention,” 468–469.

304. Historical version of the YCJA is available on the CanLII website at http://www.canlii.org/en/ca/laws/stat/sc-2002-c-1/32863/sc-2002-c-1.html#history.

305. Youth Criminal Justice Act, SC 2002, c 1, s 3(1)(a).

306. Assembly of First Nations, Submission: Bill C-10 Safe Streets and Communities Act, 20.

307. Canada, House of Commons, Bill C-10, clauses 176–184.

308. Assembly of First Nations, Submission: Bill C-10 Safe Streets and Communities Act, 19.

309. Assembly of First Nations, Submission: Bill C-10 Safe Streets and Communities Act, 19.

310. Canadian Bar Association, Submission on Bill C-10, 80.

311. Canada, House of Commons, Bill C-10, clause 189.

312. British Columbia, Office of the Provincial Health Officer, Health, Crime and Doing Time, 11.

313. Canada, Indian Residential Schools Adjudication Secretariat, “Adjudication Secretariat Statistics.”

314. Canada, Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics, “Family Violence in Canada”; Canada, Statistics Canada, “Homicide in Canada, 2013.”

315. Canada, Statistics Canada, “Homicide in Canada, 2013.”

316. Sinha, “Measuring Violence Against Women,” 9, 19.

317. Kennedy, “Rinelle Harper Calls for Missing Women Inquiry,” Ottawa Citizen.

318. Sinha, “Measuring Violence Against Women: Statistical Trends,” 9, 19; Native Women’s Association of Canada, Voices of Our Sisters in Spirit, 94–95.

319. Brennan, “Violent Victimization of Aboriginal Women in the Canadian Provinces, 2009,” 7, 8. In the GSS, “Aboriginal women” refers to those persons who self-reported their sex as female and who self-identified as belonging to at least one Aboriginal group—that is, North American Indian, Métis, or Inuit.

320. Brennan, “Violent Victimization of Aboriginal Women in the Canadian Provinces, 2009,” 9.

321. Brennan, “Violent Victimization of Aboriginal Women in the Canadian Provinces, 2009,” 10.

322. Sinha, “Measuring Violence Against Women,” 19.

323. Perreault, “Violent Victimization of Aboriginal People in the Canadian Provinces, 2009,” 10.

324. Canada, Truth and Reconciliation Commission, Internal Report of the Inuit Sub-Commission, 9.

325. Jacobs and Williams, “Legacy of Residential Schools: Missing and Murdered Women,” 127.

326. Manitoba, Aboriginal Justice Implementation Commission, Report of the Aboriginal Justice Inquiry of Manitoba, 2: 92.

327. Manitoba, Aboriginal Justice Implementation Commission, Report of the Aboriginal Justice Inquiry of Manitoba, 2: Chp. 10.

328. TRC, AVS, Eva Simpson, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Norway House First Nation, Manitoba, 10 May 2011, Statement Number: 2011-0290.

329. Opal, Forsaken, 1:52.

330. Oppal, Forsaken, 1:63.

331. Oppal, Forsaken, 2A:124.

332. Oppal, Forsaken, 2A:63, 124.

333. Oppal, Forsaken, 1:42.

334. Oppal, Forsaken, 2A:121.

335. Burnouf, “Marlene Bird,” APTN.

336. CBC News, “Illustrations Tell Story of Marlene Bird.”

337. CBC News, “Illustrations Tell Story of Marlene Bird.”

338. Canadian Press, “Winnipeg Police Officer Suspended,” The Star (Toronto).

339. Jacobs and Williams, “Legacy of Residential Schools: Missing and Murdered Women,” 127, 132–133.

340. Jacobs and Williams, “Legacy of Residential Schools: Missing and Murdered Women,” 128, 132–133.

341. Jacobs and Williams, “Legacy of Residential Schools: Missing and Murdered Women,” 134.

342. Human Rights Watch, Those Who Take Us Away, 35.

343. Highway of Tears Symposium, Highway of Tears Symposium Recommendations Report, 9, 18.

344. Oppal, Forsaken, Recommendation 6.1; Pearce, “An Awkward Silence,” 644.

345. Pearce, “An Awkward Silence,” 644.

346. Native Women’s Association of Canada, “Fact Sheet: Missing and Murdered Aboriginal Women and Girls,” 3.

347. Native Women’s Association of Canada, What Their Stories Tell Us, 24–27.

348. Native Women’s Association of Canada, “Fact Sheet: Missing and Murdered Aboriginal Women and Girls,” 3.

349. Native Women’s Association of Canada, What Their Stories Tell Us, 31.

350. Native Women’s Association of Canada, What Their Stories Tell Us, 27

351. Canada, House of Commons Standing Committee on the Status of Women, Ending Violence against Aboriginal Women and Girls, 11–12.

352. Canada, House of Commons Standing Committee on Violence Against Indigenous Women, Invisible Women, 13.

353. See Pearce, “An Awkward Silence.”

354. Pearce, “An Awkward Silence,” 18–23.

355. Canada, House of Commons Standing Committee on the Status of Women, Interim Report – Night, 15–18.

356. Oppal, Forsaken, 2B:107–108.

357. Oppal, Forsaken, 2B:236.

358. Royal Canadian Mounted Police, Missing and Murdered Aboriginal Women, 7.

359. Royal Canadian Mounted Police, Missing and Murdered Aboriginal Women, 9.

360. Royal Canadian Mounted Police, Missing and Murdered Aboriginal Women, 21.

361. Palmater, “RCMP Report on Murdered and Missing Aboriginal Women,” Rabble.ca.

362. Barrera, “Valcourt Used Unreleased RCMP Data,” APTN.

363. Galloway, “70 Per Cent of Murdered Aboriginal Women,” Globe and Mail.

364. Palmater, “RCMP Report on Murdered and Missing Aboriginal Women,” Rabble.ca.

365. Amnesty International, No More Stolen Sisters, 4; Human Rights Watch, Those Who Take Us Away, 37.

366. United Nations, High Commissioner for Human Rights, Discrimination against Women, para. 32; United Nations, Human Rights Committee, Concluding Observations of the Human Rights Committee: Canada, para. 23.

367. Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women quoted in Canadian Feminist Alliance for International Action, No Action: No Progress, 17.

368. Anaya, “Statement upon Conclusion of the Visit to Canada by the United Nations Special Rapporteur.”

369. Amnesty International, No More Stolen Sisters, 4.

370. Human Rights Watch, Those Who Take Us Away, 18.

371. Human Rights Watch, Those Who Take Us Away, 8.

372. Human Rights Watch, Those Who Take Us Away, 8.

373. Munch, “Victim Services in Canada, 2009/2010.”

374. Mazowita and Burczycka, “Shelters for Abused Women in Canada, 2012.”

375. Canada, House of Commons Standing Committee on the Status of Women, Ending Violence against Aboriginal Women and Girls, 31.

376. Canada, House of Commons Standing Committee on Violence Against Indigenous Women, Invisible Women, 29–30.

377. Canada, House of Commons Standing Committee on Violence Against Indigenous Women, Invisible Women, 20.

378. Mulligan, “Victim Services in Canada.”

379. UN General Assembly, Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power; Canada, Department of Justice, Multi-Site Survey of Victims of Crime, 15.

380. UN General Assembly, United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.

381. TRC, AVS, Michael Sillett, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Halifax, Nova Scotia, 27 October 2011, Statement Number: 2011-2870.

382. TRC, AVS, Ron McHugh, Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Batoche, Saskatchewan, 21 July 2010, Statement Number: 01-SK-18-25JY10-011.

383. Canada, Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Bridging the Cultural Divide.

384. UN General Assembly, United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.

385. Manitoba, Aboriginal Justice Implementation Commission, Report of the Aboriginal Justice Inquiry of Manitoba, 1: Appendix 1.

386. Dalmyn quoted in Green, “Aboriginal Community Sentencing and Mediation,” 113.

387. Green, “Aboriginal Community Sentencing and Mediation,” 114.

388. Judge Claude Fafard interview with Ross Gordon Green (telephone), 16 December 1994, cited in Green, “Aboriginal Community Sentencing and Mediation,” 111–112.

389. Turpel-Lafond and Monture-Angus, “Aboriginal Peoples and Canadian Criminal Law,” 246.

390. Miller, The Problem of Justice, 198–199.

391. Milward, Aboriginal Justice and the Charter.