All oral histories were conducted by the author unless otherwise indicated.
American RadioWorks, Korea: The Unfinished War interviews, Minnesota Public Radio, St. Paul, Minnesota
Gerald L. Bailey Jr., interview by Tina Tennessen, August 3, 2002
Billy J. Baines, January 10, 2003
Julius W. Becton Jr., interview by Kate Ellis and Stephen Smith, February 2003
Reamer C. Bell, interview by Kate Ellis and Stephen Smith, August 23, 2002
Dorothy M. (Phillips) Boyd, October 20, 2002
Melvin S. Boykin, interview by Kate Ellis and Stephen Smith, September 5, 2002
Jessie Brown, interview by Stephen Smith, January 7, 2003
William Cooke, October 23, 2002
George Cureaux Jr., interview by Kate Ellis and Stephen Smith, August 2002
Aden R. Darity Jr., October 25, 2002
Isaac Gardner, interview by Kate Ellis, September 2002
Hansel C. Hall, interview by Stephen Smith and Tina Tennessen, July 22, 2002
Mark Brady Hannah Jr., January 10, 2003
Ralph Hockley, January 13, 2003, Houston
Laurence “Larry” Hogan, October 25, 2002
Clentell Jackson, interview by Tina Tennessen, September 10, 2002
John B. Jackson, January 10, 2003
William L. Jackson, interview by Kate Ellis and Stephen Smith, August 23, 2002
Samuel King, interview by Kate Ellis and Stephen Smith, August 24, 2002
James H. Lacy, interview by Stephen Smith and Gerald Early, January 8, 2003
Larry “Len” Lockley, October 29, 2002
Isham McClenney, interview by Stephen Smith, January 7, 2003
Alan Nelson, October 20, 2002
Edward L. Posey, interview by Kate Ellis and Stephen Smith, August 5, 2002
Ernest K. Shaw, January 10, 2003
Stanley Perry Stone, interview by Tina Tennessen, August 19, 2002
Joe Tamayo, interview by Ellen Guettler, November 23, 2002
Manual “Manny” Texeiras, October 22, 2002
Harry Townsend, interview by Stephen Smith, March 7, 2003
Harold Woodman, interview by Kate Ellis and Stephen Smith, September 6, 2002
Eddie Wright, October 14, 2002
Andersonville National History Site Oral History Project, Andersonville, Georgia
Curtis Bolton, interview by Alan Marsh, June 10, 2004
Charlie Code Sr., November 6, 1993
Prestee Davis, interview by Alan Marsh, August 3, 1996
Samuel Farrow, October 7, 1993
Robert Fletcher, April 24, 1998
Civil Rights History Project, American Folklife Center, Library of Congress, Washington, DC
Elbert “Big Man” Howard, June 30, 2016
Clarence B. Jones, April 15 and April 16, 2013
William “Bill” Saunders, interview by Kieran Taylor, June 9, 2011
Columbia University Oral History Collection
Bayard Rustin, interview by Ed Edwin, September 12, 1985
Detroit Oral History Project, Detroit, Michigan
Interview by Louis Jones, September 19, 2003
Montford Point Marines Project, University of North Carolina–Wilmington, Wilmington, North Carolina
Fred Ash, December 17, 2004
Adner Batts, June 29, 2005
Calvin Elijah Brown, May 17, 2004
Fannie Keyes Coleman, August 17, 2005
Thomas E. Cork Sr., July 23, 2004
Charles Davenport, June 29, 2005
Johnnie Givian, August 17, 2005
Paul Hagan, May 25, 2004
Ruben Lemuel Hines, May 17, 2004
National Visionary Leadership Project, American Folklife Center, Library of Congress, Washington, DC
Congressman John Conyers, interview by Renee Poussaint, August 20, 2007
James Meredith, interview by Renee Poussaint, June 27, 2006
Southern Oral History Project, University of North Carolina–Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina.
William “Bill” Saunders, interview by Kieran Taylor and Jennifer Dixon, June 17, 2008
Veterans History Project, American Folklife Center, Library of Congress, Washington, DC
Jeanne L. Beasley, interview by William L. Browne, August 7, 2009
Charles Earnest Berry, interview by Michael Willie, February 13, 2003
Rutherford Vincent “Jack” Brice, interview by Frederick Wallace, April 22, 2003
Walter Lee Dowdy Jr., interview by Michael Willie, February 18, 2004
Charles Walter Dryden, interview by Myers Brown, February 28, 2002
Maurice Garth, interview by Courtney Thompson, n.d.
James H. Gilliam Sr., interview by Thomas Healy, October 16, 2006
Clarence Johnson, interview by Theodore Gardner, n.d.
Odell Gregory Love Sr., interview by Edward Duling and Joy Leibbrandt, n.d.
James A. “Jack” Lucas Jr., interview by David Vassar Taylor and Rachanice Tate, November 3, 2017
Congressman Charles Bernard Rangel, interview by Col. Robert Patrick, June 20, 2013
Bertran F. Wallace, interview by Brenda Breter and Jason Caros, April 9, 2007
James A. Wiggins, interview by Hattie Lowry, April 8, 2003
Atlantic Daily World
Baltimore Afro-American
Chicago Daily Defender
Chicago Defender
Chicago Daily Tribune
Chicago Tribune
Chinook Observer (Long Beach, WA)
Clarion-Ledger (Jackson, MS)
Cleveland Call and Post
Crisis
Freedomways
Houston Chronicle
Jet
Joplin (MO) Globe
Kansas City (MO) Times
Life
Los Angeles Sentinel
Los Angeles Times
Lubbock (TX) Morning Avalanche
Nation
New York Amsterdam News
New York Times
Philadelphia Tribune
Pittsburgh Courier
Pittsburgh Post-Gazette
Pittsburgh Tribune
Red Rover (Naval Hospital Oakland)
Washington Post
“A Dreamer’s Holiday.” Lyrics by Kim Gannon, music by Mabel Wayne. Copyright 1949, Skidmore Music Company, New York.
M *A* S * H. Written by Richard Hooker and Ring Lardner Jr. Directed by Robert Altman. 20th Century Fox, 1970, 116 min.
Steel Helmet. Written, directed, and produced by Samuel Fuller. Deputy Corp., 1951, 84 min.
Biewen, John, and Stephen Smith. Korea: The Unfinished War. American RadioWorks, Minnesota Public Radio, June 2003. http://americanradioworks.publicradio.org/features/korea/.
Davis, Dernoral. “Clyde Kennard.” Mississippi Encyclopedia. Updated Apr. 14, 2018, https://mississippiencyclopedia.org/entries/clyde-kennard/.
“Inter-Camp Olympics” (program). Pyuktong, DPRK, 1952. Courtesy of Korean War: Weapons and History. http://www.koreanwaronline.com/arms/.
Jeffrey, James. “Remembering the Black Soldiers Executed after Houston’s 1917 Race Riot.” The World, February 1, 2018. https://www.pri.org/stories/2018-02-01/remembering-black-soldiers-executed-after-houstons-1917-race-riot
Korean War 50th Anniversary website fact sheet, archived at http://jackiewhiting.net/ushistory/coldwar/afamkorea.htm.
Lynching in America: Targeting Black Veterans. Montgomery, AL: Equal Justice Initiative, 2017. https://eji.org/reports/targeting-black-veterans/.
Niedermeier, Lynn. “The POW Olympics.” WKU Libraries Blog, April 23, 2014. https://library.blog.wku.edu/tag/korean-war/.
“No Longer Forgotten: African American Service Women during the Korean War Era.” Military Women’s Memorial. https://womensmemorial.org.
Shetterly, Robert. “Clyde Kennard.” Americans Who Tell the Truth. Accessed July 4, 2013. https://www.americanswhotellthetruth.org/portraits/clyde-kennard.
Truman, Harry S. “Executive Order 9981.” July 26, 1948. Harry S. Truman Library and Museum. https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/executive-orders/9981/executive-order-9981.
Adams, Clarence. An American Dream: The Life of an African American Soldier and POW Who Spent 12 Years in Communist China. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2007.
Astor, Gerald. The Right to Fight: A History of African Americans in the Military. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2001.
Baldovi, Louis, ed. A Foxhole View: Personal Accounts of Hawaii’s Korean War Veterans. Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press, 2002.
Becton, Julius W., Jr. Becton: Autobiography of a Soldier and Public Servant. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2008.
Biondi, Martha. To Stand and Fight: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Postwar New York City. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003.
Bogart, Leo, ed., Project Clear: Social Research and the Desegregation of the United States Army. 1969. Reprint, New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1992.
Borstelmann, Thomas. The Cold War and the Color Line: American Race Relations in the Global Arena. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001.
Bowers, William T., William M. Hammond, and George L. MacGarrigle. Black Soldier, White Army: The 24th Infantry Regiment in Korea. Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press, 2005.
Bristol, Douglas Walter, Jr., and Heather Marie Stur, eds. Integrating the US Military: Race, Gender, and Sexual Orientation since World War II. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2017.
Buckley, Gail. American Patriots: The Story of Blacks in the Military from the Revolution to Desert Storm. New York: Random House, 2002.
Bussey, Charles M. Firefight at Yechon: Courage and Racism in the Korean War. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002.
Bynum, Cornelius L. A. Philip Randolph and the Struggle for Civil Rights. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2010.
Carlson, Lewis H. Remembered Prisoners of a Forgotten War: An Oral History of Korean War POWs. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2002.
Civil Rights Congress. We Charge Genocide: The Historic Petition to the United Nations for Relief from a Crime of the United States Government against the Negro People. New York: Civil Rights Congress, 1951.
Cumings, Bruce. The Korean War: A History. New York: Modern Library, 2010.
Dalfiume, Richard M. Desegregation of the U.S. Armed Forces: Fighting on Two Fronts, 1939–1953. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1969.
Diggs, Louis S. Forgotten Road Warriors. Self-published, 2005.
Dittmer, John. Local People: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Mississippi. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995.
Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson. New York: New Press, 1996.
Dudziak, Mary L. Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000.
Edgerton, Robert B. Hidden Heroism: Black Soldiers in America’s Wars. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2001.
Forman, James. The Making of Black Revolutionaries. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997.
Garfinkel, Herbert. When Negroes March: The March on Washington Movement in the Organizational Politics for FEPC. 1959. Reprint, New York: Atheneum, 1969.
Gates, Henry Louis, Jr., and Nellie Y. McKay, eds. The Norton Anthology of African American Literature. 2 vols. New York: W. W. Norton, 2014.
Geselbracht, Raymond H., ed. The Civil Rights Legacy of Harry S. Truman. Independence, MO: Truman State University Press, 2007.
Gibson, Truman K., Jr., with Steve Huntley. Knocking Down Barriers: My Fight for Black America. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 2005.
Goncharov, Sergei N., John W. Lewis, and Xue Litai. Uncertain Partners: Stalin, Mao, and the Korean War. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1993.
Green, Michael Cullen. Black Yanks in the Pacific: Race in the Making of American Military Empire after World War II. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2010.
Halberstam, David. The Coldest Winter: America and the Korean War. New York: Hyperion, 2007.
Hampton, Isaac, II. The Black Officer Corps: A History of Black Military Advancement from Integration Through Vietnam. New York: Routledge, 2013.
Hill, Lance. The Deacons for Defense: Armed Resistance and the Civil Rights Movement. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004.
Ho, Fred, and Bill V. Mullen, eds. Afro Asia: Revolutionary Political and Cultural Connections Between African Americans and Asian Americans. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008.
Holway, John B. Bloody Ground: Black Rifles in Korea. McLean, VA: Miniver Press, 2014.
Hooker, Richard. M *A* S * H. 1968. Reprint, New York: Pocket Books, 1969.
Howard, Elbert “Big Man.” Panther on the Prowl. Baltimore: BCP Digital, 2002.
Jager, Sheila Miyoshi. Brothers at War: The Unending Conflict in Korea. New York: W. W. Norton, 2013.
James, Rawn, Jr. The Double V: How Wars, Protest, and Harry Truman Desegregated America’s Military. New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2012. Kindle.
Jolidan, Laurence. Last Seen Alive: The Search for Missing POWs from the Korean War. Austin: Ink-Slinger Press, 1995.
King, Martin Luther, Jr. A Testament of Hope: The Essential Writings and Speeches. Edited by James M. Washington. New York: HarperOne, 1986.
Klinkner, Philip M., and Rogers M. Smith. The Unsteady March: The Rise and Decline of Racial Equality in America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999.
Knauer, Christine. Let Us Fight as Free Men: Black Soldiers and Civil Rights. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014.
Knepper, Cathy D., ed. Dear Mrs. Roosevelt: Letters to Eleanor Roosevelt through Depression and War. New York: Carroll and Graf, 2004.
Lanning, Michael Lee. The African-American Soldier: From Crispus Attucks to Colin Powell. Secaucus, NJ: Birch Lane Press, 1997.
Lawson, Steven F., ed. To Secure These Rights: The Report of President Harry S Truman’s Committee on Civil Rights. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2004.
Lech, Raymond B. Broken Soldiers. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000.
Lentz-Smith, Adriane. Freedom Struggles: African Americans and World War I. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009. Kindle.
Lipsitz, George. A Life in the Struggle: Ivory Perry and the Culture of Opposition. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1988.
MacGregor, Morris J., Jr., Integration of the Armed Forces: 1940–1965. Washington, DC: Center of Military History, 1981.
MacGregor, Morris J., Jr., and Bernard C. Nalty. Blacks in the United States Armed Forces: Basic Documents. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1977.
Malkasian, Carter. The Korean War, 1950–1953. Westminster, MD: Osprey Publishing, 2001.
Marshall, Samuel L. A. The River and the Gauntlet: Defeat of the Eighth Army by the Chinese Communist Forces, November, 1950, in the Battle of Chongchon River, Korea. Nashville: Battery Press, 1970.
Maxwell, Jeremy P. Brotherhood in Combat: How African Americans Found Equality in Korea and Vietnam. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2018.
McCullough, David. Truman. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992.
McGuire, Phillip. He, Too, Spoke for Democracy: Judge Hastie, World War II, and the Black Soldier. New York: Praeger, 1988.
Mershon, Sherie, and Steven Schlossman. Foxholes and Color Lines: Desegregating the U.S. Armed Forces. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002.
Morrow, Curtis James. What’s a Commie Ever Done to Black People? A Korean War Memoir of Fighting in the U.S. Army’s Last All Negro Unit. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1997.
Moye, J. Todd. Freedom Flyers: The Tuskegee Airmen of World War II. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
Myrdal, Gunnar. An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1944.
Nalty, Bernard C. Strength for the Fight: A History of Black Americans in the Military. New York: Free Press, 1986.
Parker, Christopher S. Fighting for Democracy: Black Veterans and the Struggle against White Supremacy in the Postwar South. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009.
Pash, Melinda L. In the Shadow of the Greatest Generation: The Americans Who Fought the Korean War. New York: New York University Press, 2012.
Peters, Richard and Xiaobing Li. Voices from the Korean War: Personal Stories of American, Korean, and Chinese Soldiers. Frankfort: University Press of Kentucky, 2005.
Phillips, Kimberley L. War! What Is It Good For? Black Freedom Struggles and the U.S. Military from World War II to Iraq. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012.
Plummer, Brenda Gayle. Rising Wind: Black Americans and U.S. Foreign Affairs, 1935–1960. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996.
Posey, Edward L. The US Army’s First, Last, and Only All-Black Rangers: The 2d Ranger Infantry Company (Airborne) in the Korean War, 1950–1951. New York: Savas Beatie, 2009.
Rangel, Charles B., with Leon Wynter. And I Haven’t Had a Bad Day Since: From the Streets of Harlem to the Halls of Congress. New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2007.
Rishell, Lyle. With a Black Platoon in Combat: A Year in Korea. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1993.
Rosenberg, Jonathan. How Far the Promised Land? World Affairs and the American Civil Rights Movement from the First World War to Vietnam. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006.
Scipio, L. Albert. Last of the Black Regulars: A History of the 24th Infantry Regiment, 1869–1951. Silver Spring, MD: Roman Publications, 1983.
Spring, Vickie. Voices Almost Lost: Korea, the Forgotten War. True Stories Told by Soldiers Themselves. Bloomington, IL: AuthorHouse, 2011.
Stelpflug, Peggy A., and Richard Hyatt. Home of the Infantry: The History of Fort Benning. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 2007.
Stur, Heather. The U.S. Military and Civil Rights Since World War II. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2019.
Taylor, Jon E. Freedom to Serve: Truman, Civil Rights, and Executive Order 9981. New York: Routledge, 2013.
Tyson, Timothy B. Radio Free Dixie: Robert F. Williams and the Roots of Black Power. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999.
Wendt, Simon. The Spirit and the Shotgun: Armed Resistance and the Struggle for Civil Rights. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2007.
Wintermute, Bobby A., and David J. Ulbrich. Race and Gender in Modern Western Warfare. Berlin: De Gruyter, 2018.
Witt, Linda, Judith Bellafaire, Britta Granrud, and Mary Jo Blinker, eds. “A Defense Weapon Known to be of Value”: Servicewomen of the Korea War Era. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 2005.
Young, Charles S. Name, Rank, and Serial Number: Exploiting Korean War POWS at Home and Abroad. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014.
Hill, Lance. “The Deacons for Defense: Armed Resistance and the Civil Rights Movement.” PhD diss., Tulane University, 1997.
Slagle, Mark “Mightier Than the Sword? The Black Press and the End of Racial Segregation in the U.S. Military, 1948–1954.” PhD diss., University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2010.