5.
The Natural Landscape
Since the 1650s, landscape has increasingly been seen as something beautiful in its own right. As human understanding of the universe grew, nature did not seem so threatening. Artists were inspired by the natural view rather than by the ordered scene, and people became more responsive to the pleasure that spectacular scenery provided. As a result, a more naturalistic approach to the landscape in art became increasingly popular.
In northern Europe, artists such as Jacob van Ruisdael (c.1628–82) and Meindert Hobbema (1638–1709) began to render the landscape in a natural, unordered manner with windswept skies and shadows on the ground cast by clouds. These artists and their ideas were a major influence on British landscape artists such as John Constable (1776–1837), who in turn influenced French artists, in particular the School of the Barbizon, which included Théodore Rousseau (1812–67), Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot (1796–1875), and Gustave Courbet (1818–77). Meanwhile, Constable’s great rival J. M. W. Turner (1775–1851) greatly influenced Impressionist painters such as Claude Monet (1840–1926), Alfred Sisley (1839–99), and Camille Pissaro (1830–1903). Turner, who was himself influenced by Claude, excelled at describing and expressing the elements and the landscape in their fullest glory.
Before starting the projects in this section, study Turner’s work. In particular, look at Rain, Steam and Speed (1844); Snow Storm (c.1812); Steam Boat off a Harbour Mouth (1841); Norham Castle Sunrise (1840); Peace Burial at Sea (1842); Sunset at Rouen (c.1830); and The Burning of the Houses of Parliament (c.1835). These pictures deal with the elements of earth, air, water, and fire in a very vivid way. Obviously color plays an important part in Turner’s work, particularly in capturing fire and sun, so try to find black-and-white reproductions. You will not get such vivid effects without color, but you can achieve scenes with strong and dramatic contrasts. This should help you in your observations and studies of the elements and give you experience using tone without the additional complications of introducing color.
The projects should help you become aware of these elements as physical entities, and suggest ways to represent them in a naturalistic way. The aim, also, is to give you an experience that will enable you to appreciate the physical forces of nature.
Project One
STUDIES OF THE ELEMENTS
One to two hours for each drawing
Materials: sketchbook (no bigger than 81/2 x 11in), pencils (2H–6B), pencil sharpener, graphite sticks, charcoal, inks, dip pens, water-based felt-tip pens, erasers, water and containers, cotton wool, any other materials you feel are appropriate
This project concentrates on the four elements of air, water, fire, and earth. The drawings should be made from observations of different states that the landscape implies, using the appropriate materials for the different subjects. Many artists have made studies of this type as a way of collecting visual information on, and becoming aware of, the potential in landscape drawing.
Atmosphere
These studies deal with the effects of light and atmosphere. This element is constantly changing, and the resulting drawings will probably be very dramatic and moody. Choose a landscape that contains space and distance. If it is practical to do so, select a remote area that has not been ordered by human activity, such as a field or wooded area. If possible, make your studies of atmosphere on a day when the weather is overcast. When doing this type of drawing, it is best if the elements are at their most extreme. If they are not, do not hesitate to exaggerate.
The first step is to understand the air, or atmosphere, as something tangible. Atmosphere is not solid, and unless the weather conditions are extreme it is not opaque. It is also not stationary. We are not talking here about clouds, which can be dense and opaque; by atmosphere, we mean the air between you and the next solid object or objects. How do you go about drawing something that is so transitory?
In the attempt to understand what atmosphere is, you will need to try out different materials. Atmosphere is continually changing, so you need to be able to push your material around the paper. Choose a medium that can be easily applied to the paper and just as easily removed. The drawing should be fluid, and have no suggested state of permanence. Start your observations by squinting your eyes, which helps to define the changing nature of light. It is this transitory scene that you want to depict. The drawing must be quick, spontaneous, and responsive so that you can capture the continually changing conditions.
One method is to start by laying down all the dark or black areas first with charcoal, so that you have a black-and-white drawing. Do not draw the landscape with line, as this will impede your work. With a cloth or your hand, lightly smudge the drawing, making all the white areas gray. You might at this point need to reestablish the dark areas. You should now be able to recognize the beginnings of atmosphere in the drawing. Next, establish the light areas with an eraser, rubbing out what you see as light. Push and move this tone around the paper like the air that moves, establishing and reeestablishing the lights and darks until you feel happy with the drawing.
These studies are designed to allow you to find out what your materials can do and to experiment with them to create the effect of atmosphere. There are no hard-and-fast rules for making this type of drawing; it is a process of learning by doing.
Any of the materials listed for this project could be used, and you should experiment with as many as possible. Mud and water applied with the hands can be very successful at capturing atmosphere. When using charcoal, pencil, and graphite stick, your eraser is the vehicle that allows you to move your medium around the picture surface to create this atmospheric transience. When using inks, dip pens, and water-based felt-tip pens, water has the same function. You can apply water using cotton wool to dilute the inks and felt-tip pens in order to create thinner veils of air and atmosphere where you want them.
Be prepared to experiment extensively with all these materials, pushing their possibilities quite physically, even to the point where you might tear the paper, in order to create a range of effects.
Water
Water occurs within the landscape in a number of different forms, such as lakes, rivers, streams, the sea, or rain. Make a number of studies of these different manifestations of water.
The water in a lake can have different characteristics, depending on the circumstances. For instance, the water could be choppy and rough, or it could be still and calm. Each condition needs to be observed and drawn. A calm surface will reflect objects by the lakeside and those, such as boats, floating on the surface – reflections that might be distorted by a ripple. In choppy or rough water, the characteristics are very different as the water has a surge to it, and this in turn implies movement and direction.
The sea is another form of water. It has some characteristics similar to a large lake, but it is more extreme in its moods, and more violent and powerful. It can be dark, with waves crashing against rocks; or tranquil and gentle, lapping against a sandy shore.
A stream or river has different characteristics altogether. In places a stream may meander along its way. At other times it may suddenly rush over a fall of rocks, coming instantly to life, only to become calm again just as quickly. Of course, this all depends on various other conditions. If there has been a lot of rain recently, the stream will probably become a torrent of fast, running water that is out of control; there may even be flooding. A stream eventually becomes a river, and this has different characteristics again. Although both a river and stream are constantly moving, a river is generally more predictable, except in extreme conditions.
Rain is another manifestation of water in the landscape. If you are sitting in a landscape looking across to the furthest distance, you may observe rainfall over part of it. Rain is a particular type of occurrence and it has particular characteristics. For example, it is drawn downward by gravity. Rain may be a gentle drizzle or a heavy torrent blown by the wind across the landscape. It also sometimes has a transparent quality, like a veil descending over the landscape.
You are drawing the effect of your observations and you are making a visual equivalent for what you see.
There are no rules for finding a visual equivalent for what we see and what we understand of a particular element. It might seem at first glance that this way of working – responding with materials emotionally to what you see and experience – would be relatively easy, but in fact it is not. At the same time that you are making your response, you have to understand intellectually the mechanics of your statement. You need the memory and experience of successful methods and drawings to use as a basis for further observations.
Fire
Fire might be caused by something burning in the landscape, or, more often, by the effects of a very strong sun. When the sun is very strong, it makes the landscape appear crystal clear, creating sharp contrasts of light and dark. Because the sun can be damaging to look at, draw what you know of it, not relying just on what you see. (The sun can damage your eyes, so never look directly into it.) Sunlight sometimes has a smoldering effect that creates a hazy atmosphere, particularly when it is shining through mist or thin cloud. This usually happens either in the early morning or late in the day when the sun is going down. Another effect of a strong sun is where it creates shafts of light through clouds or between trees in a forest or wood. Sunlight also varies depending on the season and country. Look at the way in which Turner captured the fire of sunlight, particularly sunsets, when the skies can appear to be on fire.
Earth
Earth is the land mass, and is affected by the other elements in one way or another.
Construct a tonal reading of the scene that endeavors to create the illusion of form and mass.
Mass is an expression of weight and form, in contrast to atmosphere and air, which are more ethereal. Mass is constant and needs to be modeled, in this case using tone. Choose a landscape that contains mountains, valleys, streams, and lakes, or at least some of these.
It is important to gain a basic understanding of fundamental form and distance, as these are the foundations on which the other elements are usually imposed. Use line to create the basic layout by making a quick outline drawing showing where the main features of the landscape lie. Then create the idea of distance by observing the way the tone changes from the foreground to the background (see drawing below). Usually it tends to be darker in the foreground and lighter in the background, although this is not always the case. You can then give the impression of mass by modeling using tone (see Classical Space, Project One, page 163). Make a number of drawings of all four elements so that you become familiar with the processes. This will put you in good stead for Project Two.
Do not assume that you know how to draw something; approach each element in the spirit of gaining more knowledge and understanding of your subject.
Project Two
THE LANDSCAPE DRAWING
One four- to five-hour drawing
Materials: 22- x 30-in/18- x 24-in/11- x 17-in sketchbook/paper, drawing board if necessary, pencils (2H–6B), graphite sticks, charcoal, inks, dip pens, water-based felt-tip pens, erasers, water and containers, cotton wool, any other materials you think are appropriate
The aim of this project is to do a drawing that gives a complete picture of the landscape, using the experience gained from doing the studies in Project One. First, plot the composition on paper, making a quick outline drawing showing where the main features of the landscape lie. Then you can create the idea of distance by observing the way the tones change from foreground to background. You can then give the impression of mass by modelling using tone.
Once you have laid down the basic foundation for the drawing and have described the space and form, begin to observe how other elements affect the underdrawing. For instance, there might be rain falling over a part of the landscape, obliterating some of the far distance. Mist might make the view very soft and hazy, and so on. This is a responsive drawing, but try to maintain the freshness of your approaches in the studies for Project One (see illustration below).
