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abbreviations, numbers by orders of magnitude
Acasta Gneiss
achondrites
Adams, Ansel
adenine diphosphate (ADP)
adenine triphosphate (ATP)
adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
ADP-ATP energy conversion
aerobic metabolism
aerobic respiration
African plate
Agassiz, Louis
AGB (asymptotic giant branch) stars
Age of Dinosaurs
agriculture
biofuel
fertilizer used in
food production-consumption difference
habitat destruction and loss of biodiversity
industrial
rise of
soil loss and
water use
air, availability of
albedo
albite
Aleutian volcanos
Alhambra mosaics
Allègre, Claude
Allende
alpha decay
alpha-particle nuclides
alpha particles
alumina
aluminum
abundance of
isotopes and proportions of
life and
aluminum
Alvarez, Luis
Alvarez, Walter
amino acids
chirality
classes of
concentration of
creation of
defined
peptide bond formation
amphiboles
amphibolite
anaerobic bacteria
andesite
Andromeda Galaxy
angular unconformities in the geological record
animal husbandry
anion
anorthite
anorthite-diopside binary eutectic phase diagram
anorthositic lunar crust
anoxygenic photosynthesis
Antarctic ice
carbon disposal proposal
climate change record in
existence of
melting of
Anthropozoic era
Apollo program
archaea
archaebacteria
atmosphere
banded iron formations
delineating the
evolution record
metal deposits in the
sedimentary rock
SMIF in the
surface oxidation in the
Archimedes’ principle
arc magmatism
Arctic ice
arc volcanos
argon
arsenic
asteroid belt
Asteroid Ceres
asteroids
asthenosphere
Aswan Dam
Atlantic Ocean
atmophile elements
atmosphere, Earth’s. See also specific components of
carbon reservoirs
composition of
formation of
greenhouse gases. See greenhouse gases
origin of
role in impacts
steady-state disequilibrium
temperature
volatile loss
water trap
atomic chemistry
atomic energy
atomic nuclei
architecture of
band of stability
electrostatic and repulsive forces
neutrons role
atomic physics
atoms
characteristics
defined
diameter
historical understanding
interactions, control of
mass
modern concept
oxidation state and size of
stability, factors of
structure, early determination of
volume
Australia
Australian/Antarctic Discordance (AAD)
autotrophs
Bacon, Francis
bacteria
anaerobic
archaebacteria
cyanobacteria
eubacteria
heterotrophic
Bambach, Richard
banded iron formation (BIF)
band of stability
Bard, Edouard
barium
barium
Barnard Glacier
Barringer Crater
basalts
composition of
defined
formation of
hydrothermal interactions and changes in
at ocean ridges
percent of crust and mantle
subduction transformation
bathymetry
battery power
Becquerel, Henri
Benioff zones
benthic foraminifera
beryllium
abundance of
creation of
life and
beryllium
beta decay
Bible, thousand-years timescale in the
Big Bang. See also universe, the: expansion of
afterglow of the
aftermath period
dark energy and
defined
elements formed
events prior to
evidence supporting
—background radiation of the universe; chemical composition of the universe; velocity-distance relationship
introduction
modeling the
summary overview
theory reliability
universe matter following
bilayer formation
binomial nomenclature
biodiversity. See also life, diversity of
carbon dioxide emissions and
costs of saving
glaciation and
global warming and
human impacts on
measuring
a nonrenewable resource
plate tectonics and
biofuels
biological evolution
directionality in
DNA in understanding
extinction balance in
extinction events and
—causes of; Cretaceous/Tertiary eras; Permo-Triassic; Phanerozoic; Precambrian/Cambrian boundary; timeframes for
glaciation and
impacts on
meteorite impacts and
oxygen levels and
planetary evolution and
plate tectonics and
progressionist perspective
selective advantage
biomarkers
biosphere
bismuth
bismuth
blackbody
blackbody radiation
blackbody temperature
black hole
Black Sea
black shales
Bode’s Law
Bolling Allerod warm period
Bootes galaxy
boron
abundance of
creation of
life and
boron
Brazilian rain forest
brines
bromine
Bushveld
butterfly effect
calcite
calcium
abundance of
climate and
life and
in seawater
Callisto
Cambrian
defined
delineating the
extinction events
invertebrate fauna development
multicellular organisms
new species emergence
oxygen levels
Cambrian-Precambrian boundary
Canadian Shield
Canyon Diablo meteorite
cap carbonates
capture hypothesis of moon formation
Carancas meteorite crater
carbohydrates
carbon
abundance of
characteristics
crustal
geological record of
inorganic
life and
organic
—13C/12C ratio; abundance; access to; creation of; crustal, flood basalts interaction; geological record of; O2 balance and; oxygenating the surface through burial and subduction; reservoirs of
oxidation states
oxygen production, record of
planetary importance
reservoirs of sources of
stellar production of
Venus vs. Earth
carbon-12
carbon-13
carbon-14
carbonaceous chondrites
carbonates
carbon atom
carbon capture and sequestration (CCS)
carbon cycle
carbon dioxide
abundance of
accretion
atmospheric loss to space
biosphere absorption of
as carbon source
climate stability feedback mechanisms and
escape time
formation of
glaciation relation
greenhouse warming
increases in
—energy use and; human impact on; rate of
liquid, sequestration of
on Mars
oceanic
outgassing flux
phase diagram
release through decarbonation
storage on Earth
surface-interior cycling
variations, historical record of
on Venus
volcanism relation to
carbon dioxide emissions
biodiversity and
decrease in, possibility of
economic prosperity and
energy use and
greenhouse warming and
international agreements
ocean acidification and
rate of increase
reducing, methods for
—alternative energy use; carbon capture and sequestration; energy efficiency
Cascades volcanos
catastrophic events
cations
Catling, David
Cavendish, Lord
cell membranes
cells
characteristics
commonalities of all
—basic appearance; chemical machinery; restricted groups of molecules in; composition of
cellular energy
Cenozoic
Central Indian Ridge
Ceres
chalcophiles
chaos
Charon
Chart of the Nuclides
chemical cycles
chemistry
nuclear
organic
planetary
chemoautotrophs
El Chichón
Chicxulub impact
Chile Rise
chimneys, oceanic
chirality of amino acids
chlorine
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
chondrites
carbonaceous
classes of
composition of
defined
determining the age of the earth
volatile elements depletion
water/carbon dioxide ratio
chondrule
citric acid cycle
civilization, planetary context of
the Anthropozoic era
the broader problem
future prospects for
historical perspectives
the human crisis
summary overview
civilizations
agricultural transition
development, key steps in
length of life
rise of
clathrate
clays
climate change
abrupt (millennial-duration shifts)
carbon dioxide measurements recording
great ocean conveyor and
habitability and
human impacts on
ice ages
interglacial periods
intermediate timescale
international agreements
introduction
little ice age
orbital cycles and
sedimentary record of
short-term
—causes; volcanism and
summary overview
climate stability
carbon recycling, feedback controls
feedback effect in
historically
plate tectonic geochemical cycle and
population growth and
summary overview
volatiles and
Clipperton transform
clockwork universe
Cloud, Preston
coal
cobalt
cobalt-56
codon
Colorado River
Columbia River Basalts
comets
composition of
defined
isotope ratios
number of, estimates
Oort Cloud
Comet Shoemaker-Levy
complexity in natural systems
compounds melting behavior
compressional waves
conchoidal fracture
constellations
continental drift
convection and
isostatic compensation
predicting
reconstructing over time
summary overview
continental drift theory
evidence supporting
—ocean ridge system discovered; paleomagnitism; seismicity distribution
plate tectonics theory vs.
proposed
continents, age of the. See also crust (continental)
convection
convection cells
convergent margin magmatism
convergent margins. See also subduction zones defined
geochemical processing at
melting and volcanism at
recycling of carbon dioxide at
volcanism at
—amounts estimated; cause of; composition of; hydrous magmas; subducted sediment recycling and
water transfer
copper
coral reefs
corals
core
composition of
defined
density
depth
formation of
inner/solid
mass
outer/liquid
oxidation state
separation from mantle
temperature-pressure relation
core/mantle boundary
core/mantle separation
Corona Borealis
cosmic radiation
cosmogenic radionuclides
cosmology
Courtillot, Vincent
Crab Nebula
Cretaceous
Cretaceous/Tertiary extinctions
crust
anorthositic
continental
—composition of; density; elements of; element transport to the; formation of
defined
lunar
—anorthositic; composition and formation of
separation of layers
crust, oceanic
age of
altered
base
carbon reservoirs
composition of;
—87Sr/86Sr ratio; altered crust; chemical by weight percentage; continental crust vs.; depth of ridge axis and; hydrothermal interactions and; iridium (Ir); iron content; magmaphiles; melts, chemical consequences of; minerals; at ocean ridges; rock types in; sediment layer; S/Fe ratio; surface-interior cycling
density
flood basalt interactions
formation of
—mantle melting in; ocean ridge volcanism at spreading centers; timing of
origin of
subduction. See subduction
thickness
topography
Crutzen, Paul
Cryogenian
Curie, Marie
Curie, Pierre
cyanobacteria
dark energy
dark matter
Darwin, Charles
daughter isotope
Dead Sea
Deccan flood basalt province
Deccan Traps
deforestation
deglacial warming
density
depth of compensation
Descartes, Rene
deuterium
Devonian
D/H ratio
diamictite
diamonds
differential volatility
dinosaurs
diopside
diopside-anorthite binary eutectic phase diagram
diorite
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
characteristics
evolutionary theory and the discovery of
functions
measuring diversity with
RNA relationship
DNA-RNA protein cycle
dolomite
Doppler method of planet detection
Doppler shift
Drake equation
Earth. See also core; crust; mantle
dynamic
energy production and loss
as fuel cell
heat sources and flow
neighbor relationships, influence of
organic reactions vs. in space
physical
stratification
structure of the
system characteristics
thermal boundary
water/carbon dioxide ratio
Earth, age of
calculating the
nineteenth-century debate
radioactive dating
—chondrites and; core formation timing; extinct radionuclides; introduction; isochron technique; summary overview
Earth, history of the
evolution
—stages in; static Earth viewpoint
formation
—accretion models; condensation sequence; melting in; meteoric materials theory
holes in
rock record
stratigraphic record
timescale
—delineating the; extinction record in; Hadean; introduction
Earth, planetary characteristics
composition
—bulk, estimating; D/H ratio; element distribution; elements by percentage; iron content; K/U ratios; primary; Si/Mg ratio
density
depths
ellipsoidal shape
gravity field
mass
moment of inertia
precessional cycle, length of the
radius
reflectivity
size
earthquakes
oceanic
seismicity, global distribution of
subduction relation
wave motion
East Pacific Rise
ecliptic
eclogite
economy and CO2 emissions
ecospace expansion stages
ecosystem destruction
deforestation
forest fire
Ediacaran
Einstein, Albert
electrical current, life as an
electricity, generation and demand
electron
electron capture
electron cloud
electron shells
electron transport
electrostatic force
elements. See also specific elements
abundance curve
age of the
chemical affinity and classification
cosmic abundance of
defined
even- vs. odd-numbered
historical understanding
identity and chemical behavior
ionic radius and size of
isotopes of
organization of the
with short half-lives
stratification of the
transport through subduction
Big Bang
by neutron capture
by stellar nucleosynthesis
—evidence supporting; introduction; most abundant; by neutron capture; by nuclear fusion; summary overview
stepwise buildup
Emeishan Traps
Emperor Seamount Chain
endosymbiosis
energetic particles
energy
in the absence of sunlight
alternative
atomic
carbon-based
cellular
chemical
dark
earliest life and
efficiency
mass converted to
nuclear
for organic matter production
potential
production of
—ADP-ATP conversion in; conversion of mass to; electron transport in; in multicellular life; photosynthesis in; planetary fuel cell; requirements for
renewable
solar
steady-state
from tidal friction
utilization, evolution and
of vaporization
energy consumption
carbon dioxide emissions and
GDP relation
reducing, methods for
—alternative energy use; carbon capture and sequestration; energy efficiency
energy revolutions
Eniwetok Atoll
entropy
epoch boundaries
equator
equilibrium in natural systems
era boundaries
ethane
eubacteria
eukaryotes
cell structure
defined
genetic lineages
images of
introduction
maximum body size over time
multicellular organisms
schematic
Europa
Europium
eutectic
eutectic phase diagram
evaporites
evolution. See also biological evolution; planetary evolution
Earth’s
—stages in; static Earth viewpoint
energy revolutions and
in language
observing
evolutionary theory
Darwin’s proposal
summary overview
support for
exotic species
extinction
causes of
evolution and
of languages
mass events, defining
extinction events
causes of
Cretaceous/Tertiary
flood basalt eruptions (core-mantle interaction/mantle plumes) and
impacts and
Permian/Triassic boundary
Permo-Triassic
Phanerozoic
Precambrian/Cambrian boundary
timeframes for
extinction rate
extinction record
extinct radionuclides
FAMOUS (French American Undersea Study) area
Farallon plate
farming. See agriculture
fatty acids
faulting
fayalite
fayalite-forsterite solid solution phase diagram
feedback
accuracy of, limitations
climate stability mechanisms
maintaining steady-state disequilibrium
feldspar
defined
lunar
percent of crust and mantle
structure
felsic
Fermi paradox
ferric iron
ferrous iron
fire
Fischer, Woody
fission
fission hypothesis of moon formation
flood basalt
fluorine
flux melting
food production-consumption difference
forsterite
forsterite-fayalite solid solution phase diagram
fossil assemblages
fossil fuel age
fossil fuels. See also specific fuels
accumulation of
resource availability
fossil record
earliest, age of
evolutionary theory and the
extinction rate in the
glaciation in the
interpreting the geological record
oxygen levels
Phanerozoic era
time covered by the
Fox, Jeff
fractal behavior in natural systems
fracture zones
Fraunhofer spectrum
freezing point depression
fructose
fuel cell
fusion
gabbro
Gaia
galaxy. See also specific galaxies
defined
distance away, measuring
evolution of
expansion of
habitable planets other than Earth
habitable zone
velocity of movement away
—the red shift indicating; theories previous to
galaxy cluster Abell 2218
galenas, young
Galileo Galilei
gallium
Ganymede
gas (state of matter)
gene transfer, horizontal
geochemical cycle, plate tectonics. See also subduction
consequences of recycling system
element transport
—to the continental crust; to the subduction zone
introduction
ocean ridge volcanism
overview
summary overview
geological record
angular unconformities in the
carbon in the
folds in the
fossil record in interpreting
iron in the
oxidation of Earth’s surface
—BIF; carbon; overview; SMIF
red beds
sulfur in the
geological timescale
delineating the
early theories
extinction record in
Hadean
introduction
radionuclides in quantifying the
stratigraphic record in the
germanates
germanium
giant impact hypothesis of moon formation
giga (prefix)
glacial flow
glacial ice vs. seawater, 18O/16O ratios
glacial loading and unloading
glacial melting
glaciations, timing and magnitude of
global carbon cycle
global warming. See also temperature, global
flood basalt eruptions and
greenhouse gas effect on
increase in
mitigating
—alternative energy use; carbon capture and sequestration; energy efficiency; SO2 injections into the atmosphere
ocean acidification and
GLOSS (global subducting sediment)
glucose
gluon
glycine
glycolysis
gneiss
gold
Grand Canyon
granite
composition of
defined
formation of
lunar
percent of crust and mantle
terrestrial
gravitational attraction
overcoming
gravity field, Earth’s
gravity vs. electrostatic force
great ocean conveyor
Great Salt Lake
greenhouse effect
causes of
Venus
greenhouse gases. See also specific gases
defined
energy use and
habitability and
ice volume variation relation
increases in
—human impact on; predicting the effects of
reducing, methods for
—alternative energy use; carbon capture and sequestration; energy efficiency
warming effect
Greenland ice
Greenschist
Grotzinger, John
groundwater, availability and demand
Gulf of Aden
Gutenberg discontinuity
gypsum
habitability
biodiversity and
climate change and
Earth
—evolution of; neighbor relationships influence on
Mars
ocean ridge system and
equirements for
the universe
Venus
volatiles and
Hadean
hafnium
Hager, Brad
half-life
halides
halite
Halley’s comet
hardness
Hawaiian islands
Hawaiian volcanos
heat sources and heat flow, Earth’s
heavy element creation, stellar nucleosynthesis of
most abundant
r-process
s-process
summary overview
Heezen, Bruce
helium
abundance of
atmospheric loss to space
characteristics
formation of
life and
mass to energy conversion
repulsive force
helium-3
helium-4
hematite
hemoglobin
heterogeneous accretion
heterotrophic bacteria
heterotrophs
HMS Challenger
Hoffman, Paul
Holland, Dick
Holmes, Arthur
Holocene
homogeneous accretion
homo sapiens. See humans
horizontal gene transfer
hot spot volcanism
“How Long is the Coast of Britain?”
Hubbert, M. King
Hubble, Edwin
Hubble Space Telescope
human energy revolution
human era
human impacts on the Earth
biodiversity
climatic
energy access and use
food shortages and poverty
future of
mitigating
—alternative energy use; carbon capture and sequestration; challenges of; economic model preventing; solving greenhouse gas accumulation; taking responsibility for
ocean acidification
overview
population growth
soils and biosphere destruction
solutions
summary overview
humans
cells, number of
migration of
modern, appearance of
planetary domination
—challenges of; consequences of; overview; summary overview
rise of
tool-bearing, appearance of
human skull, photograph of
hunger, global
Hutton, James
Hydra galaxy
hydrocarbon
hydrocarbon seeps
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
hydrogen
abundance of
atmospheric loss to space
defined
escape time
formation of
life and
loss by conversion to water
mass to energy conversion
nucleus
oxidation states
percent of Earth’s atmosphere
repulsive force
sources of
stellar formation of
hydrogen-1
hydrogen-2
hydrogen-helium (H/He) ratio in the universe
hydrosphere carbon reservoirs
hydrothermal systems and chemical exchanges
hydrothermal vent fluid
hydrothermal vents
chemical reactions and circulation
defined
ecosystems surrounding
life at
ore deposits formed at
organic molecule creation at
ice
benthic oxygen-18 record
characteristics
flow
glacial vs. seawater, oxygen-18/-16 ratios
in interstellar space
oceanic
percent of Earth’s total
reflectivity
ice ages
abrupt climate change
influences on
—CO2 and CH4; oceans, volcanism; orbital forcing
orbital cycles and
radioactive dating
timing and magnitude of
Iceland
igneous rock
ilmenite
Imbrie, John
immiscibility
impact craters
Barringer Crater
Canyon Diablo meteorite
Carancas crater
Chicxulub crater
formation of
impacts
Callisto
to date planetary surfaces
decline hypothesis
on Earth
—defense against; degassing; and dinosaurs, extinction of; flux in; giant impact hypothesis of moon formation; lunar impacts and; sources of
extinctions and
future
historically
late heavy bombardment (LHB) theory
Mars
Mimas
solar system
summary overview
terminal cataclysm theory
India
infinite repeatability
inorganic molecules. See also minerals
characteristics
defined
formation of
—interstellar; introduction; summary overview
intelligent civilizations
interior, Earth’s
composition of
degassing
density
fluidity of
fuel cell
movement of
oxidation state
stratification
volatile cycling from
International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
interstellar molecular construction
intra-plate volcanism
invasive species
invertebrate fauna development
Io
iodine-129
ionic bonds
ionic radius
ions
iridium
iron
abundance of
classification
core, percent of
crustal
density
formation of
life and
mass to energy conversion
melting point of
in Mercury’s composition
oceanic concentration
oxidation states
oxidized
—abundance of; flux in subducting crust; oxygen storage by; surface
rock record evidence of
—banded iron formation (BIF); red beds
in the solar nebula
solubility and mobility
stellar production of
in vent fluids
iron-56
iron meteorites
iron minerals
island chains
isobar
isochron
isochron technique
isostasy
isotherm
isotone
isotope fractionation
isotopes
Isua formation
Jack Hills formation
Juan de Fuca Plate
Juan de Fuca Ridge
Jupiter
creation scenario
escape velocity
gravitational pull
moons of
orbits, consequences of changes in
planetary characteristics
Shoemaker-Levy comet collision
surface
transit method of planet detection
volcanic activity
Kant, Immanuel
Keeling, Charles David
Kelemen, Peter
Kelvin, 1st Baron (William Thomson)
Kennett, Jim
Kepler, Johannes
Kepler satellite
kerogen
kilo (prefix)
kimberlite
Kingston Peak glacial deposit
Kirschvink, Joseph
Knoll, Andy
komatite
Krebs cycle
Kring, David
krypton (Kr)
Kuiper Belt
K/U ratios
Kyoto conference
Lackner, Klaus
Lake Nasser
lakes
Lake Victoria
Laki volcano
land. See also agriculture
habitat destruction and loss of biodiversity
rain forest deforestation
soils, destruction of
language, evolution of
lanthanide contraction series
Laplace, Pierre-Simon
La Sierrita
late heavy bombardment (LHB)
laws of symmetry
layers
composition of
depth of
differentiation of
geochemical cycle in linking the. See also subduction
—consequences of recycling system; cycle overview; element transport; introduction; ocean ridge system; ocean ridge volcanism; summary overview
origin of
oxidation state of
temperature profile
lead isotopes
Lehman discontinuity
Lemaître, Georges
life
building blocks of
—cellular form; chemical machinery; molecules, restricted classes of; overview
chemical composition of
critical elements for
energy for
energy revolutions in the evolution of
energy transfer in
entropy and
intelligent, other than on Earth
as a planetary process
requirements for
scale of similarity silicate-based
success of
unity of
the universe and
life, diversity of. See also biodiversity
classification
DNA in measuring
evolutionary theory
the extinction half of evolution
history of life and Earth revealed through the rock record
introduction
summary overview
Tree of Life concept
life, earliest
autotrophic
energy sources for
evidence for
—biomarkers; carbon isotopes; definitive; eukaryotes and prokaryotes; fossil record; micro-fossils; rock record; stromatolites
oxygen and
life, origin of
anaerobic conditions for
general considerations
introduction
as a planetary process
questions underlying understanding
single source, support for
steps leading to
—cellular membrane; complex molecules; gaps in understanding; overview; simple organic molecules; universal common ancestor
summary overview
light
of distant galaxies, color composition
frequencies and visible spectrum
reflected, planetary
speed of
lighthouse method
light years, defined
limestone
Linnaeus, Carolus
lipids
liposomes
liquid
core
solutions
state of matter
liquidus
lithium
abundance of
classification
combinations
creation of
density
life and
lithium-6
lithophiles
lithosphere
lithosphere/asthenosphere boundary
little ice age
Los Angeles
Lovelock, James
solar
stellar
—blinking rates and; planet detection and
lunar highlands
lunar maria
lutetium-176
Lyell, Charles
mafic
mafic minerals
magma
defined
granitic
mantle derived
melting temperature
magma ocean hypothesis
magmaphiles
magmatism
magnesiuma
bundance of
isotopes and proportions of
life and
in seawater
stellar production of
magnesium-26/-24 ratio
magnesium carbonate, carbon conversion to
magnetic field, Earth’s
magnetite
Mandelbrot, Benoit
manganese
Manicouagan Reservoir
mantle
characteristics
—density; depth; mass; temperature; thickness
composition
—carbon; chemical by weight percentage; elements of; iron content; primitive; primitive mantle; rock types in
defined
lower, depth of
melting leading to crust formation
origin of
oxidation state
oxygen isotope measurements
stratification
subduction. See subduction
temperature structure underlying
thermal boundary layer
upper, depth of
mantle/atmosphere separation
mantle convection
downwelling
evidence for
factors in
inevitability of
intraplate volcanism
introduction
isostatic compensation
ocean ridges relation to
passive aspects
plate geometry and
Rayleigh number
in the solid state
summary overview
thermal process of
upwelling
vigor of
mantle/core boundary
mantle/core separation
mantle flow
mantle plumes
mantle viscosity
marble
marble cake concept
Mars
composition of
core formation timescale
global topography
impact craters
meteorites
moons of
planetary characteristics
planetary characteristics/evolution
Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) spacecraft
Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA)
mass
to energy conversion
gravitational forces between two objects of known
mass dependent fractionation
mass extinction. See also extinction events
mass independent fractionation (MIF)
matter. See also states of matter
building blocks of
creation of, time of atomic reactions involved in
Mauna Loa volcano
McKenzie, Dan
mega (prefix)
melting
in the diopside-anorthite binary eutectic phase diagram
in the forsterite-fayalite solid solution phase diagram
glacial
inception and completion points
mantle, in crust formation
melting behavior
freezing point depression
for rocks
salt
temperature-pressure relation
Mendeleev, Dmitri
Mercury
composition of
core and density
dynamic characteristics
impact craters
physical characteristics
Mesozoic
metallic achondrites
metal-loving elements. See siderophiles
metals
accumulation of
melting point of
resource availability
thermal conductivity
metamorphic rock
metamorphism
meteorite impacts
extinctions and
lunar
moon formed from Earth by
results of
solar system
meteorites. See also chondrites
achondritic
clues provided by
composition of
defined
evidence of planetary composition in
formation of
Martian
stony
meteor showers
methane
abundance of
defined
energy from
extraction
glacial time production of
greenhouse effect
hydrogen conversion to
ice volume variation relation
percent of Earth’s atmosphere
record of
structure
methanogens
micro (prefix)
microbes
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB)
migration, human
Milankovitch cycles
Milankovitch hypothesis of orbital variations on climate
mili (prefix)
military spending
Milky Way
Miller, Stanley
Miller-Urey apparatus
Mimas
minerals
building blocks of
complex molecule formation
crystals
defined
formation of
oxidation states
physical properties
structure and nomenclature
symmetry
mining
Miocene
miracles, explaining
Mohorovicic discontinuity (“Moho”)
molecules. See also inorganic molecules; organic molecules
classes of
common to all cells
defined
formation of
—interstellar; introduction; ionic bonding in
introduction
most common
molybdenum
molybdenum-124
moment of inertia
Mono Lake
monomer
Montreal Protocol
moon, Earth’s
age of
atmosphere
composition of
—crust; impact creation and; K/U ratios; reduced materials; siderophiles; volatile elements
core
crust
—anorthositic; composition and formation of; cratering of the; major terrains of
density
energy from tidal friction
escape velocity
gravity
heat generation
impact craters
interior melting and layering
interior modifications
magma ocean hypothesis
movement away from the Earth
orbit shape
origin of
—impact hypothesis; introduction; melting in
photograph of
rocks, types and composition
temperature
moons
defined of Jupiter
of Neptune
of Saturn
of Uranus
moraines
Morgan, Jason
mosaic
Mount Pinatubo
Murthy, Rama
mutations
nano (prefix)
nanoseconds
natural gas
natural phenomena
natural resources
accumulation of
availability of
—air and water; Earth’s treasure chest; metals
human access and exploitation
with no recycling
—biodiversity; defined; fossil fuels; soils
with recycling potential
with short recycling times
natural systems
characteristics of
—chaos; disequilibrium; maintained by external energy sources; self-similarity; shared; steady-state disequilibrium; summary overview
Earth and life as
Near-Earth objects (NEO)
neon
Neoproterozoic
Neptune
dynamic characteristics
moons of
physical characteristics
transit method of planet detection
neutron capture
neutrons
“New Class of Faults and Their Significance, A” (Wilson)
Newton, Isaac
nickel
nickel-58
Nile
niobium
nitrogen
abundance of
defined
escape time
life and
stellar production of
nitrogen-14
nitrous oxide
noble gases
abundance of
characteristics
electron shell stability/lack of reactivity
isotope ratios
life and
on the Periodic Table
volatility
nonrenewable resources
biodiversity and
defined
fossil fuels as
soils
nonsilicate mineral groups
Noonday cap carbonate
nuclear chemistry
nuclear energy
nuclear fission
nuclear fusion, requirements for
nucleic acids
nucleobase
nucleosynthesis, stellar
elements created
—most abundant; by neutron capture; by nuclear fusion
evidence supporting
introduction
time period of
nucleotide
nucleus
nuclides
chart of the
stable
numbers by orders of magnitude
ocean acidification
biodiversity impacts
carbon dioxide emissions and
human impacts on
ocean ridges
crust composition and depth of
discovery of
magnetic field symmetry
mantle flow relation
mantle temperature and depth of
migration of
sedimentary thickness and
seismicity distribution at
ocean ridge system
global
habitability and
hydrothermal circulation
ocean ridge volcanism. See also volcanos
amounts estimated
chemical reactions and circulation
crust formation and
melting at convergent margins
morphology
oceans. See also seawater
Earth’s
—age of; arbon disposal proposal; circulation reorganization models; climate change and; depth; formation of; habitat destruction and biodiversity loss; origin of; percent of Earth’s surface; polar ice oxygen offset; thermohaline circulation; volume
lunar
ocean sediments
carbon disposal proposal
carbon reservoirs
climate change record in
oldest, age of
sources of
subducting, composition of
thickness
U-Pb dating
O’Connell, Rick
octahedral geometry
Ogallala aquifer
oil
Olbers, Heinrich
Olber’s paradox
olivine
abundance of
crust and mantle
defined
density
in interstellar clouds
lunar
structure
Oort Cloud
opal
ophiolites
optimistic scenario
orbital cycles and climate change
Ordovician
ore deposit, defined
organelles
organic carbon
abundance
access to
carbon-13/-12 ratio
creation of
crustal
geological record of
oxygenating the surface through burial and subduction
oxygen balance and
reservoirs of
organic matter
formula for
production of
organic molecules. See also specific molecules characteristics
defined
elements central to
formation of
—at hydrothermal vents; interstellar; introduction; summary overview
historical understanding
introduction
models
production of
versatility of
water in
The Origin of Species (Darwin)
Orion Nebula
orthoclase
Owens Lake
oxidation of Earth’s surface
2.0 Ga to .6 Ga
evolution and
geological record
—BIF; arbon; SIMF
global oxygen mass balance
introduction
models proposed for
overview
Phanerozoic record
rock record
summary overview
oxidation/reduction reactions
oxidation state
oxide minerals
oxides
oxygen
abundance of
—early Earth; in life; percent of Earth’s atmosphere; as planetary constituent; present day; solar; stellar production; universal; variations; historical record of
consumption, record of
defined
early Earth
—fossil record; levels; life and; Neoproterozoic; Phanerozoic; present levels vs.; Proterozoic; rises in; SMIF and low levels of
escape time
geological record of
—banded iron formation (BIF); BIF and; evaporites; red beds
ions
life and
oxidation states
production
carbon record of
stellar production of
reactivity
reservoirs of
Santa Barbara basin
steady-state disequilibrium
storage locations
oxygen-16
oxygen-17
oxygen-18
oxygen-18/-16 ratios
oxygen balance/budget, Earth’s
oxygenic photosynthesis
ozone
ozone shield
Pacific Ocean basin
paleomagnitism
paleosols
Paleozoic era
pallasite
Pangaea
parallax
parent isotope
Parker, Eugene
partial melting
Patterson, Claire
Pauling, Linus
Payne, Jonathan
peak oil
Penzias, Arno
peptide bond
peridotite
crust and mantle
defined
hydrothermal interactions and
melting
Periodic Table of the Elements
illustration
isotopes
Mendeleev’s
modern version, details of
organization
Permian
Permo-Triassic extinctions
pessimistic scenario
Phanerozoic
climate change
delineating the
extinction events
multicellular organisms
new species emergence
Phanerozoic/Precambrian boundary
phase diagram
phenomena, understanding
phile, meaning of
phosphorus
life and
resource availability
photoautotrophs
photosynthesis
photosynthetic prokaryotes
placer deposits
plagioclase
plagioclase feldspars
plagioclase stability boundary
planetary evolution
directionality, importance of
extinction events and
—causes of; Cretaceous/Tertiary; Permo-Triassic; Phanerozoic era
general principals of
—change in energy utilization with time; increased relationship and complexity
introduction
stages in
summary overview
surface oxidation and
planetary fuel cell, creating a
planetary systems
planetesimals
planets
characteristics
—dynamic; mass; physical
composition of
defined
density
finding new
formation of
gaseous, building blocks of
habitable
—number of; possibility of; requirements for
intelligent life on, probability of
orbits, consequences of changes in
reflectivity of
sizes
solid, building blocks of
spacing
temperature, factors in
term
planets (outer)
composition of
density
formation of
moons of the
orbits, consequences of changes in
sizes
planets (terrestrial/inner)
composition of
density
formation of
layering of the
moons of the
sizes
plants, land
plasma
plate kinematics
plates, tectonic
boundaries
composition at subduction zones
composition of
convergence/divergence speed
creation of
defined
mantle convection driven by
map of selected
movement
—direct measurement of; drivers of; mantle upwelling and; record of; speed of
thickness
plate tectonics
basic concept
continental drift vs.
convection cell concept compared
evolution, impact on
final consequences of
limitations
metal deposits via
subduction
—CO2 recycling and; element transport with; volatile recycling and; volcanism relation to; zones of
summary overview
plate tectonics geochemical cycle. See also subduction
consequences of recycling system
element transport
—to the continental crust; to the subduction zone
introduction
ocean ridge volcanism
overview
oxygen balance and
summary overview
plate tectonics theory
acceptance of
background
introduction
platinum
plumes, hydrothermal
plume volcanism
Pluto
plutons
Point Sur
polar class (amino acids)
polar ice
Antarctic
Arctic
carbon disposal proposal
changes in
polar molecules
polyhedral geometry
polymers
Pope, Alexander
population growth
biodiversity, impact on
climate stability and
controlling
early factors in
planetary domination and
rate of increase
resources limiting
postglacial rebound
potassium
potassium-40
potential energy
p-process
Precambrian/Cambrian boundary
prediction of natural phenomena
pressure
depth of compensation
factors controlling
states of matter, influence on
pressure release melting
pressure-temperature influences on states of matter
pressure-temperature relation
principle of uniformitarianism
prograde orbits
prokaryotes
defined
genetic lineages
introduction
maximum body size over time
photosynthetic mechanisms
in the rock record
schematic
propane
proteins
defined
DNA-RNA relationship
formation of
number of
Proterozoic
protista
protons
protoplanets
purines
pyrimidines
pyrite (fools gold)
pyroxenes
crust and mantle
defined
lunar
structure
quartz
questions of existence, fundamental
radiation
cosmic
ultraviolet
—protection against; seasonal distribution of; SMIF and; sources of; stellar production of
radioactive dating
age of the chondrites and Earth
age of the elements
ice ages
isochron technique
proving element transport to the crust
U-Pb dating of zircons
radioactive decay
defined
measuring time with
radioactive decay equation
radioactive half-life
radioactivity, discovery of
radiocarbon dating
radioisotopes
discovery of
long-lived
steady state
radionuclides
cosmogenic
defined
extinct
quantifying timescale with
of stellar origin, in meteorites
summary overview
rainfall
rain forests
rainwater
randomness
rare earth elements (REE)
Rayleigh, Lord
Rayleigh number
recycling
carbon dioxide, feedback controls
in Earth’s system
—air and water; metals
red beds
red giants
red light
Red Sea
reductant
reductionism
refractory elements
relationship, in understanding phenomena
relative age principles
renewable energy
reptiles, appearance of
repulsive force
retrograde orbits
Reunion Island
R group (amino acids)
rhyolite
ribozymes
ridge hydrothermal systems
Ring of Fire
river water
RNA (ribonucleic acid)
rock cycle
rock-loving elements. See lithophiles
rock record
carbon in the
iron in the
red beds
stratigraphic
sulfur in the
rocks
age of
—dating the; Hadean period; oldest
building blocks of
composition and hydrothermal interactions
composition of
crust and mantle
deformation and flow
density
formation of
igneous
magnetic materials
melting
metamorphic
oxidation of
oxygen isotope measurements
sedimentary
thermal conductivity
volcanic
Roe, Gerard
r-process
rubidium
rubidium-87
rubidium-87/strontium-86 ratio
Rutherford, Ernest
Sacramento-San Joaquin delta
salt
salt domes
samarium-147
sandstone
Santa Barbara bioturbation index
Saturn
moons of
orbits, consequences of changes in
planetary characteristics
rings, composition of
Saudi Arabia
scale
being mindful of
distances of galaxies
fractal systems
in telling the story of the universe
schist
Schrag, Dan
scientific method
scratchability
seafloor spreading sequence
sea salt
seasonal change
composition of
—hydrothermal interactions and; Mo concentrations; salt; S/Fe ratio; sodium; sulfate concentrations
vs. glacier ice
reflectivity
sedimentary rocks
sediments
carbon disposal proposal
carbon reservoirs
climate change record in
oldest, age of
sources of
subducting, composition of
thickness
U-Pb dating
seismicity, global distribution of
seismic waves
seismology
selenium
self-similarity in natural systems
serpentinite
shadow zone
shale
shear waves
sheet silicate minerals
Shoemaker-Levy 9 Comet
Shoemaker-Levy comet
Siberian Traps
siderite
siderophiles
defined
distribution among Earth’s layers
distribution of
lunar
on the Periodic Table
silicate minerals
silicates
silicon
abundance of
climate and
life and
mass to energy conversion
in seawater
stellar production of
silicon tetrahedron
Silurian
silver
Siqueiros transform
smoker vents
snowball catastrophes
snowball Earth episodes
climate variation and
Cryogenian
introduction
mass extinctions and
Neoproterozoic
oxygen levels rise and
snowcover
sodium
abundance of
classification
ions
life and
soils
arable, changes in
destruction of
reflectivity
resource availability
solar energy
solar nebula
solar system
age of
composition of
formation of
—creation scenario; dating the; inner vs. outer planets; interstellar clouds; introduction; summary overview; supernova in the; timescale
habitable zone
impacts
Kant-Laplace model
life cycle
other than Earth’s
outer, features of
planetary formation and differentiation
properties of
regularities within
temperature variations
solar system debris
solar wind
solids
convection
deformation and flow
planet-forming, possible
pressure-temperature influences on
solutions
solidus
solutions
sound
sound waves
Southeast Indian Ridge
Southwest Indian Ridge
space, orders of magnitude
species, emergence of new
speed of light
Spiral galaxy NCG 1309
spreading axis
spreading centers
crust formation at
hydrothermal systems and chemical exchanges
overlapping
rates and shapes at
temperatures
upwelling and
spreading rate
spreading theory
s-process
stable isotope fractionation
stars
age of, calculating the
atmosphere, composition of
collapse
defined
distances between, measuring
element synthesis in
—by nuclear fusion; evidence supporting; introduction; most abundant; by neutron capture; summary overview
energetic radiation
formation of
fundamental unit
habitable zone
interiors, nuclear chemistry of
life cycle
luminosity
—blinking rates and; planet detection and
nearest
size relative to role of
ultraviolet radiation emissions
states of matter
density
introduction
pressure-temperature influences on
volatility
static Earth viewpoint
statistical parallax
Statoil
steady state
steady-state disequilibrium in natural systems
steel
stellar winds
Steno, Nicloas
stishovite
strata
stratigraphic record
stratosphere
streak
strike-slip fault
stromatolites
strong force
strontium
strontium-87
strontium-87/-86 ratio
strontium-90
subduction
Chile Rise
element transport with
—to the continental crust; from ocean ridges
Farallon plate
Juan de Fuca Ridge
mineralogy changes accompanying
oxygenating the surface through
process of
subduction zones. See also convergent margins
defined
flow and thermal structure
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
sublimation
sucrose
sulfates
sulfides
sulfur
abundance of
crustal
life and
oxidation states
oxidized
oxygen consumption, recording
rock record evidence of
solubility and mobility
sulfur dioxide
sulfur-loving elements. See chalcophiles
sulfur mass independent fractionation (SMIF)
sulfur minerals
Summons, Roger
sun, the
age of
angular momentum
chemical composition of
composition of
EIT image
energy from the
energy maintaining
equator
formation of
Fraunhofer spectrum
life cycle
luminosity
protection against
radiation characteristic of surface temperature
size relative to Earth
steady-state disequilibrium
velocity of
sunlight, seasonal distribution of
supercontinents
supernova
defined
element creation
evidence supporting
frequency
molecular construction and
solar system formation and a
spectra associated with
type I
type II
superorganisms
superposition, law of
surface, Earth’s
oxidation of
—carbon record of; introduction; iron record of; overview; sulfur record
oxygenating
temperature
volatiles at
surface water, access to
surface waves
symbols, numbers by orders of magnitude
symmetry
systems, basic principles
systems biology
systems thinking
Taurus (constellation)
technetium
technological civilizations
tectonic thermostat
tektites
temperature
chimney fluids/smoker vents
of distant objects, estimating
nuclear fire
planetary, factors influencing
solar system formation
states of matter, influence on
upper chromosphere
velocity and
temperature, global. See also global warming
factors influencing
historically
profile
radiation characteristic of
steady-state
sunlight and
surface
thermal boundary
variations
volcanic eruptions and
temperature-pressure influences on states of matter
temperature-pressure relation
temperature scale for water
terminal cataclysm
Tertiary period
tetrahedral geometry
Tharp, Marie
thermal conductivity
thermal convection
thermal expansion coefficient
thermodynamics, laws of
thermostat, oven
thorium
thorium-232
thorium-232/uranium-235 ratio
thousand-years timescale
tidal friction
time. See also geological timescale
measuring
modern understanding
subjective experience of
thousand-years
time series, illustration of chaos in a
tin-124
Titan
titanium
Toba volcano
train-whistle concept
transform faults
transit method of planet detection
Trapezium
Tree of Life
Triassic
trilobites
Triton
troilite
troposphere
tryptophan
T-Tauri
tubeworms
tungsten
tungsten-182
Turcotte, Donald
type II supernova
type I supernova
ultramafic nodules
ultraviolet radiation
protection against
seasonal distribution of
SMIF and
sources of
stellar production of
uncompressed density
unicellular life
uniformitarianism principle
universal common ancestor (UCA)
universe, the. See also Big Bang
age of
center of
chronology
civilizations other than Earth
composition of
cosmic microwave background
creation story, challenges in telling the
dark energy
dark matter of
dissipating energy of
expansion of
—acceleration of; diameter; distance away, measuring; the red shift indicating; theories previous to; velocity-distance relationship; velocity of
habitability in
life and
mass of
nonvisible background glow
planets, finding new
raw material of
understanding
U-Pb dating
uraninite
uranium
abundance of
accumulation of
density
oxidation states
zircon and
uranium-235
uranium-235-lead-207 system
uranium-238
uranium-238/-235 ratio
uranium-238-lead-206 system
uranus
Urey, Harold
Ursa Major
Ussher, James
vaporization, energy of
velocity
of galaxy expansion
of the sun
temperature and
Vema
Venus
carbon dioxide, greenhouse effect of
habitability
impact craters
K/U ratios
planetary characteristics
thermal escape
violet light
Virgo galaxy
volatiles
atmospheric loss to space
depletion in ordinary chondrites
Earth vs. Venus
habitability and
lunar
plate
stratification of the
surface controls
surface-interior cycling
thermal escape
volatility
defined
differential
relative scale
states of matter
volcanism. See also ocean ridge volcanism
carbon dioxide relation
continental
at convergent margins
—amounts estimated; cause of; composition of; hydrous magmas; subducted sediment recycling and
extinction events
glacial termination and
global cooling and
K-T boundary
oceanic
at ocean ridges
subduction relation
venus
volatile emissions
volcanoes. See also ocean ridge volcanism
Aleutian
arc
Cascades
defined
Hawaiian
Laki
Tambora
Toba
Wadati-Benioff zones
Wasserburg, Gerry
a watch
water (liquid)
breaking the bonds of
cell membrane and
characteristics
density
escape time
on Europa
heating, temperature over time
hydrogen-2/-1 ratio
life and
on Mars
in organic molecules
phase diagram
polar property
temperature scale
water (liquid), on Earth. See also seawater
before 4.0 Ga, evidence of
abundance of
accretion
atmospheric loss to space
continental crust formation and
freshwater percent of total
recycling
resource availability
storage of
summary overview
surface-interior cycling
volume at the surface
water (vapor)
percent of Earth’s atmosphere
reflectivity
Venusian, composition of
water cycle
water molecule
water pollution
Watson, Bruce
weather
weathering
Wegner, Alfred
Wells, John
white dwarf
white light
Widmanstatten pattern
Wilson, E. O.
Wilson, J. Tuzo
Wilson, Robert
wind energy
Woese, Carl
wollastonite
xenon
xenon-129
Younger Dryas
young galenas
yttrium
zinc
zirconium
zircons