NOTES

1: The Toxic Triangle

1. M. E. P. Seligman, R. Walker, and D. R. Rosenhan, Abnormal Psychology (New York: W.W. Norton, 2001).

2. G. L. Klerman and M. M. Weissman, “Increasing Rates of Depression,” Journal of the American Medical Association 261 (1989): 2229–35. See also P. M. Lewinsohn, P. Rohde, J. R. Seeley, and S. A. Fischer, “Age-Cohort Changes in the Lifetime Occurrence of Depression and Other Mental Disorders,” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 102 (1993): 110–20.

3. K. R. Jamison, An Unquiet Mind: A Memoir of Moods and Madness (New York: Knopf, 1995), p. 110.

4. R. C. Kessler, K. A. McGonagle, S. Zhao, et al., “Lifetime and 12-Month Prevalence of DSM-III-R Psychiatric Disorders in the United States, Archives of General Psychiatry 51 (1994): 8–19.

5. P. M. Lewinsohn, J. R. Seeley, K. C. Moerk, and R. H. Striegel-Moore, “Gender Differences in Eating Disorder Symptoms in Young Adults,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 32 (2002): 426–40.

6. The men in this study were much less likely than the women to say they eat or binge eat to cope with distress: 13 percent said they eat and 5 percent said they binge eat.

7. R. C. Hawkins, S. Turrell, and L. J. Jackson, “Desirable and Undesirable Masculine and Feminine Traits in Relation to Students’ Dieting Tendencies and Body-Image Dissatisfaction,” Sex Roles 9 (1983): 705–18.

8. S. M. Dornbusch, J. M. Carlsmith, P. D. Duncan, et al., “Sexual Maturation, Social Class, and the Desire to Be Thin among Adolescent Females,” Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics 5 (1984): 308–14; J. Rierdan and E. Koff, “Depressive Symptomatology among Very Early Maturing Girls,” Journal of Youth and Adolescence 20 (1991): 415–25; R. G. Simmons, D. A. Blyth, E. F. Van Cleave, and D. M. Bush, “Entry into Early Adolescence: The Impact of School Structure, Puberty, and Early Dating on Self-Esteem,” American Sociological Review 44 (1979): 948–67; M. Tobin-Richards, A. Boxer, and A. C. Petersen, “The Psychological Significance of Pubertal Change: Sex Differences in Perception of Self during Early Adolescence,” in Girls at Puberty: Biological and Psychosocial Perspectives, ed. J. Brooks-Gunn and A. C. Petersen (New York: Plenum, 1983), pp. 127–54.

9. Adapted from S. Nolen-Hoeksema, Abnormal Psychology, 3rd ed. (Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2004), p. 517.

10. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed., rev. (Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association, 2000).

11. S. Nolen-Hoeksema, E. Stice, E. Wade, and C. Bohon, “Reciprocal Relations between Rumination and Bulimic, Substance Abuse, and Depressive Symptoms in Adolescent Females,” forthcoming, 2005.

12. For reviews of these studies, see S. Lyubomirsky and C. Tkach, “The Consequences of Dysphoric Rumination,” in Depressive Rumination: Nature, Theory, and Treatment of Negative Thinking in Depression, ed. C. Papageorgiou and A. Wells (New York: John Wiley, 2004), pp. 21–42; S. Nolen-Hoeksema, “The Response Styles Theory,” in ibid., pp. 107–23.

13. M. McCarthy, “The Thin Ideal, Depression, and Eating Disorders in Women,” Behavioral Research and Therapy 28 (1990): 205–18.

14. E. Stice, K. Presnell, and D. Spangler, “Risk Factors for Binge Eating Onset in Adolescent Girls: A 2-Year Prospective Investigation,” Health Psychology 21 (2002): 131–38.

15. S. Nolen-Hoeksema and Z. A. Harrell, “Rumination, Depression, and Alcohol Use: Tests of Gender Differences,” Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy 16 (2002): 391–403.

16. P. Rohde, P. M. Lewinsohn, and J. R. Seeley, “Comorbidity of Unipolar Depression: II. Comorbidity with Other Mental Disorders in Adolescents and Adults,” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 100 (1991): 214–22.

2: Just How Toxic the Triangle Is

1. P. M. Lewinsohn, P. Rohde, and J. R. Seeley, “The Clinical Consequences of Comorbidity,” Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 34 (1995): 510–20.

2. E. Stice, K. Presnell, and D. Spangler, “Risk Factors for Binge Eating Onset in Adolescent Girls: A 2-Year Prospective Investigation,” Health Psychology 21 (2002): 131–38.

3. E. Stice and C. G. Fairburn, “Dietary and Dietary-Depressive Subtypes of Bulimia Nervosa Show Differential Symptom Presentation, Social Impairment, Comorbidity, and Course of Illness,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 71 (2003): 1090–94.

4. P. M. Lewinsohn, R. H. Striegel-Moore, and J. R. Seeley, “Epidemiology and Natural Course of Eating Disorders in Young Women from Adolescence to Young Adulthood,” Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 39 (2000): 1284–92.; R. H. Striegel-Moore, J. R. Seeley, and P. M. Lewinsohn, “Psychosocial Adjustment in Young Adulthood of Women Who Experienced an Eating Disorder during Adolescence,” Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 42 (2003): 587–93.

5. S. E. Daley, C. Hammen, J. Davila, and D. Burge, “Axis II Symptomatology, Depression, and Life Stress during the Transition from Adolescence to Adulthood,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 66 (1998): 595–603.

6. A. Abbey, L. T. Ross, D. McDuffie, and P. McAuslan, “Alcohol and Dating Risk Factors for Sexual Assault among College Women,” Psychology of Women Quarterly 20 (1996): 147–69.

7. J. R. Haber and T. Jacob, “Marital Interactions of Male versus Female Alcoholics,” Family Process 36 (1997): 385–402.

8. R. C. Kessler, P. Berglund, O. Demler, et al., “The Epidemiology of Major Depressive Disorder: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R),” JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association 289 (2003): 3095–105.

9. M. Frezza, C. DiPadova, G. Pozzato, et al., “High Blood Alcohol Levels in Women: The Role of Decreased Gastric Alcohol Dehydrogenase Activity and First-Pass Metabolism,” New England Journal of Medicine 322 (1990): 95–99.

10. S. B. Blume and M. Russell, “Alcohol and Substance Abuse in Obstetrics and Gynecology Practice,” in Psychological Aspects of Women’s Health Care: The Interface between Psychiatry and Obstetrics and Gynecology, 2nd ed., ed. N. L. Stotland (Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Press, 2001), pp. 421–39; J. Gill, “The Effects of Moderate Alcohol Consumption on Female Hormone Levels and Reproductive Function,” Alcohol and Alcoholism 35 (2000): 417–23; A. D. Klassen and S. C. Wilsnack, “Sexual Experience and Drinking among Women in a U.S. National Survey,” Archives of Sexual Behavior 15 (1986): 363–92.

11. E. Z. Hanna, S. P. Chou, and B. F. Grant, “The Relationship between Drinking and Heart Disease Morbidity in the United States: Results from the National Health Interview Survey,” Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 21 (1997): 111–18.

12. D. M. Dougherty, J. M. Bjork, and R. H. Bennett, “Effects of Alcohol on Rotary Pursuit Performance: A Gender Comparison,” The Psychological Record 48 (1998): 393–405; S. J. Nixon, “Cognitive Deficits in Alcoholic Women,” Alcohol Health and Research World 18 (1994): 228–32.

13. J. Polivy and C. P. Herman, “Causes of Eating Disorders,” Annual Review of Psychology 53 (2002): 182–213.

14. N. Schneiderman, G. Ironson, and S. D. Siegel, “Stress and Health: Psychological, Behavioral, and Biological Determinants,” Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 1 (2005): 607–28.

15. L. L. Judd and H. S. Akiskal, “Delineating the Longitudinal Structure of Depressive Illness: Beyond Clinical Subtypes and Duration Thresholds,” Pharmacopsychiatry 33 (2000): 3–7; L. Judd, H. Akiskal, J. Maser, et al., “A Prospective 12-Year Study of Subsyndromal and Syndromal Depressive Symptoms in Unipolar Major Depressive Disorders,” Archives of General Psychiatry 55 (1998): 694–700.

16. C. G. Fairburn, Z. Cooper, H. A. Doll, et al., “The Natural Course of Bulimia Nervosa and Binge-Eating Disorder in Young Women,” Archives of General Psychiatry 57 (2000): 659–65; B. Herpertz-Dahlmann, B. Muller, S. Herpertz, and N. Heussen, “Prospective 10-Year Follow-Up in Adolescent Anorexia Nervosa—Course, Outcome, Psychiatric Morbidity, and Psychosocial Adaptation,” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 42 (2001): 603–12.

17. R. C. Kessler, M. Olfson, and P. A. Berglund, “Patterns and Predictors of Treatment Contact after the First Onset of Psychiatric Disorders,” American Journal of Psychiatry 155 (1998): 62–68; R. C. Kessler, P. Berglund, O. Demler, et al., “The Epidemiology of Major Depressive Disorder: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R),” JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association 289 (2003): 3095–105.

18. R. J. Boland and M. B. Keller, “Course and Outcome of Depression,” in Handbook of Depression, ed. I. H. Gotlib and C. L. Hammen (New York: Guilford Press, 2002), pp. 43–60; T. E. Joiner, Jr., “Depression in Its Interpersonal Context,” in ibid., pp. 295–313.

19. D. A. Cole, J. M. Martin, L. G. Peeke, et al., “Are Cognitive Errors of Underestimation Predictive or Reflective of Depressive Symptoms in Children? A Longitudinal Study,” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 107 (1998): 481–96; S. Nolen-Hoeksema, J. S. Girgus, and M. E. P. Seligman, “Predictors and Consequences of Depressive Symptoms in Children: A 5-Year Longitudinal Study,” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 101 (1992): 405–22.

3: A Woman’s Place

1. For academic reviews of the literature covered in this section, see N. R. Crick and C. Zahn-Waxler, “The Development of Psychopathology in Females and Males: Current Progress and Future Challenges,” Development and Psychopathology 15 (2003): 719–42; K. Keenan and D. S. Shaw, “Starting at the Beginning: Exploring the Etiology of Antisocial Behavior in the First Years of Life,” in Causes of Conduct Disorder and Juvenile Delinquency, ed. B. B. Lahey, T. E. Moffitt, et al. (New York: Guilford Press, 2003), pp. 153–81; S. Nolen-Hoeksema, “The Response Styles Theory,” in Depressive Rumination: Nature, Theory, and Treatment of Negative Thinking in Depression, ed. C. Papageorgiou and A. Wells (New York: Wiley, 2004), pp. 107–23; S. Nolen-Hoeksema and J. S. Girgus, “The Emergence of Gender Differences in Depression in Adolescence,” Psychological Bulletin 115 (1994): 424–43.

2. H. Hops, “Intergenerational Transmission of Depressive Symptoms: Gender and Developmental Considerations,” in Interpersonal Factors in the Origin and Course of Affective Disorders, ed. C. Mudt and M. J. Goldstein (London: Gaskell/Royal College of Psychiatrists, 1996), pp. 113–29.

3. S. Nolen-Hoeksema and C. Rusting, “Gender Differences in Well-Being,” in Foundations of Hedonic Psychology: Scientific Perspectives on Enjoyment and Suffering, ed. D. Kahneman, E. Diener, and N. Schwarz (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1999), pp. 330–52.

4. C. Rusting and S. Nolen-Hoeksema, “Regulating Responses to Anger: Effects of Rumination and Distraction on Angry Mood,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 (1998): 790–803.

5. L. D. Butler and S. Nolen-Hoeksema, “Gender Differences in Responses to a Depressed Mood in a College Sample,” Sex Roles 30 (1994): 331–46.

6. S. Nolen-Hoeksema and B. Jackson, “Mediators of the Gender Difference in Rumination,” Psychology of Women Quarterly 25 (2001): 37–47.

7. H. Bruch, Eating Disorders: Obesity, Anorexia Nervosa, and the Person Within (New York: Basic Booksl, 1973).

8. S. Nolen-Hoeksema, Abnormal Psychology, 4th ed. (Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2006). In press.

9. J. Polivy and C. P. Herman, “Causes of Eating Disorders,” Annual Review of Psychology 53 (2002): 182–213.

10. A. J. Hill and J. A. Franklin, “Mothers, Daughters, and Dieting: Investigating the Transmission of Weight Control,” British Journal of Clinical Psychology 37 (1998): 3–13.

11. T. Jacob and D. A. Bremer, “Assortative Mating among Men and Women Alcoholics,” Journal of Studies on Alcohol 47 (1986): 219–22.; L. J. Roberts and K. E. Leonard, “Gender Differences and Similarities in the Alcohol and Marriage Relationship,” in Gender and Alcohol: Individual and Social Perspectives, ed. R. W. Wilsnack and S. C. Wilsnack (Piscataway, N.J.: Rutgers Center of Alcohol Studies, 1997), pp. 289–311.

12. A. Young, personal communication, April 12, 2005.

13. C. V. Wiseman, J. J. Gray, J. E. Morrison, and A. H. Ahrens, “Cultural Expectations of Thinness in Women: An Update,” International Journal of Eating Disorders 11 (1992): 85–89.

14. R. F. Guy, B. A. Rankin, and M. J. Norvell, “The Relation of Sex Role Stereotyping to Body Image,” Journal of Psychology 105 (1980): 167–73; B. J. Rolls, I. C. Fedoroff, and J. F. Guthrie, “Gender Differences in Eating Behavior and Body Weight Regulation,” Health Psychology 10 (1991): 133–42.

15. D. Mori, S. Chaiken, and P. Pliner, “‘Eating Lightly’ and the Self-Presentation of Femininity,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 53 (1987): 693–702; P. Pliner and S. Chaiken, “Eating, Social Motives, and Self-Presentation in Women and Men,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 26 (1990): 240–54.

16. E. Stice, “Risk and Maintenance Factors for Eating Pathology: A Meta-analytic Review,” Psychological Bulletin 128 (2002): 825–48.

17. E. Stice and H. Shaw, “Adverse Effects of the Media-Portrayed Thin-Ideal on Women, and Linkages to Bulimic Symptomatology,” Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 13 (1994): 288–308.

18. E. Stice, D. Spangler, and W. S. Agras, “Exposure to Media-Portrayed Thin-Ideal Images Adversely Affects Vulnerable Girls: A Longitudinal Experiment,” Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 20 (2001): 271–89.

19. E. Stice, J. Maxfield, and T. Wells, “Adverse Effects of Social Pressure to Be Thin on Young Women: An Experimental Investigation of the Effects of ‘Fat Talk,’” International Journal of Eating Disorders 34 (2003): 108–17. They also had a second accomplice, who was twenty years old, 5 foot 9 inches tall, and 126 pounds.

20. M. L. Granner, D. R. Black, and D. A. Abood, “Levels of Cigarette and Alcohol Use Related to Eating-Disorder Attitudes,” American Journal of Health Behavior 26 (2002): 43–55.

21. E. Stice, E. M. Burton, and H. Shaw, “Prospective Relations between Bulimic Pathology, Depression, and Substance Abuse: Unpacking Comorbidity in Adolescent Girls,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 72 (2004): 62–71.

22. B. L. Fredrickson and T. A. Roberts, “Objectification Theory: Toward Understanding Women’s Lived Experiences and Mental Health Risks,” Psychology of Women Quarterly 21 (1997): 173–206.

4: Our Bodies Conspire against Us

1. C. O. Ladd, R. L. Huot, K. V. Thrivikraman, et al., “Long-Term Behavioral and Neuroendocrine Adaptations to Adverse Early Experience,” Progress in Brain Research 122 (2000): 81–103.

2. D. Cicchetti and S. L. Toth, “Child Maltreatment,” Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 1 (2005): 409–38.

3. C. Heim, P. M. Plotsky, and C. B. Nemeroff, “Importance of Studying the Contributions of Early Adverse Experience to Neurobiological Findings in Depression,” Neuropsychopharmacology 29 (2004): 641–48.

4. C. Heim, D. J. Newport, D. Wagner, et al., “The Role of Early Adverse Experience and Adulthood Stress in the Prediction of Neuroendocrine Stress Reactivity in Women: A Multiple Regression Analysis,” Depression and Anxiety 15 (2002): 117–25.

5. Heim et al., see note 3.

6. J. D. Bremner, M. Vythilingam, G. Anderson, et al., “Assessment of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis over a 24-Hour Diurnal Period and in Response to Neuroendocrine Challenges in Women with and without Childhood Sexual Abuse and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder,” Biological Psychiatry 54 (2003): 710–18; M. Vythilingam, C. Heim, J. Newport, et al., “Childhood Trauma Associated with Smaller Hippocampal Volume in Women with Major Depression,” American Journal of Psychiatry 159 (2002): 2072–80.

7. C. B. Nemeroff, C. M. Heim, M. E. Thase, et al., “Differential Responses to Psychotherapy versus Pharmacotherapy in Patients with Chronic Forms of Major Depression and Childhood Trauma,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, November 13, 2003.

8. H. S. Mayberg, “Modulating Dysfunctional Limbic-Cortical Circuits in Depression: Towards Development of Brain-Based Algorithms for Diagnosis and Optimized Treatment,” British Medical Bulletin 65 (2003): 193–207. Interestingly, patients who respond to cognitive therapy show different brain changes than patients who respond best to drug treatments.

9. J. Kaufman, P. Plotsky, C. Nemeroff, et al., “Effects of Early Adverse Experiences on Brain Structure and Function: Clinical Implications,” Biological Psychiatry 48 (2000): 778–90.

10. K. S. Kendler, C. G. Davis, and R. C. Kessler, “The Familial Aggregation of Common Psychiatric and Substance Use Disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey: A Family History Study,” British Journal of Psychiatry 179 (1997): 541–48.

11. K. S. Kendler, C. MacLean, M. Neale, et al., “The Genetic Epidemiology of Bulimia Nervosa,” American Journal of Psychiatry 148 (1991): 1627–37.

12. K. S. Kendler, A. C. Heath, M. C. Neale, et al., “A Population-Based Twin Study of Alcoholism in Women,” JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association 268 (1992): 1877–82.

13. K. S. Kendler and C. A. Prescott, “A Population-Based Twin Study of Lifetime Major Depression in Men and Women,” Archives of General Psychiatry 56 (1999): 39–44.

14. R. Rowe, A. Pickles, E. Simonoff, et al., “Bulimic Symptoms in the Virginia Twin Study of Adolescent Behavioral Development: Correlates, Comorbidity, and Genetics,” Biological Psychiatry 51 (2002): 172–82.

15. K. S. Kendler, “Twin Studies of Psychiatric Illness: Current Status and Future Directions,” Archives of General Psychiatry 50 (1993): 905–15.

16. C. M. Grilo, R. Sinha, and S. S. O’Malley, “Eating Disorders and Alcohol Use Disorders,” Alcohol Research and Health 26 (2002): 151–60.

17. For example, K. S. Kendler, E. E. Walters, M. C. Neale, et al., “The Structure of Genetic and Environmental Risk Factors for Six Major Psychiatric Disorders in Women,” Archives of General Psychiatry 52 (1995): 374–83; K. M. von Ranson, M. McGue, and W. G. Iacono, “Disordered Eating and Substance Use in an Epidemiological Sample: II. Associations within Families,” Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 17 (2003): 193–202.

18. A. Caspi, K. Sugden, T. E. Moffitt, et al., “Influence of Life Stress on Depression: Moderation by a Polymorphism in the 5-HTT Gene,” Science 301 (2003): 386–89.

19. M. E. Thase, R. Jindal, and R. H. Howland, “Biological Aspects of Depression,” in Handbook of Depression, ed. I. H. Gotlib and C. L. Hammen (New York: Guilford Press, 2002), pp. 192–218.

20. J. E. Mitchell and M. deZwaan, “Pharmacological Treatments of Binge Eating,” in Binge Eating: Nature, Assessment and Treatment, ed. C. E. Fairburn and G. T. Wilson (New York: Guilford Press, 1993), pp. 250–69.

21. G. K. Frank, W. H. Kaye, T. E. Weltzin, et al., “Altered Response to Meta-Chlorophenylpiperazine in Anorexia Nervosa: Support for a Persistent Alteration of Serotonin Activity after Short-Term Weight Restoration,” International Journal of Eating Disroders 30 (2001): 57–68.

22. J. J. Mann, D. A. Brent, and V. Arango, “The Neurobiology and Genetics of Suicide and Attempted Suicide: A Focus on the Serotonergic System,” Neuropsychopharmacology 24 (2001): 467–77.

23. K. C. Berridge and E. S. Valenstein, “What Psychological Process Mediates Feeding Evoked by Electrical Stimulation of the Lateral Hypothalamus?” Behavioral Neuroscience 105 (1991): 3–14.

24. E. Stice, “Risk and Maintenance Factors for Eating Pathology: A Meta-analytic Review,” Psychological Bulletin 128 (2002): 825–48.

25. M. E. Keck, T. Welt, M. B. Muller, et al., “Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Increases the Release of Dopamine in the Mesolimbic and Mesostriatal System,” Neuropharmacology 43 (2002): 101–10.

26. W. W. Ishak, M. H. Rapaport, and J. G. Gotto, “Emerging Treatment Options in Treatment-Resistant Depression and Anxiety Disorders,” CNS Spectrums 9 (2004): 25–32.

27. J. M. Twenge and S. Nolen-Hoeksema, “Age, Gender, Race, SES, and Birth Cohort Differences on the Children’s Depression Inventory: A Meta-analysis,” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 111 (2002): 578–88.

28. A. Angold, E. J. Costello, A. Erkanli, and C. M. Worthman, “Pubertal Change in Hormones of Adolescent Girls,” Psychological Medicine 29 (1999): 1043–53.

29. M. Steiner, E. Dunn, and L. Born, “Hormones and Mood: From Menarche to Menopause and Beyond,” Journal of Affective Disorders 74 (2003): 67–83.

30. E. Young and A. Korzun, “Psychoneuroendocrinology of Depression: Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal Axis,” Psychiatric Clinics of North America 21 (1998): 309–23.

31. J. Silberg, A. Pickles, M. Rutter, et al., “The Influence of Genetic Factors and Life Stress on Depression among Adolescent Girls,” Archives of General Psychiatry 56 (1999): 225–32.

32. A. Caspi and T. Moffitt, “Individual Differences Are Accentuated during Periods of Social Change: The Sample Case of Girls at Puberty,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 61 (1991): 157–68; J. A. Graber, P. M. Lewinsohn, J. R. Seeley, and J. Brooks-Gunn, “Is Psychopathology Associated with the Timing of Pubertal Development?” Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 36 (1997): 1768–76; C. Hayward, J. D. Killen, D. M. Wilson, and L. D. Hammer, “Psychiatric Risk Associated with Early Puberty in Adolescent Girls,” Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 36 (1997): 255–62.

33. J. Rierdan and E. Koff, “Depressive Symptomatology among Very Early Maturing Girls,” Journal of Youth and Adolescence 20 (1991): 415–25.

34. B. Allgood-Merten, P. M. Lewinsohn, and H. Hops, “Sex Differences and Adolescent Depression,” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 99 (1990): 55–63.

35. A. C. Petersen, P. A. Sarigiani, and R. E. Kennedy, “Adolescent Depression: Why More Girls?” Journal of Youth and Adolescence 20 (1991): 247–71.

36. R. G. Simmons and D. A. Blyth, Moving into Adolescence: The Impact of Pubertal Change and School Context (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1987).

37. J. M. Cyranowski, E. Frank, E. Young, and M. K. Shear, “Adolescent Onset of the Gender Difference in Lifetime Rates of Major Depression: A Theoretical Model,” Archives of General Psychiatry 57 (2000): 21–27.

5: Thinking Our Way into the Toxic Triangle

1. For a review of this work, see S. Nolen-Hoeksema, Women Who Think Too Much: How to Break Free of Overthinking and Reclaim Your Life (New York: Henry Holt, 2003); and S. Nolen-Hoeksema, “Further Evidence for the Role of Psychosocial Factors in Depression Chronicity,” Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice 7 (2000): 224–27.

2. S. Lyubomirsky and S. Nolen-Hoeksema, “Effects of Self-Focused Rumination on Negative Thinking and Interpersonal Problem-Solving,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69 (1995): 176–90.

3. S. Nolen-Hoeksema and C. G. Davis, “‘Thanks for Sharing That’: Ruminators and Their Social Support Networks,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77 (1999): 801–14.

4. S. Nolen-Hoeksema and B. Jackson, “Mediators of the Gender Difference in Rumination,” Psychology of Women Quarterly 25 (2001): 37–47.

5. For an excellent discussion of all-or-nothing thinking, see D. Burns, Feeling Good: The New Mood Therapy (New York: Morrow, 1980).

6. J. Polivy and C. P. Herman, “Causes of Eating Disorders,” Annual Review of Psychology 53 (2002): 182–213.

7. G. A. Marlatt, Harm Reduction: Pragmatic Strategies for Managing High-Risk Behaviors (New York: Guilford Press, 1998).

8. J. Crocker and C. Wolfe, “Contingencies of Self-Worth,” Psychological Review 108 (2001): 593–628.

9. C. Power, J. Crocker, and R. Luhtanen, “The Ups and Downs of Appearance: Appearance-Contingent Self-Worth and Gendered Psychological Well-Being” (unpublished).

10. K. D. Vohs, Z. R. Voelz, J. W. Pettit, et al., “Perfectionism, Body Dissatisfaction, and Self-Esteem: An Interactive Model of Bulimic Symptom Development,” Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 20 (2001): 476–97; K. D. Vohs, A. M. Bardone, T. E. Joiner, Jr., et al., “Perfectionism, Perceived Weight Status, and Self-Esteem Interact to Predict Bulimic Symptoms: A Model of Bulimic Symptom Development,” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 108 (1999): 695–700.

11. R. K. Luhtanen and J. Crocker, “Fragile Self-Esteem and Alcohol Use in College Students,” Psychology of Addictive Behaviors (in press).

12. J. T. Sargent and J. Crocker, “Contingencies of Self-Worth and Depressive Symptoms in College Students” (under review).

6: Transforming Vulnerabilities into Strengths

1. Z. V. Segal, J. M. G. Williams, and J. D. Teasdale, Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Depression (New York: Guilford Press, 2002).

2. G. A. Marlatt, K. Witkiewitz, T. M. Dillworth, et al., “Vipassana Meditation as a Treatment for Alcohol and Drug Use Disorders,” in Mindfulness and Acceptance: Expanding the Cognitive-Behavioral Tradition, ed. S. C. Hayes, V. M. Follette, and M. M. Linehan (New York: Guilford Press, 2004), pp. 261–87.

3. Marlatt et al., see note 2.

4. Segal et al., see note 1.

5. G. A. Marlatt and J. R. Gordon, eds., Relapse Prevention (New York: Guilford Press, 1985); R. Kadden, K. Carroll, D. Donovan, et al., Cognitive-Behavioral Coping Skills Therapy Manual (Washington, D.C.: National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 1995).

6. Kabat-Zinn, Wherever You Go, There You Are: Mindfulness Meditation in Everyday Life (New York: Hyperion, 1994).

7. Marlatt et al., see note 2.

8. Kadden et al., see note 5.

9. C. G. Fairburn, Overcoming Binge Eating (New York: Guilford Press, 1995).

10. J. Polivy and C. P. Herman, “Causes of Eating Disorders,” Annual Review of Psychology 53 (2002): 182–213.

7: Moving toward a Healthier You

1. E. L. Deci and R. M. Ryan, “A Motivational Approach to Self: Integration in Personality,” in Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, ed. R. Dienstbier (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991), pp. 237–88.

2. L. L. Martin and A. Tesser, “Some Ruminative Thoughts,” in Ruminative Thoughts, ed. R. S. Wyer, Jr. (Mahwah, N.J.: Erlbaum Associates, 1996), pp. 1–48.

3. Excerpted from S. Nolen-Hoeksema, Women Who Think Too Much: How to Break Free of Overthinking and Reclaim Your Life (New York: Henry Holt, 2003).

4. I can only cover so much in one book, but several self-help books specific to one of the three sides of the toxic triangle provide even more ideas for positive change. For changing eating-related behaviors, I recommend Dr. Christopher Fairburn’s Overcoming Binge Eating (1995). For drinking-related behaviors, have a look at The Tao of Sobriety: Helping You to Recover from Alcohol and Drug Addiction (2002), by psychologists David Gregson, Jay Efran, and Alan Marlatt. For depression and overthinking, consult my book Women Who Think Too Much: How to Break Free from Overthinking and Reclaim Your Life (2003) and Dr. David Burns’s Feeling Good: The New Mood Therapy (1999).

5. S. Nolen-Hoeksema, “The Response Styles Theory,” in Depressive Rumination: Nature, Theory, and Treatment of Negative Thinking in Depression, ed. C. Papageorgiou and A. Wells (New York: Wiley, 2004), pp. 107–23.

6. A. M. Nezu, T. J. D’Zurilla, L. Marni, and C. M. Nezu, “Problem-Solving Therapy for Adults,” in Social Problem Solving: Theory, Research, and Training, ed. E. C. Chang, T. J. D’Zurilla, L. J. Sanna (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 2004), pp. 171–91.

7. M. E. McCullough, “Forgiveness as Human Strength: Theory, Measurement, and Links to Well-Being,” Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 19 (2000): 43–55; M. E. McCullough, “Forgiveness: Who Does It and How Do They Do It?” Current Directions in Psychological Science 10 (2001): 194–97.

8. G. A. Marlatt and J. R. Gordon, eds., Relapse Prevention (New York: Guilford Press, 1985).

8: Channeling Our Daughters’ Strengths

1. For example, see E. Stice and H. Shaw, “Eating Disorder Prevention Programs: A Meta-Analytic Review,” Psychological Bulletin 130 (2004): 206–27.

2. J. M. Cyranowski, E. Frank, E. Young, and M. K. Shear, “Adolescent Onset of the Gender Difference in Lifetime Rates of Major Depression: A Theoretical Model,” Archives of General Psychiatry 57 (2000): 21–27.

3. A. E. Fruzzetti and K. M. Iverson, “Mindfulness, Acceptance, Validation, and ‘Individual’ Psychopathology in Couples,” in Mindfulness and Acceptance: Expanding the Cognitive-Behavioral Tradition, ed. S. C. Hayes, V. M. Follette, and M. M. Linehan (New York: Guilford Press, 2004).

4. E. Stice and J. Shaw, “Eating Disorder Prevention Programs,” pp. 206–27; G. A. Marlatt, M. E. Larimer, J. S. Baer, and L. A. Quigley, “Harm Reduction for Alcohol Problems: Moving beyond the Controlled Drinking Economy,” Behavior Therapy 24 (1993): 461–503; G. N. Clarke, W. Hawkins, M. Murphy, et al., “Targeted Prevention of Unipolar Depressive Disorder in an At-Risk Sample of High School Adolescents: A Randomized Trial of a Group Cognitive Intervention,” Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 34 (1995): 312–21.

5. S. Nolen-Hoeksema and J. Morrow, “Effects of Rumination and Distraction on Naturally Occurring Depressed Mood,” Cognition and Emotion 7 (1993): 561–70.

6. G. A. Marlatt, J. S. Baer, and M. Larimer, “Preventing Alcohol Abuse in College Students: A Harm Reduction Approach,” in Alcohol Problems among Adolescents: Current Directions in Prevention Research, ed. G. M. Boyd, J. Joward, and R. A. Zucker (Hillsdale, N.J.: L. Erlbaum, 1995), pp. 147–72.

7. G. A. Marlatt, J. S. Baer, D. R. Kivlahan, et al., “Screening and Brief Intervention for High-Risk College Student Drinkers: Results from a 2-Year Follow-Up Assessment,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 66 (1998): 604–15.

8. V. E. Frankl, Man’s Search for Meaning (New York: Washington Square Press, 1963), p. 104.

9. A. Nafisi, Reading Lolita in Tehran (New York: Random House, 2003).