1. John Stuart Mill, The Autobiography of John Stuart Mill (US: Seven Treasures Publications, 2009), 93.
2. David Remnick, ‘Obama Reckons With a Trump Presidency’, New Yorker, 28 November 2016 <http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/11/28/obama-reckons-with-a-trump-presidency> (accessed 30 November 2017).
3. Ronald Wright, A Short History of Progress (London: Canongate Books, 2006), 14, 55.
4. Wright, Progress, 14.
5. Jaron Lanier, Who Owns the Future? (London: Allen Lane, 2014), 17.
6. Karl Marx, Theses on Feuerbach, in Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Collected Works Vol. 5 (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1976), 5.
7. Tim Berners-Lee, cited in H. Halpin, ‘Philosophical Engineering. Towards a Philosophy of the Web’, APA Newsletters, Newsletter on Philosophy and Computers 7, no. 2 (2008): 5–11, quoted in Mireille Hildebrandt, ‘The Public(s) Onlife: A Call for Legal Protection by Design’, in The Onlife Manifesto: Being Human in a Hyperconnected Era, ed. Luciano Floridi (Cham: Springer, 2015), 188.
8. Ibid.
9. Sheelah Kolhatkar, ‘The Tech Industry’s Gender-Discrimination Problem’, New Yorker, 20 November 2017 <https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/11/20/the-tech-industrys-gender-discrimination-problem> (accessed 12 December 2017).
10. Julia Wong, ‘Segregated Valley: The Ugly Truth about Google and Diversity in Tech’, The Guardian, 7 August 2017 <https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/aug/07/silicon-valley-google-diversity-black-women-workers> (accessed 28 November 2017).
11. Don Tapscott and Alex Tapscott, Blockchain Revolution: How the Technology behind Bitcoin is Changing Money, Business, and the World (London: Portfolio Penguin, 2016), 199.
12. Isaiah Berlin, ‘The Purpose of Philosophy’, in Isaiah Berlin, The Power of Ideas, ed. Henry Hardy (London: Pimlico, 2001), 35.
13. John S. Dryzek, Bonnie Honig, and Anne Phillips, ‘Introduction’, in The Oxford Handbook of Political Theory, eds. John S. Dryzek, Bonnie Honig, and Anne Phillips (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 4.
14. Onlife Initiative, ‘Background Document: Rethinking Public Spaces in the Digital Transition’, in Onlife Manifesto, 41.
15. ‘Editors’ Introduction’, in Political Innovation and Conceptual Change, eds. Terence Ball, James Farr, and Russell L. Hanson (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 1.
16. Ludwig Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (Abingdon: Routledge, 2001), 68 (5.6).
17. C.f. Yochai Benkler, The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2006), 17: ‘Different technologies make different kinds of human action and interaction easier or harder to perform.’
18. Emmanuel G. Mesthene, ‘The Social Impact of Technological Change’, in Philosophy of Technology: The Technological Condition: An Anthology (Second Edition), eds. Robert C. Scharff and Val Dusek (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2014), 689.
19. Langdon Winner, ‘Do Artifacts Have Politics?’ in Philosophy of Technology, 669.
20. Langdon Winner, ‘Do Artifacts Have Politics?’
21. Otto Mayr, Authority, Liberty and Automatic Machinery in Early Modern Europe (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989), 102; Aristotle, The Politics, translated by T. A. Sinclair (London: Penguin, 1992), 1253a18, 60.
22. Mayr, Authority, 102.
23. Mayr, Authority, 27.
24. Mayr, Authority, 112.
25. Mayr, Authority, 119.
26. Mayr, Authority, 121.
27. E. M. Forster, The Machine Stops (London: Penguin, 2011).
28. Evgeny Morozov, The Net Delusion: How Not to Liberate the World (London: Penguin, 2011), xiii.
29. Ibid.
30. Evgeny Morozov, To Save Everything, Click Here: Technology, Solutionism, and the Urge to Fix Problems That Don’t Exist (London: Penguin, 2014), 5.
31. See generally Andrew J. Beniger, Control Revolution: Technological and Economic Origins of the Information Society (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1986).
32. James Farr, ‘Understanding Conceptual Change Politically’, in Political Innovation, 25.
33. Yuval Noah Harari, Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind (London: Vintage Books, 2011), 24–7.
34. Yuval Noah Harari, Homo Deus: A Brief History of Tomorrow (London: Harvill Secker, 2015), 167.
35. ‘Domesday Book’, Wikipedia, last modified 26 November 2017 <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domesday_Book> (accessed 28 November 2017).
36. Harari, Homo Deus, 167.
37. Paraphrasing Alain Desrosières, The Politics of Large Numbers: A History of Statistical Reasoning, translated by Camille Naish (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1998), 16.
38. Desrosières, Politics of Large Numbers, 9.
39. Alexander Hamilton, ‘The Federalist No. 23’, 18 December 1787, in Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, The Federalist Papers (New York: Penguin, 2012), 45; see Bruce Bimber, Information and American Democracy: Technology in the Evolution of Political Power (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 45.
40. Desrosières, Politics of Large Numbers, 236.
41. Ibid.
42. Thomas Richards, The Imperial Archive: Knowledge and the Fantasy of Empire (London: Verso, 1993), 6.
43. Beniger, Control Revolution, 8.
44. Max Weber, Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology (Vol. 2), eds. Guenther Roth and Claus Wittich (Berkley: University of California Press, 2013), 990.
45. Weber, Economy and Society (Vol. 2), 973.
46. Desrosières, Politics of Large Numbers, 330.
47. James Gleick, The Information: A History, A Theory, A Flood (London: Fourth Estate, 2012), 42.
48. Harold Innis, Empire and Communications (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007), 30.
49. Anthony M. Townsend, Smart Cities: Big Data, Civic Hackers, and the Quest for a New Utopia (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2014), 59–60.
50. Benkler, Wealth of Networks, 30.
51. Kevin Kelly, What Technology Wants (New York: Penguin, 2010), 191–2.
52. Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, ‘Notes on Electrification’, February 1921, reprinted (1977) in Collected Works, Vol. 42 (Moscow: Progress Publishers): 280–1, cited in Sally Wyatt, ‘Technological Determinism is Dead; Long Live Technological Determinism’, in Philosophy of Technology, 458.
53. Leon Trotsky, ‘What is National Socialism?’ Marxists, last modified 25 April 2007 <https://www.marxists.org/archive/trotsky/germany/1933/330610.htm> (accessed 28 November 2017).
54. Nadia Judith Enchassi and CNN Wire, ‘New Zealand Passport Robot Thinks This Asian Man’s Eyes Are Closed’, KFOR, 11 December 2016 <http://kfor.com/2016/12/11/new-zealand-passport-robot-thinks-this-asian-mans-eyes-are-closed/> (accessed 2 December 2017).
55. Selena Larson, ‘Research Shows Gender Bias in Google’s Voice Recognition’, Daily Dot, 15 July 2016 <https://www.dailydot.com/debug/google-voice-recognition-gender-bias/> (accessed 2 December 2017).
56. Alex Hern, ‘Flickr Faces Complaints Over “Offensive” Auto-tagging for Photos’, The Guardian, 20 May 2015 <https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/may/20/flickr-complaints-offensive-auto-tagging-photos> (accessed 2 December 2017).
57. Wittgenstein, Tractatus, Preface.
58. G. K. Chesterton, Orthodoxy (Cavalier Classics, 2015), 2.
1. The term is from Richard Susskind and Daniel Susskind, The Future of the Professions: How Technology Will Transform the Work of Human Experts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015).
2. I am grateful to Richard Susskind for his assistance in formulating this definition, although his preferred definition would be wider than mine (including manual and emotional tasks as well).
3. Yonghui Wu et al. ‘Google’s Neural Machine Translation System: Bridging the Gap between Human and Machine Translation’, arXiv, 8 October 2016 <https://arxiv.org/abs/1609.08144> (accessed 6 December 2017); Yaniv Taigman et al., ‘DeepFace: Closing the Gap to Human-Level Performance in Face Verification’, 2014 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR) 2014 <https://www.cs.toronto.edu/~ranzato/publications/taigman_cvpr14.pdf> (accessed 11 December 2017); Aäron van den Oord et al., ‘WaveNet: A Generative Model for Raw Audio’, arXiv, 19 September 2016 <https://arxiv.org/abs/1609.03499> (accessed 6 December 2017).
4. Peter Campbell, ‘Ford Plans Mass-market Self-driving Car by 2021’, Financial Times, 16 August 2016 <https://www.ft.com/content/d2cfc64e-63c0-11e6-a08a-c7ac04ef00aa#axzz4HOGiWvHT> (accessed 28 November 2017); David Millward, ‘How Ford Will Create a New Generation of Driverless Cars’, Telegraph, 27 February 2017 <http://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2017/02/27/ford-seeks-pioneer-new-generation-driverless-cars/> (accessed 28 November 2017).
5. Wei Xiong et al., ‘Achieving Human Parity in Conversational Speech Recognition’, arXiv, 17 February 2017 <https://arxiv.org/abs/1610.05256> (accessed 28 November 2017).
6. Yannis M. Assael et al., ‘LipNet: End-to-End Sentence-level Lipreading’, arXiv, 16 December 2016 <https://arxiv.org/abs/1611.01599> (accessed 6 December 2017).
7. Laura Hudson, ‘Some Like it Bot’, FiveThirtyEight, 29 September 2016 <http://fivethirtyeight.com/features/some-like-it-bot/> (accessed 28 November 2017).
8. Susskind and Susskind, Future of the Professions, 77.
9. Rory Cellan-Jones, ‘ “Cut!”—the AI Director’, BBC News, 23 June 2016, <http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-36608933> (accessed 28 November 2017).
10. Cory Edwards, ‘Why and How Chatbots Will Dominate Social Media’, TechCrunch, 20 July 2016 <https://techcrunch.com/2016/07/20/why-and-how-chatbots-will-dominate-social-media/?ncid=rss&utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+Techcrunch+%28TechCrunch%29&sr_share=twitter> (accessed 28 November 2017).
11. Valentin Kassarnig, ‘Political Speech Generation’, arXiv, 20 January 2016 <https://arxiv.org/abs/1601.03313> (accessed 28 November 2017).
12. Rob Wile, ‘A Venture Capital Firm Just Named an Algorithm to its Board of Directors—Here’s What it Actually Does’, Business Insider, 13 May 2014 <http://www.businessinsider.com/vital-named-to-board-2014-5> (accessed 28 November 2017).
13. Krista Conger, ‘Computers Trounce Pathologists in Predicting Lung Cancer Type, Severity’, Stanford Medicine News Center, 16 August 2016 <http://med.stanford.edu/news/all-news/2016/08/computers-trounce-pathologists-in-predicting-lung-cancer-severity.html> (accessed 28 November 2017). See also Andre Esteva et al., ‘Dermatologist-level Classification of Skin Cancer with Deep Neural Networks’, Nature 542 (2 February 2017): 115–18.
14. Nikolaos Aletras, Dimitrios Tsarapatsanis, Daniel Preotiuc, and Vasileios Lampos, ‘Predicting Judicial Decisions of the European Court of Human Rights: A Natural Language Processing Perspective’ Peer J Computer Science 2, e93 (24 October 2016).
15. Sarah A. Topol, ‘Attack of the Killer Robots’, BuzzFeed News, 26 August 2016 <https://www.buzzfeed.com/sarahatopol/how-to-save-mankind-from-the-new-breed-of-killer-robots?utm_term=.nm1GdWDBZ#.vaJzgW6va>) (accessed 28 November 2017).
16. Cade Metz, ‘Google’s AI Wins Fifth and Final Game Against Go’, Wired, 15 March 2016 <https://www.wired.com/2016/03/googles-ai-wins-fifth-final-game-go-genius-lee-sedol/> (accessed 28 November 2017); Nick Bostrom, Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 12–13.
17. Sam Byford, ‘AlphaGo beats Ke Jie Again to Wrap Up Three-part March’, The Verge, 25 May 2017 <https://www.theverge.com/2017/5/25/15689462/alphago-ke-jie-game-2-result-google-deepmind-china> (accessed 28 November 2017).
18. David Silver et al., ‘Mastering the Game of Go Without Human Knowledge’, Nature 550 (19 October 2017): 354–9.
19. Susskind and Susskind, Future of the Professions, 165.
20. Ibid.
21. Ibid.
22. Kevin Kelly, The Inevitable: Understanding the 12 Technological Forces that Will Shape Our Future (New York: Viking, 2016), 31.
23. Emma Hinchliffe, ‘IBM’s Watson Supercomputer Discovers 5 New Genes Linked to ALS’, Mashable UK, 14 December 2016 <http://mashable.com/2016/12/14/ibm-watson-als-research/?utm_cid=mash-com-Tw-tech-link%23sd613jsnjlqd#HJziN5r0aGq5> (accessed 28 November 2017).
24. Murray Shanahan, The Technological Singularity (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2015), 12.
25. BBC, ‘Google Working on “Common-Sense” AI Engine at New Zurich Base’, BBC News, 17 June 2016 <http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-36558829> (accessed 30 November 2017); Blue Brain Project <https://bluebrain.epfl.ch/page-56882-en.html> (accessed 6 December 2017).
26. Bostrom, Superintelligence, 30.
27. Shanahan, Technological Singularity, 47.
28. Garry Kasparov, ‘The Chess Master and the Computer’, New York Review of Books, 11 February 2010, cited in Susskind and Susskind, Future of the Professions, 276.
29. Pedro Domingos, The Master Algorithm: How The Quest for the Ultimate Learning Machine Will Remake Our World (London: Allen Lane, 2015), xi.
30. Domingos, Master Algorithm, 8.
31. Domingos, Master Algorithm, xi.
32. Domingos, Master Algorithm, xvi.
33. Domingos, Master Algorithm, xiv.
34. Domingos, Master Algorithm, 8–9.
35. Cade Metz, ‘Building AI is Hard—So Facebook is Building AI that Builds AI’, Wired, 6 May 2016 <https://www.wired.com/2016/05/facebook-trying-create-ai-can-create-ai/> (accessed 28 November 2017).
36. Margaret A. Boden, AI: Its Nature and Future (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), 47 (original emphasis).
37. Boden, AI, 40.
38. Cade Metz, ‘Google’s Dueling Neural Networks Spar to Get Smarter, No Humans Required’, Wired, 11 April 2017 <https://www.wired.com/2017/04/googles-dueling-neural-networks-spar-get-smarter-no-humans-required/> (accessed 28 November 2017).
39. Silver et al., ‘Mastering’.
40. Domingos, Master Algorithm, 7.
41. Neil Lawrence, quoted in Alex Hern, ‘Why Data is the New Coal’, The Guardian, 27 September 2016 <https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/sep/27/data-efficiency-deep-learning> (accessed 28 November 2017).
42. Ray Kurzweil, The Singularity is Near (New York: Viking, 2005), 127, cited in Susskind and Susskind, Future of the Professions, 157; Peter H. Diamandis and Steven Kotler, Abundance: The Future is Better Than You Think (New York: Free Press, 2014), 55.
43. Paul Mason, Postcapitalism: A Guide to Our Future (London: Allen Lane, 2015), 121.
44. Luciano Floridi, The 4th Revolution: How the Infosphere is Reshaping Human Reality (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 7.
45. Samuel Greengard, The Internet of Things (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2015), 28.
46. Domingos, Master Algorithm, 73.
47. Jaron Lanier, Who Owns the Future? (London: Allen Lane, 2014), 6.
48. Gordon Moore, ‘Cramming More Components onto Integrated Circuits’, Proceedings of the IEEE 86, no. 1 (January 1998), 83.
49. Walter Isaacson, The Innovators: How a Group of Hackers, Geniuses and Geeks Created the Digital Revolution (London: Simon & Schuster, 2014), 184.
50. Susskind and Susskind, Future of the Professions, 157; Kevin Kelly, What Technology Wants (New York: Penguin, 2010), 166–7; Eric Schmidt and Jared Cohen, The New Digital Age: Reshaping the Future of People, Nations and Business (London: John Murray, 2014), 5; Shanahan, Technological Singularity, xviii; Erik Brynjolfsson and Andrew McAfee, The Second Machine Age: Work, Progress, and Prosperity in a Time of Brilliant Technologies (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2014), 49; Wendell Wallach, A Dangerous Master: How to Keep Technology from Slipping Beyond Our Control (New York: Basic Books, 2015), 67.
51. Jamie Condliffe, ‘Chip Makers Admit Transistors Are About to Stop Shrinking’, MIT Technology Review, 25 July 2016 <https://www.technologyreview.com/s/601962/chip-makers-admit-transistors-are-about-to-stop-shrinking/?> (accessed 28 November 2017); Tom Simonite, ‘Moore’s Law is Dead. Now What?’ MIT Technology Review, 13 May 2016 <https://www.technologyreview.com/s/601441/moores-law-is-dead-now-what/> (accessed 28 November 2017); Thomas L. Friedman, Thank You for Being Late: An Optimist’s Guide to Thriving in the Age of Accelerations (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2016), 43; Tim Cross, ‘Beyond Moore’s Law’, in Megatech: Technology in 2050, ed. Daniel Franklin (New York: Profile Books, 2017), 56–7.
52. Shanahan, Technological Singularity, 160; Kelly, What Technology Wants, 166.
53. Friedman, Thank You for Being Late, 21.
54. Kristian Vättö, ‘Samsung SSD 850 Pro (128GB, 256GB & 1TB) Review: Enter the 3D Era’, AnandTech, 1 July 2014 <http://www.anandtech.com/show/8216/samsung-ssd-850-pro-128gb-256gb-1tb-review-enter-the-3d-era> (accessed 28 November 2017); Intel, ‘New Technology Delivers an Unprecedented Combination of Performance and Power Efficiency’, Intel 22 NM Technology <http://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/silicon-innovations/intel-22nm-technology.html> (accessed 28 November 2017).
55. Shanahan, Technological Singularity, 35.
56. Norm Jouppi, ‘Google Supercharges Machine Learning Tasks with TPU Custom Chip’, Google Cloud Platform Blog, 18 May 2016 <https://cloudplatform.googleblog.com/2016/05/Google-supercharges-machine-learning-tasks-with-custom-chip.html> (accessed 28 November 2017).
57. Cade Metz, ‘Microsoft Bets its Future on a Reprogrammable Computer Chip’, Wired, 25 August 2016 <https://www.wired.com/2016/09/microsoft-bets-future-chip-reprogram-fly/?mbid=social_twitter> (accessed 28 November 2017).
58. Jamie Condliffe, ‘Google’s Quantum Dream May Be Just Around the Corner’, MIT Technology Review, 1 September 2016 <https://www.technologyreview.com/s/602283/googles-quantum-dream-may-be-just-around-the-corner/> (accessed 28 November 2017); Sergio Boixo, ‘Characterizing Quantum Supremacy in Near-Term Devices’, arXiv, 5 April 2017 <https://arxiv.org/abs/1608.00263> (accessed 28 November 2017); Jacob Aron, ‘Revealed: Google’s Plan for Quantum Computer Supremacy’, New Scientist, 31 August 2016 <https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg23130894-000-revealed-googles-plan-for-quantum-computer-supremacy/> (accessed 28 November 2017); Karla Lant, ‘Google is Closer than Ever to a Quantum Computing Breakthrough’, Business Insider, 24 July 2017 <http://uk.businessinsider.com/google-quantum-computing-chip-ibm-2017-6?r=US&IR=T> (accessed 28 November 2017); Mark Kim, ‘Google Quantum Computer Test Shows Breakthrough is Within Reach’, New Scientist, 28 September 2017 <https://www.newscientist.com/article/2148989-google-quantum-computer-test-shows-breakthrough-is-within-reach/> (accessed 6 December 2017).
59. M. Mitchell Waldrop, ‘The Chips are Down for Moore’s Law’, Nature 530, no. 7589 (9 February 2016): 144–7.
60. M. Mitchell Waldrop, ‘Neuroelectronics: Smart Connections’, Nature 503, no. 7474 (6 November 2013): 22–44.
61. Shanahan, Technological Singularity, 34.
1. Cited in William J. Mitchell, Me ++: The Cyborg Self and the Networked City (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2003), 3.
2. Eric Schmidt and Jared Cohen, The New Digital Age: Reshaping the Future of People, Nations and Business (London: John Murray, 2014), 172.
3. Marc Goodman, Future Crimes: A Journey to the Dark Side of Technology—and How to Survive it (London: Bantam Press, 2015), 59.
4. See Rob Kitchin, The Data Revolution: Big Data, Open Data, Data Infrastructures and their Consequences (London: Sage Publications Ltd, 2014), 83.
5. David Rose, Enchanted Objects: Design, Human Desire, and the Internet of Things (New York: Scribner, 2014), 7.
6. Adam Greenfield, Everyware: The Dawning Age of Ubiquitous Computing (Berkley: New Riders, 2006).
7. Andrew Keen, The Internet is Not the Answer (London: Atlantic Books, 2015), 13; Richard Susskind and Daniel Susskind, The Future of the Professions: How Technology Will Transform the Work of Human Experts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 175; Gartner Newsroom, ‘Gartner Says By 2020, a Quarter Billion Connected Vehicles Will Enable New In-vehicle Services and Automated Driving Capabilities’, Gartner, 26 January 2015 <http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2970017> (accessed 30 November 2017).
8. Samuel Greengard, The Internet of Things (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2015), 13.
9. Greenfield, Everyware, 1.
10. Greengard, Internet of Things; Greenfield, Everyware; Kitchin, Data Revolution.
11. NYC Mayor’s Office of Technology and Innovation, ‘Preparing for the Internet of Everything’ (undated) <https://www1.nyc.gov/site/forward/innovations/iot.page> (accessed 6 December 2017).
12. Mat Smith, ‘Ralph Lauren Made a Great Fitness Shirt that Also Happens to Be “Smart” ’, Engadget, 18 March 2016 <https://www.engadget.com/2016/03/18/ralph-lauren-polotech-review/> (accessed 6 December 2017).
13. Casey Newton, ‘Here’s How Snapchat’s New Spectacles Will Work’, The Verge, 24 September 2016 <http://www.theverge.com/2016/9/24/13042640/snapchat-spectacles-how-to-use> (accessed 28 November 2017).
14. Katherine Bourzac, ‘A Health-Monitoring Sticker Powered by Your Cell Phone’, MIT Technology Review, 3 August 2016 <https://www.technologyreview.com/s/602067/a-health-monitoring-sticker-powered-by-your-cell-phone/?utm_campaign=socialflow&utm_source=twitter&utm_medium=post> (accessed 29 November 2017).
15. Brian Heater, ‘Wilson’s Connected Football is a $200 Piece of Smart Pigskin’, TechCrunch, 8 August 2016 <https://techcrunch.com/2016/08/08/wilson-x-football/?ncid=rss> (accessed 29 November 2017).
16. See Greengard, Internet of Things; Greenfield, Everyware; Kitchin, Data Revolution.
17. Tanvi Misra, ’3 Cities Using Open Data in Creative Ways to Solve Problems’, CityLab, 22 April 2015 <http://www.citylab.com/cityfixer/2015/04/3-cities-using-open-data-in-creative-ways-to-solve-problems/391035/> (accessed 29 November 2017).
18. Internet Live Stats, ‘Internet Users’ <http://www.internetlivestats.com/internet-users/> (accessed 30 November 2017).
19. Cisco, ‘VNI Global Fixed and Mobile Internet Traffic Forecasts, Complete Visual Networking Index (VNI) Forecast’, 2016 <https://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/solutions/service-provider/visual-networking-index-vni/index.html#~mobile-forecast> (accessed 30 November 2017).
20. Statista, ‘Number of Monthly Active Facebook Users Worldwide as of 3rd Quarter 2017 (in Millions)’ <https://www.statista.com/statistics/264810/number-of-monthly-active-facebook-users-worldwide/> (accessed 11 December 2017).
21. Twitter.com <https://about.twitter.com/company> (accessed 30 November 2017).
22. YouTube for Press <https://www.youtube.com/intl/en-GB/yt/about/press/> (accessed 30 November 2017).
23. See Yochai Benkler, The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2006) and The Penguin and the Leviathan: How Cooperation Triumphs over Self-Interest (New York: Crown Publishing, 2011).
24. Don Tapscott and Alex Tapscott, Blockchain Revolution: How the Technology Behind Bitcoin is Changing Money, Business and the World (London: Portfolio Penguin, 2016), 7.
25. Tapscott and Tapscott, Blockchain Revolution, 16.
26. Tapscott and Tapscott, Blockchain Revolution, 153–4; Stan Higgins, ‘IBM Invests $200 Million in Blockchain-Powered IoT’, CoinDesk, 4 October 2016 <https://www.coindesk.com/ibm-blockchain-iot-office/> (accessed 30 November 2017).
27. Melanie Swan, Blockchain: Blueprint for a New Economy (Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilly, 2015), 14.
28. Economist, ‘Not-so-clever Contracts’, 28 July 2016 <http://www.economist.com/news/business/21702758-time-being-least-human-judgment-still-better-bet-cold-hearted?frsc=dg%7Cd> (accessed 30 November 2017).
29. Tapscott and Tapscott, Blockchain Revolution, 18.
30. Tapscott and Tapscott, Blockchain Revolution, 253–9; Benjamin Loveluck and Primavera De Filippi, ‘The Invisible Politics of Bitcoin: Governance Crisis of a Decentralized Infrastructure’, Internet Policy Review 5, no. 3 (30 September 2016) <http://policyreview.info/articles/analysis/invisible-politics-bitcoin-governance-crisis-decentralised-infrastructure> (accessed 30 November 2017); Erik Brynjolfsson and Andrew McAfee, Machine Platform Crowd: Harnessing Our Digital Future (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2017), 306–7. Economist, ‘Not-so-clever Contracts’; BBC, ‘Hack Attack Drains Start-up Investment Fund’, BBC News, 21 June 2016 <http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-36585930> (accessed 30 November 2017).
31. Schwab, Klaus, The Fourth Industrial Revolution (Geneva: World Economic Forum, 2016), 19; Laura Shin, ‘The First Government to Secure Land Titles on the Bitcoin Blockchain Expands Project’, Forbes, 7 February 2017 <https://www.forbes.com/sites/laurashin/2017/02/07/the-first-government-to-secure-land-titles-on-the-bitcoin-blockchain-expands-project/#432b8b494dcd> (accessed 30 November 2017); Joon Ian Wong, ‘Sweden’s Blockchain-powered Land Registry is Inching Towards Reality’, Quartz Media, 3 April 2017 <https://qz.com/947064/sweden-is-turning-a-blockchain-powered-land-registry-into-a-reality/> (accessed 30 November 2017).
32. Daniel Palmer, ‘Blockchain Startup to Secure 1 Million e-Health Records in Estonia’, CoinDesk, 3 March 2016 <http://www.coindesk.com/blockchain-startup-aims-to-secure-1-million-estonian-health-records/> (accessed 30 November 2017).
33. Harriet Green, ‘Govcoin’s Co-founder Robert Kay Explains Why His Firm is Using Blockchain to Change the Lives of Benefits Claimants’, City AM, 10 October 2016 <http://www.cityam.com/250993/govcoins-co-founder-robert-kay-explains-why-his-firm-using> (accessed 30 November 2017).
34. Kyle Mizokami, ‘The Pentagon Wants to Use Bitcoin Technology to Protect Nuclear Weapons’, Popular Mechanics, 11 October 2016 <http://www.popularmechanics.com/military/research/a23336/the-pentagon-wants-to-use-bitcoin-technology-to-guard-nuclearweapons/?utm_content=buffer98698&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter.com&utm_campaign=buffer> (accessed 30 November 2017).
35. Nick Bostrom, Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), ch. 10.
36. Murray Shanahan, The Technological Singularity (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2015), 153.
37. Matt Burgess, ‘Samsung is Working on Putting AI Voice Assistant Bixby in Your TV and Fridge’, Wired, 27 June 2017 <https://www.wired.co.uk/article/samsung-bixby-television-refrigerator> (accessed 30 November 2017).
38. James O’Malley, ‘Bluetooth Mesh Is Going to Be a Big Deal: Here Are 6 Reasons Why You Should Care’, Gizmodo, 18 July 2017 <http://www.gizmodo.co.uk/2017/07/bluetooth-mesh-is-going-to-be-a-big-deal-here-are-6-reasons-why-you-should-care/> (accessed 30 November 2017).
39. John Palfrey and Urs Gasser, Interop: The Promise and Perils of Highly Interconnected Systems (New York: Basic Books, 2012), 249–50.
40. Telegraph, ‘Brain-to-brain “Telepathic” Communication Achieved for First Time’, 5 September 2014 <http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/11077094/Brain-to-brain-telepathic-communication-achieved-for-first-time.html> (accessed 30 November 2017).
41. Muse.com <http://www.choosemuse.com/> (accessed 30 November 2017).
42. Zoltan Istvan, ‘Will Brain Wave Technology Eliminate the Need for a Second Language?’ in Visions of the Future, ed. J. Daniel Batt (Reno: Lifeboat Foundation, 2015), 641.
43. Cade Metz, ‘Elon Musk isn’t the Only One Trying to Computerize Your Brain’, Wired, 31 March 2017 <https://www.wired.com/2017/03/elon-musks-neural-lace-really-look-like/?mbid=social_twitter> (accessed 30 November 17).
44. Tim Berners-Lee with Mark Fischetti, Weaving the Web: The Original Design and Ultimate Destiny of the World Wide Web (New York: HarperCollins, 2000), 1.
45. Daniel Kellmereit and Daniel Obodovski, The Silent Intelligence: The Internet of Things (DND Ventures LLC, 2013), 3.
46. Kitchin, Data Revolution, 91.
47. Kitchin, Data Revolution, 89.
48. Kitchin, Data Revolution, 91.
49. Kitchin, Data Revolution, 89.
50. Kitchin, Data Revolution, 91.
51. Tucker, Patrick, The Naked Future: What Happens in a World that Anticipates Your Every Move? (London: Current, 2015), 8.
52. Economist, ‘How Cities Score’, 23 May 2016 <https://www.economist.com/news/special-report/21695194-better-use-data-could-make-cities-more-efficientand-more-democratic-how-cities-score> (accessed 30 November 2017).
53. Kitchin, Data Revolution, 92; Margarita Angelidou, ‘Smart City Strategy: PlanIT Valley (Portugal)’, Urenio, 26 January 2015 <http://www.urenio.org/2015/01/26/smart-city-strategy-planlt-valley-portugal/> (accessed 30 November 2017).
54. Economist, ‘How Cities Score’.
55. Greengard, Internet of Things, 48.
56. Jane Wakefield, ‘Google, Facebook, Amazon Join Forces on Future of AI’, BBC News, 28 September 2016 <http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-37494863> (accessed 30 November 2017).
57. Margaret A. Boden, AI: Its Nature and Future (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), 41.
58. Bostrom, Superintelligence, 15.
59. BBC, ‘Beijing Park Dispenses Loo Roll Using Facial Recognition’, BBC News, 20 March 2017 <http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-39324431> (accessed 30 November 2017).
60. Rose, Enchanted Objects, 17.
61. Robert Scoble and Israel Shel, The Fourth Transformation: How Augmented Reality and Artificial Intelligence Change Everything (CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2017), 61.
62. Lisa Fischer, ‘Control Your Phone with these Temporary Tattoos’, CNN Tech (undated) <http://money.cnn.com/video/technology/2016/08/15/phone-control-tattoos.cnnmoney/index.html?sr=twCNN091216phone-control-tattoos.cnnmoney1112PMVideoVideo&linkId=28654785> (accessed 30 November 2017).
63. Ben Popper, ‘Electrick Lets You Spray Touch Controls Onto Any Object or Surface’, The Verge, 8 May 2017 <https://www.theverge.com/2017/5/8/15577390/electrick-spray-on-touch-controls-future-interfaces-group> (accessed 30 November 2017).
64. Yuval Noah Harari. Homo Deus: A Brief History of Tomorrow (London: Harvill Secker, 2015), 45.
65. Schwab, Fourth Industrial Revolution, 122.
66. Wendell Wallach, A Dangerous Master: How to Keep Technology from Slipping Beyond Our Control (New York: Basic Books, 2015), 181–2.
67. Schwab, Fourth Industrial Revolution, 120.
68. Riley v. California 134 S. Ct. 2473 Supreme Court 2014, per Chief Justice Roberts at III.
69. Affectiva.com <http://www.affectiva.com/> (accessed 30 November 2017).
70. Raffi Khatchadourian, ‘We Know How You Feel’, New Yorker, 19 January 2015 <http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/01/19/know-feel> (accessed 30 November 2017).
71. Ludwig Wittgenstein, Culture and Value, translated by Peter Winch (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), 23e.
72. Susskind and Susskind, Future of the Professions, 171.
73. Khatchadourian, ‘We Know How You Feel’.
74. Robby Berman, ‘New Tech Uses WiFi to Read Your Inner Emotions—Accurately, and From Afar’, Big Think, 2016 <http://bigthink.com/robby-berman/new-tech-can-accurately-read-the-emotions-you-may-be-hiding> (accessed 30 November 2017).
75. L. R. Sudha, and R. Bhavani, ‘Biometric Authorization System Using Gait Biometry’, arXiv, 2011 <https://arxiv.org/pdf/1108.6294.pdf%3b%20Boden/39-40.pdf> (accessed 30 November 2017).
76. Khatchadourian, ‘We Know How You Feel’.
77. Boden, AI, 74.
78. Boden, AI, 162.
79. Alan Winfield, Robotics: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 16.
80. ‘Moravec’s Paradox’, Wikipedia, last modified 9 May 2017. <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moravec%27s_paradox> (accessed 6 December 2017).
81. Bostrom, Superintelligence, 15.
82. Schwab, Fourth Industrial Revolution, 153.
83. Susskind and Susskind, Future of the Professions, 168; Time, ‘Meet the Robots Shipping Your Amazon Orders’, Time Robotics, 1 December 2014 <http://time.com/3605924/amazon-robots/> (accessed 30 November 2017).
84. Brynjolfsson and McAfee, Machine Platform Crowd, 101.
85. IFR, ‘World Robotics Report 2016’, IFR Press Release <https://ifr.org/ifr-press-releases/news/world-robotics-report-2016> (accessed 30 November 2017).
86. Alison Sander and Meldon Wolfgang, ‘The Rise of Robotics’, BCG Perspectives, 27 August 2014 <https://www.bcgperspectives.com/content/articles/business_unit_strategy_innovation_rise_of_robotics/> (accessed 30 November 2017).
87. Winfield, Robotics, vii.
88. Susskind and Susskind, Future of the Professions, 50.
89. Waymo, Google <https://www.google.com/selfdrivingcar/> (accessed 30 November 2017).
90. Danielle Muoio, ‘Here’s Everything We Know About Google’s Driverless Cars’, Business Insider, 25 July 2016 <http://uk.businessinsider.com/google-driverless-car-facts-2016-7?r=US&IR=T/#the-cars-have-been-in-a-few-minor-accidents-only-one-of-which-could-be-argued-to-have-been-the-google-cars-fault-11> (accessed 30 November 2017).
91. Wallach, Dangerous Master, 220; Bryant Walker Smith, ‘Human Error as a Cause of Vehicle Crashes’, Stanford Center for Internet and Society, 18 December 2013 <http://cyberlaw.stanford.edu/blog/2013/12/human-error-cause-vehicle-crashes> (accessed 30 November 2017).
92. Greengard, Internet of Things, 161.
93. Boden, AI, 102.
94. Wyss Institute <http://wyss.harvard.edu/viewpage/457> (accessed 30 November 2017).
95. CBC, ‘Cockroach-inspired Robots Designed for Disaster Search and Rescue’, CBC The Associated Press, 8 February 2016 <http://www.cbc.ca/beta/news/technology/robot-roach-1.3439138> (accessed 30 November 2017).
96. Greengard, Internet of Things, 162.
97. Paul Ratner, ‘Harvard Scientists Create a Revolutionary Robot Octopus’, Big Think, 2016 <http://bigthink.com/paul-ratner/harvard-team-creates-octobot-the-worlds-first-autonomous-soft-robot> (accessed 30 November 2017).
98. Zoe Kleinman, ‘Toyota Launches “Baby” Robot for Companionship’, BBC News, 3 October 2016 <http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-37541035> (accessed 30 November 2017).
99. Boden, AI, 74.
100. Jack Lynch, ‘For the Price of a Smartphone You Could Bring a Robot Home’, World Economic Forum, 7 June 2016 <https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/06/for-the-price-of-a-smartphone-you-could-bring-a-robot-home?utm_content=bufferafeb1&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter.com&utm_campaign=buffer> (accessed 30 November 2017).
101. Robby Berman, ‘So the Russians Just Arrested a Robot at a Rally’, Big Think, 2016 <http://bigthink.com/robby-berman/so-the-russians-just-arrested-a-robot-at-a-rally> (accessed 30 November 2017).
102. Wallach, Dangerous Master, 82.
103. Susskind and Susskind, Future of the Professions, 54.
104. Tom Whipple, ‘Nanorobots Could Deliver Drugs by Power of Thought’, Times, 27 August 2016 <http://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/226da2de-6baf-11e6-998d-9617c077f056> (accessed 30 November 2017).
105. George Dvorsky, ‘Record-Setting Hard Drive Writes Information One Atom at a Time’, Gizmodo, 18 July 2016 <http://gizmodo.com/record-setting-hard-drive-writes-information-one-atom-a-1783740015 > (accessed 30 November 2017).
106. Wallach, Dangerous Master, 59; Rick Kelly, ‘The Next Battle for Internet Freedom Could Be Over 3D Printing’, TechCrunch, 26 August 2012 <https://techcrunch.com/2012/08/26/the-next-battle-for-internet-freedom-could-be-over-3d-printing/> (accessed 30 November 2017).
107. Jaron Lanier, Who Owns the Future? (London: Allen Lane, 2014), 79.
108. Wallach, Dangerous Master, 59.
109. Stuart Dredge, ‘30 Things Being 3D Printed Right Now (and None of them are Guns)’, The Guardian, 29 January 2014 <https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/jan/29/3d-printing-limbs-cars-selfies> (accessed 30 November 2017).
110. Jerome Groopman, ‘Print Thyself’, New Yorker, 24 November 2014 <https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/11/24/print-thyself> (accessed 30 November 2017).
111. Greengard, Internet of Things, 100.
112. Ibid.
113. Groopman, ‘Print Thyself’.
114. Schmidt and Cohen, New Digital Age, 16.
115. Dredge, ‘30 things being 3D printed right now’.
116. BBC, ‘Flipped 3D Printer Makes Giant Objects’, BBC News, 24 August 2016 <http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-37176662?ocid=socialflow_twitter> (accessed 30 November 2017).
117. Clare Scott, ‘Chinese Construction Company 3D Prints an Entire Two-Story House On-Site in 45 Days’, 16 June 2016 <https://3dprint.com/138664/huashang-tengda-3d-print-house/> (accessed 30 November 2017).
118. Kelly, ‘Next Battle for Internet Freedom’.
119. Ariel Bogle, ‘Good News: Replicas of 16th Century Sculptures Are Not Off-Limits for 3-D Printers’, Slate, 26 January 2015 <http://www.slate.com/blogs/future_tense/2015/01/26/_3_d_printing_and_copyright_replicas_of_16th_century_sculptures_are_not.html?wpisrc=obnetwork> (accessed 30 November 2017).
120. Dredge, ‘30 Things Being 3D Printed Right Now’.
121. Schwab and Cohen, New Digital Age, 161.
122. Skylar Tibbits, TED, 2013 <https://www.ted.com/talks/skylar_tibbits_the_emergence_of_4d_printing?language=en> (accessed 30 November 2017).
123. Luciano Floridi, The 4th Revolution: How the Infosphere is Reshaping Human Reality (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 145.
124. Tim Wu, The Master Switch: The Rise and Fall of Information Empires (London: Atlantic, 2010), 171.
125. Rose, Enchanted Objects, 17.
126. Dave Gershgorn, ‘Google Has Built Earbuds that Translate 40 Languages in Real Time’, Quartz, 4 October 2017 <https://qz.com/1094638/google-goog-built-earbuds-that-translate-40-languages-in-real-time-like-the-hitchhikers-guides-babel-fish/> (accessed 7 December 2017).
127. Andrea Peterson, ‘Holocaust Museum to Visitors: Please Stop Catching Pokémon Here’, Washington Post, 12 July 2016 <https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2016/07/12/holocaust-museum-to-visitors-please-stop-catching-pokemon-here/> (accessed 30 November 2017).
128. BBC, ‘Pokemon Go: Is the Hugely Popular Game a Global Safety Risk?’ BBC News, 21 July 2016 <http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-36854074> (accessed 30 November 2017).
129. Jamie Fullerton, ‘Democracy Hunters Use Pokémon to Conceal Rallies’, The Times, 3 August 2016 <http://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/democracy-hunters-use-pokemon-to-conceal-rallies-j6xrv59jl> (accessed 30 November 2017).
130. Aaron Frank, ‘You Can Ban a Person, But What About Their Hologram?’ Singularity Hub, 17 March 2017 <https://singularityhub.com/2017/03/17/you-can-ban-a-person-but-what-about-their-hologram/> (accessed 30 November 2017).
131. Dean Takahashi, ‘Magic Leap Sheds Light on its Retina-based Augmented Reality 3D Displays’, VentureBeat, 20 February 2015 <http://venturebeat.com/2015/02/20/magic-leap-sheds-light-on-its-retina-based-augmented-reality-3d-displays/> (accessed 30 November 2017).
132. Tom Simonite, ‘Oculus Finally Delivers the Missing Piece for VR’, MIT Technology Review, 6 October 2016 <https://www.technologyreview.com/s/602570/oculus-finally-delivers-the-missing-piece-for-vr/?utm_campaign=socialflow&utm_medium=post&utm_source=twitter&set=602564> (accessed 30 November 2017).
133. Richard Lai, ‘bHaptics’ TactSuit is VR Haptic Feedback Done Right’, Engadget, 7 February 2017 <https://www.engadget.com/2017/07/02/bhaptics-tactsuit-vr-haptic-feedback-htc-vive-x-demo-day/?sr_source=Twitter> (accessed 30 November 2017).
134. Jordan Belamaire, ‘My First Virtual Reality Groping’, Medium, 20 October 2016 <https://medium.com/athena-talks/my-first-virtual-reality-sexual-assault-2330410b62ee#.i1o6j1vjy> (accessed 30 November 2017).
1. Lucas Mearian, ‘By 2020, There Will Be 5,200 GB of Data for Every Person on Earth’, ComputerWorld, 11 December 2012 <http://www.computerworld.com/article/2493701/data-center/by-2020--there-will-be-5-200-gb-of-data-for-every-person-on-earth.html> (accessed 30 November 2017); John E. Kelly III and Steve Hamm, Smart Machines: IBM’s Watson and the Era of Cognitive Computing (New York: Columbia Business School Publishing, 2014), 44; EMC, ‘The Digital Universe of Opportunities: Rich Data and the Increasing Value of the Internet of Things’, April 2014 <https://www.emc.com/leadership/digital-universe/2014iview/executive-summary.htm> (accessed 30 November 2017).
2. Richard Susskind and Daniel Susskind, The Future of the Professions: How Technology Will Transform the Work of Human Experts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 161.
3. Marc Goodman, Future Crimes: A Journey to the Dark Side of Technology—and How to Survive It (London: Bantam Press, 2015), 85.
4. Rob Kitchin, The Data Revolution: Big Data, Open Data, Data Infrastructures and their Consequences (London: Sage Publications Ltd, 2014), 69.
5. Viktor Mayer-Schönberger and Kenneth Cukier, Big Data: A Revolution That Will Transform How We Live, Work and Think (London: John Murray, 2013), 78.
6. Kenneth Cukier and Viktor Mayer-Schönberger, ‘The Rise of Big Data’, Foreign Affairs, May/June 2013 <https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2013-04-03/rise-big-data> (accessed 30 November 2017).
7. Mayer-Schönberger and Cukier, Big Data, 101.
8. Elizabeth Eisenstein,The Printing Press as an Agent of Change: Communications and Cultural Transformations in Early-modern Europe, Volumes I and II (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 45. See Mayer-Schönberger and Cukier, Big Data, 10.
9. EMC, ‘The Digital Universe of Opportunities’.
10. Radicati Group Inc, ‘Email Statistics Report, 2015-2019’ <http://www.radicati.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Email-Statistics-Report-2015-2019-Executive-Summary.pdf> (accessed 30 November 2017).
11. Cooper Smith, ‘Facebook Users Are Uploading 350 Million New Photos Each Day’, Business Insider, 18 September 2013 <http://www.businessinsider.com/facebook-350-million-photos-each-day-2013-9?IR=T> (accessed 30 November 2017); Internet Live Stats, ‘Twitter Users.’ <http://www.internetlivestats.com/twitter-statistics/> (accessed 30 November 2017).
12. Mayer-Schönberger and Cukier, Big Data, 93.
13. Kitchin, Big Data, 96.
14. Mayer-Schönberger and Cukier, Big Data, 7.
15. Mayer-Schönberger and Cukier, Big Data, 113.
16. Goodman, Future Crimes, 62.
17. Bruce Schneier, Data and Goliath: The Hidden Battles to Collect Your Data and Control Your World (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2016), 2.
18. Goodman, Future Crimes, 62.
19. Danny Sullivan, ‘Google Now Handles at Least 2 trillion Searches Per Year’, Search Engine Land, 24 May 2016 <http://searchengineland.com/google-now-handles-2-999-trillion-searches-per-year-250247> (accessed 30 November 2017).
20. Goodman, Future Crimes, 50.
21. Rob Crossley, ‘Where in the World is My Data and How Secure is it?’ BBC News, 9 August 2016 <http://www.bbc.com/news/business-36854292> (accessed 30 November 2017).
22. Kitchin, Big Data, 72.
23. Mayer-Schönberger and Cukier, Big Data, 7.
24. Mayer-Schönberger and Cukier, Big Data, 133.
25. Kelly and Hamm, Smart Machines, 69.
26. Kitchin, Big Data, 10.
27. Mayer-Schönberger and Cukier, Big Data, 19.
28. Mayer-Schönberger and Cukier, Big Data, 38–9.
29. Goodman, Future Crimes, 55; Mayer-Schönberger and Cukier, Big Data, 119.
30. Mayer-Schönberger and Cukier, Big Data, 5; Steve Jones, ‘Why “Big Data” is the Fourth Factor of Production’, Financial Times, 27 December 2012 <https://www.ft.com/content/5086d700-504a-11e2-9b66-00144feab49a> (accessed 9 December 2017); Neil Lawrence, quoted in Alex Hern, ‘Why Data is the New Coal’, The Guardian, 27 September 2016 <https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/sep/27/data-efficiency-deep-learning> (accessed 9 December 2017).
31. Jamie Bartlett, The Dark Net: Inside the Digital Underworld (London: William Heinemann, 2014), 169.
32. Susskind and Susskind, Future of the Professions, 1.
33. Schneier, Data and Goliath, 4.
1. Arthur C. Clarke, Profiles of the Future: An Inquiry into the Limits of the Possible (London: Victor Gollancz, 1999), 2.
2. See J. G. A. Pocock, Politics, Language, and Time: Essays on Political Thought and History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989).
3. Peter P. Nicholson, ‘Politics and the Exercise of Force’, in What is Politics? ed. Adrian Leftwich (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2015), 42.
4. See, e.g. Judith Squires, ‘Politics Beyond Boundaries: A Feminist Perspective’, in What is Politics?
5. See Bernard Crick, ‘Politics as Form of Rule: Politics, Citizenship, and Democracy’, in What is Politics?
6. Crick, ‘Politics as Form of Rule’, esp. 67–70.
7. Squires, ‘Politics Beyond Boundaries’.
8. See Peter Bachrach and Morton S. Baratz, ‘Two Faces of Power’, American Political Science Review 56, no. 4 (December 1962): 947–52.
9. Adrian Leftwich, ‘Thinking Politically: On the Politics of Politics’, in What is Politics?
10. See, e.g. Nicholson, ‘Politics and the Exercise of Force’.
11. See generally, Political Innovation and Conceptual Change, eds. Terence Ball, James Farr, and Russell L. Hanson (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995); Michael Freeden, Ideologies and Political Theory: A Conceptual Approach (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996).
12. On the concept/conception distinction, see John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2003), 5.
13. See Freeden, Ideologies.
14. Freeden, Ideologies, 53.
15. Yuval Noah Harari, Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind (London: Vintage Books, 2011), 121.
16. Larry Siedentop, Inventing the Individual: The Origins of Western Liberalism (London: Allen Lane, 2014), 16–17.
17. Plato, The Laws, translated by Tom Griffith (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016), XI 414–5; see Siedentop, Inventing the Individual, 16–17.
18. Andrew J. Beniger, Control Revolution: Technological and Economic Origins of the Information Society (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1990), 7.
19. Sandra Braman, Change of State: Information, Policy, and Power (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2009), 2.
20. James Gleick, The Information: A History, A Theory, A Flood (London: Fourth Estate, 2012), 7–8.
21. Erik Brynjolfsson and Andrew McAfee, The Second Machine Age: Work, Progress, and Prosperity in a Time of Brilliant Technologies (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2014), 16.
22. Karl Marx, The German Ideology, in Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Collected Works Vol. 5 (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1976), 36.
23. Karl Mannheim, Ideology and Utopia: An Introduction to the Sociology of Knowledge, translated by Louis Wirth and Edward Shils (Connecticut: Martino Publishing, 2015), 3.
24. Marx, German Ideology, 59.
25. Cited in Gleick, Information, 51.
26. Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution: 1789–1848 (New York: Vintage Books, 1996), 1.
27. William Blake, London, Poetry Foundation <https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/43673/london-56d222777e969> (accessed 7 December 2017).
28. Adam Swift, ‘Political Philosophy and Politics’, in What is Politics? 141.
29. Swift, ‘Political Philosophy and Politics’, 140.
30. George Orwell, ‘Politics and the English Language’, in Essays (London: Penguin, 2000), 359.
31. Winston Churchill, My Early Life: A Roving Commission (London: Reprint Society, 1944), 66.
32. Ludwig Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (Abingdon: Routledge, 2001), 3.
33. See William E. Connolly, The Terms of Political Discourse (Third Edition) (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1994).
34. Daniel McDermott, ‘Analytical Political Philosophy’, in Political Theory: Methods and Approaches, eds. David Leopold and Marc Stears (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 11.
35. Adam Swift and Stuart White, ‘Political Theory, Social Science, and Real Politics’, in Political Theory, 52.
36. Marx, German Ideology, 36.
1. Steven Lukes, Power: A Radical View (Second Edition) (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 34.
2. Robert Dahl, ‘The Concept of Power’, Behavioral Science 2, 201–15, cited in Lukes, PRV, 16.
3. Lukes, PRV, 5.
4. See Robert Dahl, ‘Power as the Control of Behaviour’ in Power, ed. Steven Lukes (New York: New York University Press, 1986), 41; Lukes, PRV, 74–5.
5. Lukes, PRV, 21–2; Peter Bachrach and Morton S. Baratz, Power and Poverty: Theory and Practice (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970).
6. Rob Kitchin and Martin Dodge, Code/Space: Software and Everyday Life (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2014), 3–5.
7. James Grimmelmann, ‘Regulation by Software’ Yale Law Journal 114, no. 7 (May 2005), 1729.
8. Steiner, Christopher, Automate This: How Algorithms Came to Rule Our World (London: Portfolio, 2012), 55; Ed Finn, What Algorithms Want: Imagination in the Age of Computing (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2017), 17.
9. See generally Lawrence Lessig, Code Version 2.0 (New York: Basic Books, 2006).
10. Grimmelmann, ‘Regulation by Software’, 1729.
11. Gordon Brown, My Life, Our Times (London: Bodley Head, 2017), 326.
12. Julie E. Cohen, Configuring the Networked Self: Law, Code, and the Play of Everyday Practice (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2012), 155.
13. Lessig, Code 2.0, 298.
14. Finn, What Algorithms Want, 6.
1. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, translated by Alan Sheridan (New York: Vintage Books, 1995), 74.
2. Christopher Dandeker, Surveillance, Power and Modernity (Cambridge: Polity, 1990), 119.
3. Foucault, Discipline and Punish.
4. See Tim O’Reilly, ‘Open Data and Algorithmic Regulation’, in Beyond Transparency: Open Data and the Future of Civic Innovation, eds. Brett Goldstein and Lauren Dyson (San Francisco: Code for America Press, 2013), 195.
5. Richard Susskind and Daniel Susskind, The Future of the Professions: How Technology Will Transform the Work of Human Experts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 70.
6. Nanette Byrnes, ‘As Goldman Embraces Automation, Even the Masters of the Universe Are Threatened’, MIT Technology Review, 7 February 2017 <https://www.technologyreview.com/s/603431/as-goldman-embraces-automation-even-the-masters-of-the-universe-are-threatened/?set=603585&utm_content=bufferd5a8f&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter.com&utm_campaign=buffer> (accessed 1 December 2017).
7. O’Reilly, ‘Open Data and Algorithmic Regulation’, 291.
8. Steve Rosenbush, ‘The Morning Download: China’s Facial Recognition ID’s Citizens and Soon May Score Their Behaviour’, Wall Street Journal, 27 July 2017 <https://blogs.wsj.com/cio/2017/06/27/the-morning-download-chinas-facial-recognition-ids-citizens-and-soon-may-score-their-behavior/> (accessed 1 December 2017).
9. Hans Kelsen, Pure Theory of Law, translated from the Second (Revised and Enlarged) German Edition by Max Knight (New Jersey: Law Book Exchange, 2009).
10. H. L. A. Hart, The Concept of Law (Second Edition) (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 35–6.
11. Foucault, Discipline and Punish, 82.
12. Foucault, Discipline and Punish, ch.1.
13. Foucault, Discipline and Punish, 9.
14. Lessig, Code 2.0, 82.
15. New York Times, ‘Why Not Smart Guns in This High-Tech Era?’ Editorial, 26 November 2016 <http://mobile.nytimes.com/2016/11/26/opinion/sunday/why-not-smart-guns-in-this-high-tech-era.html?smid=tw-nytopinion&smtyp=cur&referer=> (accessed 1 December 2017).
16. Hart, Concept of Law, 27–8, 48.
17. Melanie Swan, Blockchain: Blueprint for a New Economy (Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilly, 2015), 14.
18. See Primavera De Filippi and Aaron Wright, Blockchain and the Law: The Rule of Code (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, forthcoming, 2018), ch. 12; on computable contracts see also Harry Surden, ‘Computable Contracts’, UC Davis Law Review 46, (2012): 629–700.
19. See De Filippi and Wright, Blockchain and the Law, ch. 12.
20. O’Reilly, ‘Open Data and Algorithmic Regulation’, 295.
21. Grimmelmann, ‘Regulation by Software’, 1732.
22. Mark Bridge, ‘AI Can Identify Alzheimer’s Disease a Decade before Symptoms Appear’, The Times, 20 September 2017 <https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/ai-can-identify-alzheimer-s-a-decade-before-symptoms-appear-9b3qdrrf7> (accessed 1 December 2017).
23. Wendell Wallach and Colin Allen, Moral Machines: Teaching Robots Right from Wrong (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 27.
24. Nikolaos Aletras, Dimitrios Tsarapatsanis, Daniel Preotiuc, and Vasileios Lampos. ‘Predicting Judicial Decisions of the European Court of Human Rights: A Natural Language Processing Perspective’. Peer J Computer Science 2, e93 (24 October 2016). See further Harry Surden, ‘Machine Learning and Law’, Washington Law Review 89, no. 1 (2014): 87–115.
25. Erik Brynjolfsson and Andrew McAfee Machine Platform Crowd: Harnessing Our Digital Future (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2017), 41.
26. See Anthony J. Casey and Anthony Niblett, ‘The Death of Rules and Standards’, Indiana Law Journal 92, no. 4 (2017); Anthony J. Casey and Anthony Niblett, ‘Self-Driving Laws’ University of Toronto Law Journal 429 (Fall 2016) 66: 428–42.
27. Casey and Niblett, ‘Death of Rules and Standards’; ‘Self-Driving Laws’.
28. Oliver Wendell Holmes, ‘The Path of the Law’ Harvard Law Review 10, no. 457 (1897); Casey and Niblett, ‘Death of Rules and Standards’, 1422.
29. Primavera De Filippi and Samer Hassan, ‘Blockchain Technology as a Regulatory Technology: From Code is Law to Law is Code’, First Monday 21, no. 12, 5 December 2016.
30. Walter Ong, Orality and Literacy (Abingdon: Routledge, 2012), 31.
31. Richard Susskind, The Future of Law: Facing the Challenges of Information Technology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 92–4.
32. Eric A. Havelock, The Greek Concept of Justice: From its Shadow in Homer to its Substance in Plato. (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1978), 135, 14.
33. Havelock, Greek Concept of Justice, 23–36; Eric A. Havelock, The Muse Learns to Write: Reflections on Orality and Literacy from Antiquity to the Present (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1986), 4.
34. Susskind, Future of Law, 92–94.
35. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, translated by George Lawrence (New York: HarperCollins, 2006), 49.
36. Casey and Niblett, ‘Death of Rules and Standards’; ‘Self-Driving Laws’.
37. Ibid.
38. Ibid.
39. Max Weber, ‘The Profession and Vocation of Politics’, in Political Writings, eds. Peter Lassman and Ronald Speirs (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 310–11.
40. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), [62], 88.
41. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract, translated by Maurice Cranston (London: Penguin, 1968), 371.
42. David Hume, ‘Of the Original Contract’, in Selected Essays (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 283.
43. See Manuel Castells, Communication Power (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 43–5.
44. Aaron Perzanowksi and Jason Schultz, The End of Ownership: Personal Property in the Digital Economy (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2016), 4.
45. See Philippa Foot, ‘The Problem of Abortion and the Doctrine of the Double Effect’, in Virtues and Vices and Other Essays in Moral Philosophy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009).
46. Lessig, Code 2.0, 78.
47. Elizabeth Anderson, Private Government: How Employers Rule Our Lives (and Why We Don’t Talk About It) (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2017), 55.
48. Wallach and Allen, Moral Machines, 26–7.
49. De Filippi and Wright, Blockchain and the Law, ch. 10.
50. De Filippi and Wright, Blockchain and the Law, ch. 1.
51. De Filippi and Wright, Blockchain and the Law, ch. 10.
52. The example of an airport security system is from Wallach and Allen, Moral Machines, 15.
1. Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972–1977 (New York: Vintage Books, 1980), 152.
2. John Milton, Paradise Lost (London: Penguin, 2003) Book IX, 203–04.
3. On chilling effects, see Jon Penney, ‘Internet Surveillance, Regulation, and Chilling Effects Online: A Comparative Case Study’, Internet Policy Review 6, no. 2 (2017): 1–38.
4. Sandra Bartky, ‘Foucault, Femininity, and the Modernization of Patriarchal Power’, cited in Steven Lukes, Power: A Radical View (Second Edition) (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 99.
5. Foucault, Power/Knowledge, 39.
6. Foucault, Power/Knowledge, 158.
7. Foucault, Power/Knowledge, 155.
8. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, translated by Alan Sheridan (New York: Vintage Books, 1995), 173.
9. James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1998).
10. Scott, Seeing Like a State, 77.
11. Benjamin Constant, De l’esprite de conquête, cited in Scott, Seeing Like a State, 30 (original emphasis).
12. Scott, Seeing Like a State, 54–7.
13. Scott, Seeing Like a State, 66.
14. Scott, Seeing Like a State, 67.
15. Scott, Seeing Like a State, 65.
16. Scott, Seeing Like a State, 71.
17. Viktor Mayer-Schönberger and Kenneth Cukier, Big Data: A Revolution That Will Transform How We Live, Work and Think (London: John Murray, 2013), 152.
18. Zeynep Tufekci, Twitter and Tear Gas: The Power and Fragility of Networked Protest (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2017), 6.
19. John Cheney-Lippold, We Are Data: Algorithms and the Making of Our Digital Selves (New York: New York University Press, 2017); see also Gilles Deleuze, ‘Postscript on the Societies of Control’, October 59 (Winter, 1992): 3–7.
20. See generally Cheney-Lippold, We Are Data.
21. Cheney-Lippold, We Are Data, 6.
22. Cheney-Lippold, We Are Data, 10.
23. Friedrich Hayek, ‘The Use of Knowledge in Society’, The American Economic Review 35, no. 4 (September 1945), 521–4.
24. Scott, Seeing Like a State, 87.
25. Jake Swearingen, ‘Can an Amazon Echo Testify Against You?’ NY Mag, 27 December 2016 <http://nymag.com/selectall/2016/12/can-an-amazon-echo-testify-against-you.html> (accessed 1 December 2017); Billy Steele, ‘Police Seek Amazon Echo Data in Murder Case’, Engadget, 27 December 2016 <https://www.engadget.com/2016/12/27/amazon-echo-audio-data-murder-case/> (accessed 1 December 2017).
26. Christine Hauser, ‘In Connecticut Murder Case, a Fitbit Is a Silent Witness’, New York Times, 27 April 2017 <https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/27/nyregion/in-connecticut-murder-case-a-fitbit-is-a-silent-witness.html?smid=tw-nytimes&smtyp=cur> (accessed 1 December 2017).
27. Sam Machkovech, ‘Marathon Runner’s Tracked Data Exposes Phony Time, Cover-up Attempt’, Ars Technica UK, 22 February 2017 <https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2017/02/suspicious-fitness-tracker-data-busted-a-phony-marathon-run/> (accessed 1 December 2017).
28. Cleve R. Wootson Jr, ‘A Man Detailed His Escape from a Burning House. His Pacemaker Told Police a Different Story’, Washington Post, 8 February 2017 <https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/to-your-health/wp/2017/02/08/a-man-detailed-his-escape-from-a-burning-house-his-pacemaker-told-police-a-different-story/?tid=sm_tw&utm_term=.531d8fabc6d2> (accessed 1 December 2017).
29. Semayne’s Case (1604) 5 Coke Reports 91a 77 E.R. 194.
30. David Rose, Enchanted Objects: Design, Human Desire, and the Internet of Things (New York: Scribner, 2014), 7.
31. Leo Mirani, ‘Personal Technology Gets Truly Personal’, in Megatech: Technology in 2050, ed. Daniel Franklin (New York: Profile Books, 2017), 150.
32. Alex Hern, ‘Vibrator Maker Ordered to Pay Out C$4m for Tracking Users’ Sexual Activity’, The Guardian, 14 March 2017 <https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/mar/14/we-vibe-vibrator-tracking-users-sexual-habits?CMP=Share_iOSApp_Other> (accessed 1 December 2017).
33. Spencer Ackerman and Sam Thielman, ‘US Intelligence Chief: We Might Use the Internet of Things to Spy on You’, The Guardian, 9 February 2016 <https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/feb/09/internet-of-things-smart-home-devices-government-surveillance-james-clapper> (accessed 1 December 2017).
34. Plato, Phaedrus, translated by Christopher Rowe (London: Penguin, 2005), 62.
35. See David Rieff, In Praise of Forgetting: Historical Memory and its Ironies (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2017).
36. Viktor Mayer-Schönberger and Kenneth Cukier, Delete: The Virtue of Forgetting in the Digital Age (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009), 2.
37. Mayer-Schönberger and Cukier, Delete, 6.
38. Mayer-Schönberger and Cukier, Delete, 104.
39. Nadia Khomami, ‘Ministers Back Campaign to Give Under-18s Right to Delete Social Media Posts’, The Guardian, 28 July 2015 <https://www.theguardian.com/media/2015/jul/28/ministers-back-campaign-under-18s-right-delete-social-media-posts> (accessed 1 December 2017).
40. Meg Leta Jones, Ctrl + Z: The Right to Be Forgotten (New York: New York University Press, 2016), 1.
41. Leta Jones, Ctrl + Z, 9–11.
42. Eric Siegel, Predictive Analytics: The Power to Predict Who Will Click, Buy, Lie, or Die (New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2016), 11.
43. Walter Perry et al., Predictive Policing: The Role of Crime Forecasting in Law Enforcement Operations (Santa Monica: RAND Corporation, 2013).
44. Siegel, Predictive Analytics, centrefold (table 5).
45. Frank Pasquale, The Black Box Society: The Secret Algorithms that Control Money and Information (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2015), 23–6.
46. Josh Chin and Gillian Wong, ‘China’s New Tool for Social Control: A Credit Rating for Everything’, Wall Street Journal, 28 November 2016 <http://www.wsj.com/articles/chinas-new-tool-for-social-control-a-credit-rating-for-everything-1480351590> (accessed 1 December 2017); Economist, ‘China Invents the Digital Totalitarian State’, 17 December 2016 <http://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21711902-worrying-implications-its-social-credit-project-china-invents-digital-totalitarian> (accessed 1 December 2017).
47. See Mara Hvistendahl, ‘Inside China’s Vast New Experiment in Social Ranking’, Wired, 14 December 2017 <https://www.wired.com/story/age-of-social-credit/> (accessed 21 January 2018).
1. See Steven Lukes, Power: A Radical View (Second Edition) (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005).
2. See Peter Bachrach and Morton S. Baratz, Power and Poverty: Theory and Practice (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970).
3. See E. E. Schattschneider, The Semisovereign People: A Realist’s View of Democracy in America (South Melbourne, Victoria: Wadsworth Thomson Learning, 1975).
4. Lukes, PRV, 20–5.
5. See Lukes, PRV, 27–8.
6. Manuel Castells, Communication Power (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 3.
7. Karl Marx, The German Ideology, in Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Collected Works Vol. 5 (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1976), 41.
8. See Antonio Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 2007).
9. Karl Marx, Contribution to Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Law. Introduction, in Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Collected Works Vol. 3. (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1975), 187.
10. Yochai Benkler, The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 2006), 130.
11. Benkler, Wealth of Networks, 168.
12. Yochai Benkler, ‘Degrees of Freedom, Dimensions of Power’, Daedalus 145, no. 1 (Winter 2016), 21.
13. Eric Schmidt and Jared Cohen, The New Digital Age: Reshaping the Future of People, Nations and Business. (London: John Murray, 2014), 82.
14. Benkler, ‘Degrees of Freedom’, 21.
15. Eric Siegel, Predictive Analytics: The Power to Predict Who Will Click, Buy, Lie, or Die (New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2016), centrefold (table 1).
16. Robert Epstein, ‘The New Censorship’, US News, 22 July 2016 <http://www.usnews.com/opinion/articles/2016-06-22/google-is-the-worlds-biggest-censor-and-its-power-must-be-regulated> (accessed 1 December 2017).
17. See e.g. Allison Linn, ‘Microsoft Creates AI that Can Read a Document and Answer Questions About it As Well As a Person’, The AI Blog, 15 January 2018 <https://blogs.microsoft.com/ai/microsoft-creates-ai-can-read-document-answer-questions-well-person/> (accessed 21 January 2018).
18. See Jonathan Zittrain, ‘Apple’s Emoji Gun Control’, New York Times, 16 August 2016 <https://mobile.nytimes.com/2016/08/16/opinion/get-out-of-gun-control-apple.html?_r=0&referer=https://www.google.com/> (accessed 1 December 2017).
19. Lotus Ruan, Jeffrey Knockel, Jason Q. Ng, and Masashi Crete-Nishihata, ‘One App, Two Systems’, The Citizen Lab, 30 November 2016 <https://citizenlab.ca/2016/11/wechat-china-censorship-one-app-two-systems/> (accessed 1 December 2017).
20. Zittrain, ‘Apple’s Emoji Gun Control’.
21. Robert Booth, ‘Facebook Reveals News Feed Experiment to Control Emotions’, The Guardian, 30 June 2004 <https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/jun/29/facebook-users-emotions-news-feeds> (accessed 11 December 2017).
22. Halting Problem, ‘Tech Bro Creates Augmented Reality App to Filter Out Homeless People’, Medium, 23 February 2016 <https://medium.com/halting-problem/tech-bro-creates-augmented-reality-app-to-filter-out-homeless-people-3bf8d827b0df> (accessed 7 December 2017).
23. Frank Pasquale, The Black Box Society: The Secret Algorithms that Control Money and Information (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2015), 63; Benkler, ‘Degrees of Freedom’, 18.
24. Pasquale, Black Box Society, 60.
25. Bobby Johnson, ‘Amazon Kindle Users Surprised by “Big Brother” Move’, The Guardian, 17 July 2009 <https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2009/jul/17/amazon-kindle-1984> (accessed 8 December 2017).
26. Jonathan Zittrain, ‘Engineering an Election’, Harvard Law Review Forum, 20 June 2014 <https://harvardlawreview.org/2014/06/engineering-an-election/> (accessed 1 December 2017).
1. ‘Who? Whom?’ Wikipedia, last modified 3 June 2017 <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Who,_whom%3F> (accessed 7 December 2017).
2. Michael Walzer, Spheres of Justice: A Defense of Pluralism and Equality (New York: Basic Books, 1983), xiii.
3. Walzer, Spheres, 11.
4. Carol Gould, Rethinking Democracy: Freedom and Social Cooperation in Politics, Economy, and Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 271.
5. Gould, Rethinking Democracy, 272.
6. See Joshua A. T. Fairfield, Owned: Property, Privacy, and the New Digital Serfdom (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017).
7. Sheila Jasanoff, The Ethics of Invention: Technology and the Human Future (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2016), 169.
8. Frank Pasquale, The Black Box Society: The Secret Algorithms That Control Money and Information (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2015), 21.
9. John Markoff, Machines of Loving Grace: the Quest for Common Ground Between Humans and Robots (New York: HarperCollins, 2015), xvi.
10. Robert W. McChesney, Digital Disconnect: How Capitalism is Turning The Internet Against Democracy (New York: The New Press, 2014), 166.
11. McChesney, Digital Disconnect, 162.
12. Philip N. Howard, Pax Technica: How the Internet of Things May Set Us Free or Lock Us Up (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2015), xix–xx.
13. Lodewijk F. Asscher, ‘ “Code” as Law: Using Fuller to Assess Code Rules’, in Coding Regulation: Essays on the Normative Role of Information Technology, eds. E. J. Dommering and Lodewijk F. Asscher (The Hague: TMC Asser, 2006), 69.
14. Jasanoff, Ethics of Invention, 171.
15. Yochai Benkler, ‘Degrees of Freedom, Dimensions of Power’, Daedalus 145, no. 1 (Winter 2016), 23.
16. Pasquale, Black Box Society, 94.
17. See Jaron Lanier, Who Owns the Future? (London: Allen Lane, 2014), 240.
18. John Nichols, ‘If Trump’s FCC Repeals Net Neutrality, Elites Will Rule the Internet—and the Future’, Nation, 24 November 2017 <https://www.thenation.com/article/if-trumps-fcc-repeals-net-neutrality-elites-will-rule-the-internet-and-the-future/> (accessed 1 December 2017).
19. Walzer, Spheres, 294.
20. Elizabeth Anderson, Private Government: How Employers Rule Our Lives (and Why We Don’t Talk About It) (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2017), 9.
21. Ibid.
22. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, translated by George Lawrence (New York: HarperCollins, 2006), 692.
1. Friedrich Hayek, The Constitution of Liberty (Abingdon: Routledge, 2009), 17.
2. Erich Fromm, The Fear of Freedom (Abingdon: Routledge, 2009), 3.
3. Inaugural Address, 20 January 1961.
4. Gerald Dworkin, The Theory and Practice of Autonomy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989) 15–20.
5. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract, translated by Maurice Cranston (London: Penguin, 1968), 65.
6. Thomas Scanlon, ‘A Theory of Freedom of Expression’, Philosophy and Public Affairs 1, no. 2 (1972), 215.
7. Isaiah Berlin, ‘Two Concepts of Liberty’, in Four Essays on Liberty (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969), 134.
8. Freedom.to <https://freedom.to/> (accessed 7 December 2017).
9. Fromm, Fear of Freedom, 208 (emphasis removed).
10. See, e.g., Quentin Skinner, Liberty Before Liberalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012) and Philip Pettit, ‘The Republican Ideal of Freedom’, in The Liberty Reader, ed. David Miller (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2006).
11. Skinner, Liberty Before Liberalism, 23.
12. Dworkin, Autonomy, 13.
13. Quentin Skinner, ‘The Republican Ideal of Political Liberty’, in Machiavelli and Republicanism, eds. Gisela Bock, Quentin Skinner, and Maurizio Viroli (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 303.
14. Pettit, ‘The Republican Ideal of Freedom’, 226; Skinner, ‘A Third Concept of Liberty’, in Liberty Reader, 250.
15. Skinner, ‘A Third Concept of Liberty’, 250.
16. Skinner, ‘A Third Concept of Liberty’, 254.
17. Donald A. Norman, The Design of Future Things (New York: Basic Books, 2007), 68.
18. Daniel Cooper, ‘These Subtle Smart Gloves Turn Sign Language into Text’, Engadget, 31 May 2017 <https://www.engadget.com/2017/05/31/these-subtle-smart-gloves-turn-sign-language-into-words/?sr_source=Twitter> (accessed 1 December 2017).
19. Brian D. Wassom, Augmented Reality Law, Privacy, and Ethics: Law, Society, and Emerging AR Technologies. (Rockland: Syngress, 2015), 250.
20. Bruce Goldman, ‘Typing With Your Mind: How Technology is Helping the Paralyzed Communicate’, World Economic Forum, 1 March 2017 <https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/03/this-technology-allows-paralysed-people-to-type-using-their-mind?utm_content=buffer8a986&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter.com&utm_campaign=buffer)%20%20(Ref)%20ch.21%20of%20leviathan?> (accessed 1 December 2017).
21. See, e.g., Francis Fukuyama, Our Posthuman Future: Consequences of the Biotechnology Revolution (London: Profile Books, 2002); Max More and Natasha Vita-More, eds., The Transhumanist Reader: Classical and Contemporary Essays on the Science, Technology, and Philosophy of the Human Future (Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2013); Julian Savulescu, Ruud ter Meulen, and Guy Kahane, eds., Enhancing Human Capacities (Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011); Justin Nelson et al., ‘The Effects of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) on Multitasking Throughput Capacity’ Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 29 November 2016 <https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2016.00589/full> (accessed 8 December 2017); Michael Bess, ‘Why Humankind Isn’t Ready for the Bionic Revolution’, Ozy, 24 October 2016. <http://www.ozy.com/opinion/why-humankind-isnt-ready-for-the-bionic-revolution/72555?utm_source=dd&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=10242016&variable=af3d1702308a23693509dd3317fe68e7> (accessed 8 December 2017).
22. The Correspondence of John Stuart Mill and Auguste Comte, ed. Oscar A. Haac (London: Transaction, 1995), Foreword and Introduction.
23. Helen Nissenbaum, Privacy in Context: Technology, Policy, and the Integrity of Social Life (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2010), 83.
24. Cass R. Sunstein, The Ethics of Influence: Government in the Age of Behavioral Science (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 82.
25. Dworkin, Autonomy, 18.
26. Sarah Dean, ‘A Nation of “Micro-Criminals”: The 11 Sneaky Crimes We Are Commonly Committing’, iNews, 22 October 2016 <https://inews.co.uk/essentials/news/uk/nation-micro-criminals-11-sneaky-crimes-commonly-committing/> (accessed 1 December 2017).
27. Blaise Agüera y Arcas, Margaret Mitchell, and Alexander Todorov, ‘Physiognomy’s New Clothes’, Medium, 6 May 2017 <https://medium.com/@blaisea/physiognomys-new-clothes-f2d4b59fdd6a> (accessed 1 December 2017).
28. Bernard E. Harcourt, Against Prediction: Profiling, Policing, and Punishing in an Actuarial Age (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), 179.
29. Harcourt, Against Prediction, 174.
30. Agüera y Arcas et al., ‘Physiognomy’s New Clothes’.
31. Ibid.
32. John Stuart Mill, On Liberty and Other Writings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 15.
33. Kenneth Cukier, ‘The Data-driven World’, in Megatech: Technology in 2050, ed. Daniel Franklin (New York: Profile Books, 2017), 171.
34. Jason Tashea, ‘Courts are Using AI to Sentence Criminals: That Must Stop Now’, Wired, 17 April 2017 <https://www.wired.com/2017/04/courts-using-ai-sentence-criminals-must-stop-now/> (accessed 1 December 2017).
35. Julia Anwin, Jeff Larson, Surya Mattu, and Lauren Kirchner, ‘Machine Bias’, ProPublica, 23 May 2016 <https://www.propublica.org/article/machine-bias-risk-assessments-in-criminal-sentencing> (accessed 1 December 2017).
36. Isaiah Berlin, ‘Historical Inevitability’, in Four Essays on Liberty, 63.
37. Berlin, ‘Historical Inevitability’, 57.
38. Auguste Comte, ‘Plan of the Scientific Work Necessary for the Reorganization of Society’, in Early Political Writings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 100.
39. Comte, ‘Plan’, 81–121.
40. Aristotle, The Politics, translated by T. A. Sinclair (London: Penguin, 1992), 1281a2, 198.
41. Aristotle, Nichomachean Ethics, translated by Terence Irwin (Second Edition) (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1999), II, i, 18–9.
42. Roger Brownsword and Morag Goodwin, Law and the Technologies of the Twenty-First Century: Texts and Materials (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 447.
43. Alfred North Whitehead, An Introduction to Mathematics (Milton Keynes: Watchmaker, 2011), 61.
44. Jathan Sadowski and Frank Pasquale, ‘The Spectrum of Control: A Social Theory of the Smart City’, First Monday 20, no. 7, 6 July 2015 <http://digitalcommons.law.umaryland.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2545&context=fac_pubs> (accessed 1 December 2017).
45. Rob Kitchin, The Data Revolution: Big Data, Open Data, Data Infrastructures and their Consequences. (London: Sage Publications Ltd, 2014), 71.
46. See Sadowski and Pasquale, ‘Spectrum of Control’; Cory Doctorow, ‘Riot Control Drone that Fires Paintballs, Pepper-spray and Rubber Bullets at Protesters’, Boing Boing, 17 June 2014 <https://boingboing.net/2014/06/17/riot-control-drone-that-paintb.html> (accessed 7 December 2017); Desert Wolf, ‘Skunk Riot Control Copter’, <http://www.desert-wolf.com/dw/products/unmanned-aerial-systems/skunk-riot-control-copter.html> (accessed 1 December 2017).
47. See Richard Yonck, Heart of the Machine: Our Future in a World of Artificial Intelligence (New York: Arcade Publishing, 2017), 137.
48. Henry David Thoreau, On the Duty of Civil Disobedience (1854) in Political Thought, eds. Michael Rosen and Jonathan Wolff (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 81.
49. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2003), 319–23.
50. Martin Luther King, Letter from Birmingham City Jail (1963) in Political Thought, 85.
51. E. Gabriella Coleman, Coding Freedom: The Ethics and Aesthetics of Hacking (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013), 19.
52. Ibid.
53. Tom Simonite, ‘Pentagon Bot Battle Shows How Computers Can Fix Their Own Flaws’, MIT Technology Review, 4 August 2016 <https://www.technologyreview.com/s/602071/pentagon-bot-battle-shows-how-computers-can-fix-their-own-flaws/?utm_campaign=socialflow&utm_source=twitter&utm_medium=post> (accessed 1 December 2017).
54. Rawls, Theory of Justice, 326–31.
55. Steven Levy, Crypto: How the Code Rebels Beat the Government—Saving Privacy in the Digital Age (New York: Penguin, 2002), 1.
56. Robert Scoble and Israel Shel, The Fourth Transformation: How Augmented Reality and Artificial Intelligence Change Everything (CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2017), 124.
57. BBC, ‘German Parents Told to Destroy Cayla Dolls Over Hacking Fears’, BBC News, 17 February 2017 <http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-39002142> (accessed 1 December 2017).
58. Scoble and Shel, Fourth Transformation, 124.
59. Marc Goodman, Future Crimes: A Journey to the Dark Side of Technology—and How to Survive It (London: Bantam Press, 2015), 22–3.
60. Goodman, Future Crimes, 249.
61. William J. Mitchell, Me ++: The Cyborg Self and the Networked City (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2003), 5.
62. Justin Clark et al., ‘The Shifting Landscape of Global Internet Censorship’, Internet Monitor, 29 June 2017 <https://thenetmonitor.org/research/2017-global-internet-censorship> (accessed 1 December 2017).
63. Reuters, ‘Turkey Blocks Wikipedia Under Law Designed to Protect National Security’, The Guardian, 30 April 2017 <https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/apr/29/turkey-blocks-wikipedia-under-law-designed-to-protect-national-security> (accessed 8 December 2017); Dahir, Abdi Latif. ‘Egypt Has Blocked Over 100 Local and International Websites Including HuffPost and Medium’. Quartz, 29 June 2017 <https://qz.com/1017939/egypt-has-blocked-huffington-post-al-jazeera-medium-in-growing-censorship-crackdown/> (accessed 8 December 2017).
64. Clark et al., ‘Shifting Landscape’.
65. Berkman Center for Internet and Society, ‘DON’T PANIC’, 1 February 2016 <https://cyber.harvard.edu/pubrelease/dont-panic/Dont_Panic_Making_Progress_on_Going_Dark_Debate.pdf> (accessed 1 December 2017).
66. BBC, ‘WhatsApp Must Not Be “Place For Terrorists to Hide” ’, BBC News, 26 March 2017 <http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-39396578> (accessed 1 December 2017); Tom Pritchard, ‘The EU Wants to Enforce Encryption, and Ban Backdoor Access’, Gizmodo, 19 June 2017 <http://www.gizmodo.co.uk/2017/06/the-eu-wants-to-enforce-encryption-and-ban-backdoor-access/> (accessed 1 December 2017).
67. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), [62], 88.
68. Immanuel Kant, ‘Idea for a Universal History from a Cosmopolitan Point of View’, in Philosophy of Technology: The Technological Condition: An Anthology (Second Edition), eds. Robert C. Scharff and Val Dusek (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2014), 49–50.
1. Niccolò Machiavelli, Discourses on Livy, translated by Julia Conaway Bondanella and Peter Bondanella (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 158.
2. Tim Wu, The Master Switch: The Rise and Fall of Information Empires (London: Atlantic, 2010), 292. See also Jonathan Zittrain, The Future of the Internet (and How to Stop It) (London: Allen Lane, 2008).
3. John Stuart Mill, On Liberty and other writings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 54.
4. Nick Hopkins, ‘Revealed: Facebook’s Internal Rulebook on Sex, Terrorism and Violence’, The Guardian, 21 May 2017 <https://amp.theguardian.com/news/2017/may/21/revealed-facebook-internal-rulebook-sex-terrorism-violence> (accessed 1 December 2017).
5. Electronic Frontier Foundation, ‘Free Speech’, <https://www.eff.org/free-speech-weak-link/> (accessed 1 December 2017).
6. Facebook Newsroom, ‘Facebook, Microsoft, Twitter and YouTube Announce Formation of the Global Internet Forum to Counter Terrorism’, 26 June 2017 <https://newsroom.fb.com/news/2017/06/global-internet-forum-to-counter-terrorism/> (accessed 1 December 2017).
7. Samuel Arbesman, Overcomplicated: Technology at the Limits of Comprehension (New York: Current, 2016), 34.
8. Arbesman, Overcomplicated, 4.
9. Arbesman, Overcomplicated, 21–2.
10. Frank Pasquale, The Black Box Society: The Secret Algorithms that Control Money and Information (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2015), 4–6.
11. Daniel J. Solove, The Digital Person: Technology and Privacy in the Information Age (New York: New York University Press, 2004), 38.
12. John Stuart Mill, The Autobiography of John Stuart Mill (US: Seven Treasures Publications, 2009), 6.
13. Mill, Autobiography, 6.
14. Mill, Autobiography, 16.
15. Isaiah Berlin, ‘John Stuart Mill and the Ends of Life’, in Four Essays on Liberty (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969), 177.
16. Stefan Collini, ‘Introduction’, On Liberty, xi.
17. Stefan Collini, ‘Introduction’, On Liberty, xiii.
18. Mill, On Liberty, 67.
19. Mill, On Liberty, 13 (emphasis added).
20. Joel Feinberg, Harm to Others: The Moral Limits of the Criminal Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), 12.
21. See, e.g., Moley <http://www.moley.com/> (accessed 1 December 2017).
22. Sensifall <http://www.sensifall.com/> (accessed 12 December 2017).
23. Mill, On Liberty, 13.
24. Patrick Devlin, ‘Morals and the Criminal Law’, in The Enforcement of Morals (London: Oxford University Press, 1965), 6.
25. Devlin, ‘Morals’, 7.
26. ‘Teledildonics’, Wikipedia, last modified 29 November 2017 <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teledildonics> (accessed 8 December 2017).
27. Rachel Metz, ‘Controlling VR With Your Mind’, MIT Technology Review, 22 March 2017 <https://www.technologyreview.com/s/603896/controlling-vr-with-your-mind/> (accessed 1 December 2017).
28. James Fitzjames Stephen, Liberty, Equality, Fraternity and Three Brief Essays (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 139.
29. Cited in J. W. Harris, Legal Philosophies (Second Edition) (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 133.
30. Devlin, ‘Morality’, 9.
31. Devlin, ‘Morality’, 10.
32. Cited in Tim Gray, Freedom (Basingstoke: Macmillan Education, 1991), 114.
33. H. L. A. Hart, Law, Liberty, and Morality (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), 50.
34. Robin Rosenberg, Shawnee Baughman, and Jeremy Bailenson, ‘Virtual Superheroes: Using Superpowers in Virtual Reality to Encourage Prosocial Behaviour’, PLoS ONE, (8)1, 30 January 2013 <https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?Db=pubmed&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=23383029> (accessed 1 December 2017).
35. Joel Feinberg, Harmless Wrongdoing: The Moral Limits of the Criminal Law (Oxford: Oxford University, 1990), 4.
36. Feinberg, Harmless Wrongdoing, 3.
37. Rosenberg et al., ‘Virtual Superheroes’; Feinberg, Harmless Wrongdoing, 3.
38. Devlin, ‘Morals’, 10.
39. Lodewijk F. Asscher, ‘“Code” as Law: Using Fuller to Assess Code Rules’, in Coding Regulation: Essays on the Normative Role of Information Technology, eds. E. J. Dommering, and Lodewijk F. Asscher (The Hague: TMC Asser, 2006), 80.
40. Douglas Rushkoff, Program or Be Programmed: Ten Commands for a Digital Age (New York: Soft Skull Press, 2011), 140.
41. Rushkoff, Program, 13.
42. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract, translated by Maurice Cranston (London: Penguin, 1968), 65.
1. Bernard Crick, ‘Politics as Form of Rule: Politics, Citizenship, and Democracy’, in What is Politics? ed. Adrain Leftwich (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2015), 75.
2. Adam Swift, Political Philosophy: A Beginners’ Guide for Students and Politicians (Second Edition) (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2007), 179.
3. Amartya Sen, ‘Democracy as a Universal Value’ Journal of Democracy 10, no. 3 (1999): 3–17.
4. Hélène Landemore, Democratic Reason: Politics, Collective Intelligence, and the Rule of the Many (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2017), 1.
5. John Dunn, Setting the People Free: The Story of Democracy (London: Atlantic, 2005), 23.
6. David Held, Models of Democracy (Third Edition) (Cambridge: Polity, 2006), x.
7. David Van Reybrouck, Against Elections: The Case for Democracy (London: Bodley Head, 2016), 1.
8. Francis Fukuyama, The Origins of Political Order: From Prehuman Times to the French Revolution (London: Profile Books, 2012), 3.
9. Brian Klaas, The Despot’s Accomplice: How the West is Aiding and Abetting the Decline of Democracy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), 1.
10. Reybrouck, Against Elections, 16.
11. Douglas Haven, ‘The uncertain future of democracy’, BBC futurenow, 30 March 2017 <http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20170330-the-uncertain-future-of-democracy?ocid=ww.social.link.twitter> (accessed 1 December 2017).
12. Plato, The Republic, translated by Desmond Lee (London: Penguin, 2003), [557a], 292.
13. See J. Lively, Democracy (1975), 30, cited in Held, Models, 2.
14. Alan Ryan, On Politics: A History of Political thought from Herodotus to the Present (London: Penguin, 2013), 11–13; Held, Models, 16–19; Dunn, Setting the People Free, 35.
15. Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War, translated by Martin Hammond (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), Book II, §§37, 91.
16. Dunn, Setting the People Free, 35.
17. Dunn, Setting the People Free, 34.
18. Held, Models, 27–9.
19. Held, Models, 27–33.
20. Dunn, Setting the People Free, 55, 58.
21. Thomas Aquinas, Political Writings, translated by R. W. Dyson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 9.
22. Held, Models, 1.
23. Dunn, Setting the People Free; Russell L. Hanson, ‘Democracy’, in Political Innovation and Conceptual Change, eds. Terence Ball, James Farr, and Russell L. Hanson (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 75.
24. Dunn, Setting the People Free, 16; Hanson, ‘Democracy’, 72.
25. Hanson, ‘Democracy’, 76.
26. Giacomo Casanova, The Story of My Life, translated by Sophie Hawkes (London: Penguin, 2000), 373.
27. Cited in Niccolò Machiavelli, Discourses on Livy, translated by Julia Conaway Bondanella and Peter Bondanella (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 141.
28. Held, Models, 59–62.
29. Niccolò Machiavelli, Discourses on Livy, translated by Julia Conaway Bondanella and Peter Bondanella (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 142.
30. Joseph Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (Abingdon: Routledge, 2010), 220.
31. Cited in Carol Pateman, Participation and Democratic Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 5.
32. Ryan, On Politics, 961.
33. See Sasha Issenberg, ‘How Obama’s Team Used Big Data to Rally Voters’, MIT Techology Review, 19 December 2012 <https://www.technologyreview.com/s/509026/how-obamas-team-used-big-data-to-rally-voters/> (accessed 1 December 2017).
34. ‘Joseph Schumpeter’, Wikipedia, last edited 23 December 2017 <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter> (accessed 21 January 2018).
35. Pedro Domingos, The Master Algorithm: How the Quest for the Ultimate Learning Machine Will Remake Our World (London: Allen Lane, 2015), 17.
36. Carole Cadwalladr, ‘Robert Mercer: The Big Data Billionaire Waging War on Mainstream Media’, The Guardian, 26 February 2017 <https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/feb/26/robert-mercer-breitbart-war-on-media-steve-bannon-donald-trump-nigel-farage> (accessed 1 December 2017).
37. Edward L. Bernays, ‘The Engineering of Consent’, ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 250, no. 1 (1947), 113–20, cited in Zeynep Tufekci, ‘Engineering the Public: Big Data, Surveillance and Computational Politics’, First Monday 19, no. 7 (7 July 2014).
38. Berit Anderson and Brett Horvath, ‘The Rise of the Weaponized AI Propaganda Machine’, Medium, 12 February 2017 <https://medium.com/join-scout/the-rise-of-the-weaponized-ai-propaganda-machine-86dac61668b> (accessed 1 December 2017).
39. See Lauren Moxley, ‘E-Rulemaking and Democracy’ Administrative Law Review 68, no. 4 (2016): 661–99.
40. Julie Simon et al., ‘Digital Democracy: The Tools Transforming Political Engagement’, Nesta, February 2017 <http://www.nesta.org.uk/sites/default/files/digital_democracy.pdf> (accessed 1 December 2017).
41. Simon et al., ‘Digital Democracy’.
42. Beth Simone Noveck, Smart Citizens, Smarter State: The Technologies of Expertise and the Future of Governing (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2015), 1–16; Simon et al., ‘Digital Democracy’.
43. Noveck, Smart Citizens, 110.
44. Helen Margretts et al., Political Turbulence: How Social Media Shape Collective Action (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2016), 211.
45. See e.g. Robert A. Dahl, Who Governs? Democracy and Power in an American City (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1961).
46. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, translated by George Lawrence (New York: HarperCollins, 2006), 192.
47. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract, translated by Maurice Cranston (London: Penguin, 1968), 61.
48. Aristotle, The Politics, translated by T. A. Sinclair (London: Penguin, 1992), 1253a1, 59.
49. Aristotle, Politics, 1281a2, 198.
50. Thucydides, Peloponnesian War, Book II, §40, 92.
51. John Stuart Mill, ‘Considerations on Representative Government’ Project Gutenberg <https://www.gutenberg.org/files/5669/5669-h/5669-h.htm> (accessed 1 December 2017).
52. See Landemore, Democratic Reason.
53. Aristotle, Politics, 1281a39, 202.
54. Josiah Ober, Democracy and Knowledge: Innovation and Learning in Classical Athens (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008).
55. See Landemore, Democratic Reason; Philip E. Tetlock, Expert Political Judgment: How Good Is It? How Can We Know? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006).
56. Baruch Spinoza, Tractatus Theologico-Politicus (1670), cited in Landemore, Democratic Reason, 67.
57. James Surowiecki, The Wisdom of Crowds: Why the Many are Smarter than the Few (London: Abacus, 2005).
58. Landemore, Democratic Reason, 157.
59. Jürgen Habermas, cited in Landemore, Democratic Reason, xvii; see also Landemore, Democratic Reason, 97.
60. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 70.
61. Rousseau, Social Contract, 64.
62. Landemore, Democratic Reason, xv–xvii.
1. See generally Jürgen Habermas, Between Facts and Norms (Cambridge: Polity Press in association with Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 2010).
2. David Held, Models of Democracy (Third Edition) (Cambridge: Polity, 2006), 237–42; Amy Gutmann and Dennis Thompson, Why Deliberative Democracy? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004), 10–14.
3. See Yochai Benkler, The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2006).
4. See e.g. Robert Faris et al., ‘Partisanship, Propaganda, and Disinformation: Online Media and the 2016 U.S. Presidential Election’, Berkman Klein Center Research Paper <https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3019414> (accessed 8 December 2017).
5. See Cass R. Sunstein, Republic.com 2.0 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007); Cass R. Sunstein, #Republic: Divided Democracy in the age of Social Media (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2017); Alex Krasodomski-Jones, ‘Talking To Ourselves?’ Demos, September 2016 <https://www.demos.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/Echo-Chambers-final-version.pdf> (accessed 1 December 2017).
6. Bruce Bimber, Information and American Democracy: Technology in the Evolution of Political Power (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 206–9.
7. Sunstein, #Republic, 121.
8. Timothy J. Penny, ‘Facts Are Facts’, National Review, 4 September 2003 <http://www.nationalreview.com/article/207925/facts-are-facts-timothy-j-penny> (accessed 9 December 2017).
9. David Remnick, ‘Obama Reckons With a Trump Presidency’, New Yorker, 28 November 2016 <http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/11/28/obama-reckons-with-a-trump-presidency> (accessed 30 November 2017).
10. Craig Silverman, ‘This Analysis Shows How Viral Fake Election News Stories Outperformed Real News on Facebook’, BuzzFeed News, 16 November 2017 <https://www.buzzfeed.com/craigsilverman/viral-fake-election-news-outperformed-real-news-on-facebook?utm_term=.ufqYm8llgv#.sf9JbwppAm> (accessed 1 December 2017).
11. Matthew D’Ancona, Post Truth: The New War on Truth and How to Fight Back (London: Ebury Press, 2017), 54.
12. See discussion in Zeynep Tufekci, ‘Engineering the Public: Big Data, Surveillance and Computational Politics’ First Monday 19, no. 7 (7 July 2014).
13. Sunstein, #Republic, 71.
14. See Jamie Bartlett, The Dark Net: Inside the Digital Underworld (London: William Heinemann, 2014), 41.
15. Plato, The Republic, translated by Desmond Lee (London: Penguin, 2003).
16. I understand that the account ‘@imposterbusters’ has itself been suspended by Twitter.
17. Peter Martinez, ‘Study Reveals Whopping 48M Twitter Accounts Are Actually Bots’, CBS News, 10 March 2017 <http://www.cbsnews.com/news/48-million-twitter-accounts-bots-university-of-southern-california-study/?ftag=CNM-00-10aab7e&linkId=35386687> (accessed 1 December 2017).
18. Carole Cadwalladr, ‘Robert Mercer: The Big Data Billionaire Waging War on Mainstream Media’, The Guardian, 26 February 2017 <https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/feb/26/robert-mercer-breitbart-war-on-media-steve-bannon-donald-trump-nigel-farage> (accessed 1 December 2017).
19. See Leo Kelion and Shiroma Silva, ‘Pro-Clinton Bots “Fought Back but Outnumbered in Second Debate” ’, BBC News, 19 October 2016<http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-37703565> (accessed 1 December 2017); Amanda Hess, ‘On Twitter, a Battle Among Political Bots’, New York Times, 14 December 2016 <https://mobile.nytimes.com/2016/12/14/arts/on-twitter-a-battle-among-political-bots.html?contentCollection=weekendreads&referer=> (accessed 1 December 2017); Bence Kollanyi, Philip N. Howard, and Samuel C. Woolley, ‘Bots and Automation over Twitter during the U.S. Election’, Computational Propaganda Project, 2016 <http://comprop.oii.ox.ac.uk/2016/11/17/bots-and-automation-over-twitter-during-the-u-s-election/> (accessed 1 December 2017); John Markoff, ‘Automated Pro-Trump Bots Overwhelmed Pro-Clinton Messages, Researchers Say’, New York Times, 17 November 2016 http://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/18/technology/automated-pro-trump-bots-overwhelmed-pro-clinton-messages-researchers-say.html)> (accessed 1 December 2017).
20. Ian Sample, ‘Study Reveals Bot-on-Bot Editing Wars Raging on Wikipedia’s Pages’, The Guardian, 23 February 2017 <https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/feb/23/wikipedia-bot-editing-war-study> (accessed 1 December 2017).
21. Julie Simon et al., ‘Digital Democracy: The Tools Transforming Political Engagement’, Nesta, February 2017 <http://www.nesta.org.uk/sites/default/files/digital_democracy.pdf> (accessed 1 December 2017).
22. Full Fact <https://fullfact.org/> (accessed 1 December 2017).
23. Evgeny Morozov, To Save Everything Click Here: Technology, Solutionism, and the Urge to Fix Problems that Don’t Exist (London: Penguin, 2014), 119; Andy Greenberg, ‘Now Anyone Can Deploy Google’s Troll-Fighting AI’, Wired, 23 February 2017 <https://www.wired.com/2017/02/googles-troll-fighting-ai-now-belongs-world/?mbid=social_twitter> (accessed 1 December 2017).
24. James Weinstein, ‘An Overview of American Free Speech Doctrine and its Application to Extreme Speech’, in Extreme Speech and Democracy, eds. Ivan Hare and James Weinstein (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 81–9.
25. Rebecca MacKinnon, Consent of the Networked: The Worldwide Struggle for Internet Freedom (New York: Basic Books, 2013), 127.
26. Matthew Prince, ‘Why We Terminated Daily Stormer’, Cloudfare, 16 August 2017 <https://blog.cloudflare.com/why-we-terminated-daily-stormer/> (accessed 1 December 2017).
27. Lizzie Plaugic, ‘Spotify Pulls Several “Hate Bands” from its Service’, The Verge, 16 August 2017 <https://www.theverge.com/2017/8/16/16158502/spotify-racist-bands-streaming-service-southern-poverty-law-center> (accessed 1 December 2017).
28. Rishabh Jain, ‘Charlottesville Attack: Facebook, Reddit, Google and GoDaddy Shut DownHate Groups’, IBT, 16 August 2017 <http://www.ibtimes.com/charlottesville-attack-facebook-reddit-google-godaddy-shut-down-hate-groups-2579027> (accessed 1 December 2017).
29. Zeynep Tufekci, Twitter and Tear Gas: The Power and Fragility of Networked Protest (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2017), 149–50.
30. Tufekci, Twitter, 150.
31. John Stuart Mill, On Liberty in On Liberty and other writings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 56.
32. See Martin Jay, The Virtues of Mendacity: On Lying in Politics (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2010).
33. Richard Hofstadter, The Paranoid Style in American Politics (New York: Vintage Books, 2008), 3.
34. Hannah Arendt, ‘Truth and Politics’, in Between Past and Future (London: Penguin, 2006), 223.
35. George Orwell, Diaries (London: Penguin, 2009), 24 April 1942, 335.
36. Alvin I. Goldman, Knowledge in a Social World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 7–10.
37. Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and other writings, 1972–1977 (New York: Vintage Books, 1980), 93.
38. Don Tapscott and Alex Tapscott, Blockchain Revolution: How the Technology Behind Bitcoin is Changing Money, Business and the World (London: Portfolio Penguin, 2016), 131.
39. D’Ancona, Post-Truth, 100–1.
40. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract, translated by Maurice Cranston (London: Penguin, 1968), 112.
41. Agoravoting.com <https://agoravoting.com/> (accessed 1 December 2017).
42. Danny Bradbury, ‘How Block Chain Technology Could Usher in Digital Democracy’, CoinDesk, 16 June 2014 <http://www.coindesk.com/block-chain-technology-digital-democracy/> (accessed 1 December 2017).
43. Karl Marx, The Civil War in France, in Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Collected Works Vol. 22. (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1986), 333.
44. Thomas Christiano, The Rule of the Many: Fundamental Issues in Democratic Theory (Westview Press: Colorado & London, 1996), 109.
45. Sunstein, #Republic, 48.
46. James Madison, ‘Federalist No. 63’, in The Federalist Papers (New York: Penguin, 2012), 114 (original emphasis). See Sunstein, #Republic.
47. DemocracyOS <http://democracyos.org/> (accessed 1 December 2017).
48. Tapscott and Tapscott, Blockchain Revolution, 218; Micah L. Sifry, The Big Disconnect: Why the Internet Hasn’t Transformed Politics (Yet) (New York and London: OR Books, 2014), 212; Steven Johnson, Future Perfect: The Case for Progress in a Networked Age (London: Penguin, 2013), 152–76.
49. John Stuart Mill, ‘Thoughts on Parliamentary Reform’, Collected Works of John Stuart Mill, Volume XIX—Essays on Politics and Society Part 2, eds. John M. Robson (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1977) <http://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/mill-the-collected-works-of-john-stuart-mill-volume-xix-essays-on-politics-and-society-part-2#lf0223-19_head_002> (accessed 8 December 2017).
50. See generally Yochai Benkler, The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2006).
51. See Beth Simone Noveck, Wiki Government: How Technology Can Make Government Better, Democracy Stronger, and Citizens More Powerful (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press), 2009; Alan Watkins and Iman Straitens, Crowdocracy: The End of Politics (Rochester: Urbane Publications, 2016).
52. Daren C. Brabham, Crowdsourcing (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2013), 34.
53. Julie Simon et al., ‘Digital Democracy’.
54. Noveck, Wiki Government, 39.
55. Jürgen Habermas, ‘Further Reflections on the Public Sphere’, cited in Douglas Torgerson, ‘Democracy Through Policy Discourse’, in Deliberative Policy Analysis: Understanding Governance in the Network Society, eds. Maarten A. Hajer and Hendrik Wagenaar (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 115.
56. Jaron Lanier, Who Owns the Future? (London: Allen Lane, 2014), 57.
57. Richard Susskind and Daniel Susskind, The Future of the Professions: How Technology Will Transform the Work of Human Experts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 161.
58. Hiroki Azuma, General Will 2.0: Rousseau, Freud, Google (New York: Vertical, Inc, 2014); Yuval Noah Harari, Homo Deus: A Brief History of Tomorrow (London: Harvill Secker, 2015), 329–40.
59. John O. McGinnis, Accelerating Democracy: Transforming Governance through Technology (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013), 123–5; Hélène Landemore, Democratic Reason: Politics, Collective Intelligence, and the Rule of the Many (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2017), 125; Watkins and Straitens, Crowdocracy, 116.
60. See, e.g., Johan Bollen, Huina Mao, and Xiao-Jun Zeng, ‘Twitter Mood Predicts the Stock Market’, arXiv, 14 October 2010 <https://arxiv.org/pdf/1010.3003.pdf> (accessed 1 December 2017).
61. Harari, Homo Deus, 340.
62. Jamie Bartlett and Nathaniel Tkacz, ‘Governance by Dashboard’, Demos, March 2017 <https://www.demos.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Demos-Governance-by-Dashboard.pdf> (accessed 1 December 2017).
63. Auguste Comte, ‘Plan of the Scientific Work Necessary for the Reorganization of Society’, in Early Political Writings, translated by H. S. Jones (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 100.
64. See e.g. voteforpolicies.org.uk <https://voteforpolicies.org.uk/> (accessed 1 December 2017) and Crowdpac <https://www.crowdpac.co.uk/> (accessed 1 December 2017).
65. Voter.xyz <http://www.voter.xyz/> (accessed 1 December 2017).
66. See Pedro Domingos, The Master Algorithm: How The Quest for the Ultimate Learning Machine Will Remake Our World (London: Allen Lane, 2015), 19.
67. Alan Ryan, On Politics: A History of Political thought from Herodotus to the Present (London: Penguin, 2013), 8.
1. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2003), 3.
2. Jonathan P. Allen, Technology and Inequality: Concentrated Wealth in a Digital World (Kindle Edition: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), Kindle Locations 245–7.
3. Klaus Schwab, The Fourth Industrial Revolution (Geneva: World Economic Forum, 2016), 92–3.
4. Karl Marx, Contribution to Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Law. Introduction, in Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Collected Works Vol. 3. (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1975), 185 (original emphasis). See Jamie Susskind, Karl Marx and British Intellectuals in the 1930s (Burford: Davenant Press, 2011), 1.
5. John Rawls, ‘Reply to Alexander and Musgrave’, in The Ideal of Equality, eds. Matthew Clayton and Andrew Williams (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), 22.
6. Iris Marion Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011), 33.
7. Aristotle, The Politics, translated by T. A. Sinclair (London: Penguin, 1992), 1280a7, 195; Larry Siedentop, Inventing the Individual: The Origins of Western Liberalism (London: Allen Lane, 2014), 51.
8. Will Kymlicka, Contemporary Political Philosophy: An Introduction (Second Edition) (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 3–4; Adam Swift, Political Philosophy: A Beginners’ Guide for Students and Politicians (Second Edition) (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2007), 93.
9. Swift, Political Philosophy, 121.
10. Harry Frankfurt, ‘Equality as a Moral Ideal’ Ethics 98, no. 1 (October 1987): 21–43.
11. Derek Parfit, ‘Equality or Priority?’ in The Ideal of Equality.
12. Swift, Political Philosophy, 99–100.
13. See Larry Temkin, ‘Equality, Priority, and the Levelling Down Objection’, in The Ideal of Equality.
14. Thomas Scanlon, ‘The Diversity of Objections to Equality’, in The Ideal of Equality.
15. Swift, Political Philosophy, 104.
16. Swift, Political Philosophy, 19.
17. David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1983), 28.
18. Robert Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2008), 149.
19. Elizabeth Anderson, Private Government: How Employers Rule Our Lives (and Why We Don’t Talk About It) (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2017), 2.
20. Cathy O’Neil, Weapons of Math Destruction: How Big Data Increases Inequality and Threatens Democracy (New York: Crown, 2016), 114.
21. O’Neil, Weapons, 120.
22. Laurence Mills, ‘Numbers, Data and Algorithms: Why HR Professionals and Employment Lawyers Should Take Data Science and Analytics Seriously’, Future of Work Hub, 4 April 2017 <http://www.futureofworkhub.info/comment/2017/4/4/numbers-data-and-algorithms-why-hr-professionals-and-employment-lawyers-should-take-data-science-seriously> (accessed 1 December 2017); Ifeoma Ajunwa, Kate Crawford, and Jason Schultz, ‘Limitless Worker Surveillance’, California Law Review 105, no. 3, 13 March 2016 <https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2746211> (accessed 1 December 2017).
23. Olivia Solon, ‘World’s Largest Hedge Fund to Replace Managers with Artificial Intelligence’, The Guardian, 22 December 2016 <https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/dec/22/bridgewater-associates-ai-artificial-intelligence-management> (accessed 1 December 2017).
24. Danielle Keats Citron and Frank Pasquale, ‘The Scored Society: Due Process for Automated Predictions’, Washington Law Review 89, no. 1 (26 March 2014) <https://digital.law.washington.edu/dspace-law/bitstream/handle/1773.1/1318/89WLR0001.pdf?sequence=1> (accessed 1 December 2017).
25. Eric Siegel, Predictive Analytics: The Power to Predict Who Will Click, Buy, Lie, or Die (New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2016), 10.
26. Siegel, Predictive Analytics, 292–3; Citron and Pasquale, ‘Scored Society’.
27. See Rawls, Theory of Justice, 79: ‘primary social goods . . . are things which it is supposed a rational man wants whatever else he wants’.
28. Jaron Lanier, Who Owns the Future? (London: Allen Lane, 2014), xvi.
29. Allen, Technology and Inequality, Kindle Locations 968–70.
30. O’Neil, Weapons, 144.
31. Jennifer Valentino-DeVries, Jeremy Singer-Vine, and Ashkan Soltani, ‘Websites Vary Prices, Deals Based on Users’ Information’, Wall Street Journal, 24 December 2012 <https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887323777204578189391813881534> (accessed 1 December 2017).
32. Sam Schechner, ‘Why Do Gas Station Prices Constantly Change? Blame the Algorithm’, Wall Street Journal, 8 May 2017 <https://www.wsj.com/articles/why-do-gas-station-prices-constantly-change-blame-the-algorithm-1494262674?mod=e2tw> (accessed 1 December 2017).
33. Jeremy Useem, ‘How Online Shopping Makes Suckers of Us All’, Atlantic, May 2017 Issue <https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2017/05/how-online-shopping-makes-suckers-of-us-all/521448/?utm_source=nextdraft&utm_medium=email> (accessed 1 December 2017).
34. Benjamin Reed Shiller, ‘First-Degree Price Discrimination Using Big Data’, Brandeis University, 19 January 2014 <http://benjaminshiller.com/images/First_Degree_PD_Using_Big_Data_Jan_18,_2014.pdf > (accessed 1 December 2017).
35. Shiller, ‘First-Degree Price Discrimination’.
36. See Lawrence Lessig, Code Version 2.0 (New York: Basic Books, 2006).
1. See Axel Honneth, The Struggle for Recognition: The Moral Grammar of Social Conflicts, translated by Joel Anderson (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2005).
2. Robert H. Frank, Choosing the Right Pond: Human Behavior and the Quest for Status (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 9.
3. Honneth, Struggle.
4. Translator’s Note, Honneth, Struggle.
5. Elizabeth Anderson, ‘Against Luck Egalitarianism: What is the Point of Equality?’ in Social Justice, eds. Matthew Clayton, and Andrew Williams (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2005), 155.
6. Anderson, ‘What is the Point of Equality?’
7. Iris Marion Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011), 53–61.
8. Erika Harrell, ‘Crime Against Persons with Disabilities, 2009-2015: Statistical Tables’, Bureau of Justice Statistics, July 2017 <https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/capd0915st.pdf> (accessed 2 December 2017).
9. Judith Squires, ‘Equality and Difference’, in The Oxford Handbook of Political Theory, eds. John S. Dryzek, Bonnie Honig, and Anne Phillips (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 479.
10. Michael Walzer, Spheres of Justice: A Defense of Pluralism and Equality (New York: Basic Books, 1983), 249; Elizabeth Anderson, Private Government: How Employers Rule Our Lives (and Why We Don’t Talk About It) (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2017), 3–4.
11. Nadia Judith Enchassi and CNN Wire, ‘New Zealand Passport Robot Thinks This Asian Man’s Eyes Are Closed’, KFOR, 11 December 2016 <http://kfor.com/2016/12/11/new-zealand-passport-robot-thinks-this-asian-mans-eyes-are-closed/> (accessed 2 December 2017).
12. Richard Yonck, Heart of the Machine: Our Future in a World of Artificial Intelligence (New York: Arcade Publishing, 2017), 50.
13. Douglas Rushkoff, Throwing Rocks at the Google Bus: How Growth Became the Enemy of Prosperity (New York: Portfolio/Penguin, 2016), 31.
14. Nick Couldry, Media, Society, World: Social Theory and Digital Media Practice (Cambridge: Polity, 2012), 25.
15. Frank, Choosing, 7, 26.
16. Christopher Steiner, Automate This: How Algorithms Came to Rule Our World (London: Portfolio, 2012), 55.
1. This example is from the Executive Office of the President, ‘Big Data: A Report on Algorithmic Systems, Opportunity, and Civil Rights’, Obama White House Archives, May 2016 <https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ostp/2016_0504_data_discrimination.pdf> (accessed 2 December 2017).
2. Ian Tucker, ‘“A White Mask Worked Better”: Why Algorithms Are Not Colour Blind’, The Guardian, 28 May 2017 <https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/may/28/joy-buolamwini-when-algorithms-are-racist-facial-recognition-bias> (accessed 2 December 2017).
3. Selena Larson, ‘Research Shows Gender Bias in Google’s Voice Recognition’, Daily Dot, 15 July 2016 <https://www.dailydot.com/debug/google-voice-recognition-gender-bias/> (accessed 2 December 2017).
4. Jordan Pearson, ‘Why an AI-Judged Beauty Contest Picked Nearly All White Winners’, Motherboard, 5 September 2016 <https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us/article/78k7de/why-an-ai-judged-beauty-contest-picked-nearly-all-white-winners> (accessed 2 December 2017).
5. Alex Hern, ‘Flickr Faces Complaints Over “Offensive” Auto-tagging for Photos’, The Guardian, 20 May 2015 <https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/may/20/flickr-complaints-offensive-auto-tagging-photos> (accessed 2 December 2017).
6. Alistair Barr, ‘Google Mistakenly Tags Black People as “Gorillas”, Showing Limits of Algorithms’, Wall Street Journal, 1 July 2015 <https://blogs.wsj.com/digits/2015/07/01/google-mistakenly-tags-black-people-as-gorillas-showing-limits-of-algorithms/> (accessed 2 December 2017).
7. Executive Office of the President, ‘Big Data’; Cathy O’Neil, Weapons of Math Destruction: How Big Data Increases Inequality and Threatens Democracy (New York: Crown, 2016), 7, 156.
8. Executive Office of the President, ‘Big Data’, 18.
9. Executive Office of the President, ‘Big Data’, 15.
10. Christian Sandvig et al., ‘When the Algorithm Itself is a Racist: Diagnosing Ethical Harm in the Basic Components of Software’, International Journal of Communications 10 (2016): 4972–4990.
11. Julia Angwin and Jeff Larson, ‘The Tiger Mom Tax: Asians Are Nearly Twice as Likely to Get a Higher Price from Princeton Review’, ProPublica, 1 September 2015 <https://www.propublica.org/article/asians-nearly-twice-as-likely-to-get-higher-price-from-princeton-review> (accessed 3 December 2017).
12. Frank Pasquale, The Black Box Society: The Secret Algorithms that Control Money and Information (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2015), 39; Emerging Technology from the arXiv, ‘Racism is Poisoning Online Ad Delivery, Says Harvard Professor’, MIT Technology Review, 4 February 2013 <https://www.technologyreview.com/s/510646/racism-is-poisoning-online-ad-delivery-says-harvard-professor/> (accessed 3 December 2017).
13. Paul Baker and Amanda Potts, ‘“Why Do White People Have Thin Lips?” Google and the Perpetuation of Stereotypes via Auto-complete Search Forms’, Critical Discourse Studies 10, no. 2 (2013) <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17405904.2012.744320?scroll=top&needAccess=true> (accessed 3 December 2017).
14. Francesco Bonchi, Carlos Castillo, and Sara Hajian, ‘Algorithmic Bias: From Discrimination Discovery to Fairness-aware Data Mining’, KDD 2016 Tutorial <http://francescobonchi.com/tutorial-algorithmic-bias.pdf> (accessed 3 December 2017).
15. Tom Slee, What’s Yours is Mine: Against the Sharing Economy (New York and London: OR Books, 2015), 94.
16. Slee, What’s Yours is Mine, 95.
17. Josh Chin and Gillian Wong, ‘China’s New Tool for Social Control: A Credit Rating for Everything’, Wall Street Journal, 28 November 2016 <http://www.wsj.com/articles/chinas-new-tool-for-social-control-a-credit-rating-for-everything-1480351590> (accessed 1 December 2017); Economist, ‘China Invents the Digital Totalitarian State’, 17 December 2016 <http://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21711902-worrying-implications-its-social-credit-project-china-invents-digital-totalitarian> (accessed 1 December 2017).
18. Andrew Whitby, Audun Jøsang, and Jadwiga Indulska, ‘Filtering Out Unfair Ratings in Bayesian Reputation Systems’, Proceedings of the Workshop on Trust in Agent Societies, at the Autonomous Agents and Multi Agent Systems Conference, July 2004 <https://www.csee.umbc.edu/~msmith27/readings/public/whitby-2004a.pdf> (accessed 3 December 2017).
19. Benjamin Edelman, Michael Luca, and Dan Svirsky, ‘Racial Discrimination in the Sharing Economy: Evidence from a Field Experiment’, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 9, no. 2 (April 2017): 1–22.
20. Slee, What’s Yours is Mine, 95.
21. Tolga Bolukbasi et al., ‘Man is to Computer Programmer as Woman is to Homemaker? Debiasing Word Embeddings’, arXiv, 21 July 2016 <https://arxiv.org/pdf/1607.06520.pdf> (accessed 3 December 2017).
22. Iris Marion Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011), 97.
23. Young, Justice, 98.
24. See Thomas Nagel, The View from Nowhere (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986).
25. Richard Yonck, Heart of the Machine: Our Future in a World of Artificial Intelligence (New York: Arcade Publishing, 2017), 90.
26. Pasquale, Black Box Society.
27. Computerscience.org. ‘Women in Computer Science: Getting Involved in STEM’ <http://www.computerscience.org/resources/women-in-computer-science/> (accessed 3 December 2017); Sheelah Kolhatkar, ‘The Tech Industry’s Gender-Discrimination Problem’, New Yorker, 20 November 2017 <https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/11/20/the-tech-industrys-gender-discrimination-problem> (accessed 12 December 2017).
28. Julia Wong, ‘Segregated Valley: The Ugly Truth About Google and Diversity in Tech’, The Guardian, 7 August 2017 <https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/aug/07/silicon-valley-google-diversity-black-women-workers> (accessed 3 December 2017).
1. Jeff Guo, ‘We’re So Unprepared for the Robot Apocalypse’, Washington Post, 30 March 2017 <https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2017/03/30/were-so-unprepared-for-the-robot-apocalypse/?utm_term=.caeece2d19b4> (accessed 8 December 2017).
2. Federica Cocco, ‘Most US Manufacturing Jobs Lost to Technology, Not Trade’, Financial Times, 2 December 2016 <https://www.ft.com/content/dec677c0-b7e6-11e6-ba85-95d1533d9a62> (accessed 8 December 2017).
3. Michael Chui, James Manyika, and Mehdi Miremadi, ‘Where Machines Could Replace Humans—and Where They Can’t (Yet)’, McKinsey Quarterly, July 2016 <https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/digital-mckinsey/our-insights/where-machines-could-replace-humans-and-where-they-cant-yet> (accessed 8 December 2017).
4. Richard Susskind and Daniel Susskind, The Future of the Professions: How Technology Will Transform the Work of Human Experts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015).
5. Susskind and Susskind, Future of the Professions.
6. See Daniel Susskind, ‘Re-thinking the Capabilities of Machines in Economics’, Oxford University Discussion Paper no. 825, version 1 May 2017 (May 2017); ‘A Model of Technological Unemployment’, Oxford University Discussion Paper no. 819, version 6 July 2017 (July 2017), both at <https://www.danielsusskind.com/research> (accessed 5 December 2017).
7. Karl Marx, Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844, in Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Collected Works Vol. 3. (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1975), 235.
8. Ryan Avent, The Wealth of Humans: Work, Power, and Status in the Twenty-First Century (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2016), 6.
9. Cocco, ‘Most US Manufacturing Jobs Lost to Technology, Not Trade’.
10. Sam Shead, ‘Amazon’s Supermarket of the Future Could Operate With Just 3 Staff—and Lots of Robots’, Business Insider, 6 February 2017 <http://www.businessinsider.com/amazons-go-supermarket-of-the-future-3-human-staff-2017-2?r=UK&IR=T> (accessed 8 December 2017); Yiting Sun, ‘In China, a Store of the Future—No Checkout, No Staff’, MIT Technology Review, 16 June 2017 <https://www.technologyreview.com/s/608104/in-china-a-store-of-the-future-no-checkout-no-staff/> (accessed 8 December 2017).
11. Martin Ford, Rise of the Robots: Technology and the Threat of a Jobless Future (New York: Basic Books, 2015), 12.
12. Laura Tyson and Michael Spence, ‘Exploring the Effects of Technology on Income and Wealth Inequality’, in After Piketty: The Agenda for Economics and Inequality, eds. Heather J. Boushey, Bradford DeLong, and Marshall Steinbaum (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2017), 177.
13. Chui et al., ‘Where Machines Could Replace Humans’.
14. See Susskind and Susskind, Future of the Professions.
15. I am grateful to Richard Susskind for both the point and the examples.
16. Kory Schaff, ‘Introduction’, in Philosophy and the Problems of Work: A Reader, ed. Kory Schaff (Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2001), 6.
17. Schaff, ‘Introduction’, 9.
18. Marie Jahoda, Employment and Unemployment: A Social-psychological Analysis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 24.
19. Jahoda, Employment and Unemployment, 22.
20. Jahoda, Employment and Unemployment, 60–1.
21. Sigmund Freud, Civilization and its Discontents (Oregon: Rough Draft Printing, 2013), 19 fn. 11; Jahoda, Employment and Unemployment, 60.
22. Jon Elster, ‘Is There (or Should There Be) a Right to Work?’ in Philosophy and the Problems of Work, 283.
23. Elster, ‘Right to Work’.
24. James Livingston, ‘Fuck Work’, Aeon, 25 November 2016 <https://aeon.co/essays/what-if-jobs-are-not-the-solution-but-the-problem> (accessed 8 December 2017).
25. Kevin J. Delaney, ‘The Robot that Takes Your Job Should Pay Taxes, Says Bill Gates’, Quartz, 17 February 2017 <https://qz.com/911968/bill-gates-the-robot-that-takes-your-job-should-pay-taxes/> (accessed 8 December 2017).
26. Philippe van Parijs and Yannick Vanderborght, Basic Income: A Radical Proposal for a Free Society and a Sane Economy (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard, 2017), 4.
27. Van Parijs and Vanderborght, Basic Income, 8.
28. Avent, Wealth of Humans, 201.
29. Karl Marx, Critique of the Gotha Programme, in Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Collected Works Vol. 24 (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1989), 87.
30. Richard Arneson, ‘Is Work Special? Justice and the Distribution of Employment’, in Philosophy and the Problems of Work, 208.
31. William Shakespeare, Hamlet (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 363.
32. Herbert Spencer, The Man Versus the State (London: Watts & Co, 1909) cited in Arneson, ‘Is Work Special?’, 201.
33. Van Parijs and Vanderborght, Basic Income, 101.
34. Friedrich Engels, The Condition of the Working-Class in England in Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Collected Works Vol. 4 (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1975), 187.
35. Elizabeth Anderson, Private Government: How Employers Rule Our Lives (and Why We Don’t Talk About It) (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2017), 129.
36. Oscar Wilde, ‘The Soul of Man Under Socialism’, cited in Michael Walzer, Spheres of Justice: A Defense of Pluralism and Equality (New York: Basic Books, 1983), 167.
37. Walzer, Spheres, 185.
38. William Shakespeare, Henry IV, Part I, cited in Walzer, Spheres, 195.
39. Jahoda, Employment and Unemployment, 59.
40. For further reading, see Nick Srnicek and Alex Williams, Inventing the Future: Postcapitalism and a World Without Work (London: Verso, 2015); David Frayne, The Refusal of Work: The Theory and Practice of Resistance to Work (London: Zed Books, 2015); André Gorz, Reclaiming Work: Beyond the Wage-Based Society, translated by Chris Turner (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2005); André Gorz, Capitalism, Socialism, Ecology, translated by Martin Chalmers (London and New York: Verso, 2012); and Bertrand Russell, In Praise of Idleness (Abingdon: Routledge, 2004).
1. Robert Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2008), 169.
2. Tim Wu, The Master Switch: The Rise and Fall of Information Empires (London: Atlantic, 2010), 276.
3. Ibid.
4. Cited in Wu, Master Switch, 276–7.
5. Thomas Piketty, Capital in the Twenty-First Century (Cambridge, Mass: The Belknapp Press of Harvard University Press, 2014), 18.
6. Piketty, Capital, 26.
7. Piketty, Capital, 22; Ryan Avent, The Wealth of Humans: Work, Power, and Status in the Twenty-First Century (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2016), 119–20.
8. Avent, Wealth of Humans, 119–20.
9. Erik Brynjolfsson and Andrew McAfee, The Second Machine Age: Work, Progress, and Prosperity in a Time of Brilliant Technologies (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2014), 118.
10. Erik Brynjolfsson, Andrew McAfee, and Michael Spence. ‘New World Order: Labor, Capital, and Ideas in the Power Law Economy’, Foreign Affairs, July/August 2014 <https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/2014-06-04/new-world-order> (accessed 8 December 2017).
11. Robert W. McChesney, Digital Disconnect: How Capitalism is Turning The Internet Against Democracy (New York: The New Press, 2014), 134.
12. Brynjolfsson et al., ‘New World Order’.
13. MIT Technology Review Custom, in partnership with Oracle, ‘The Rise of Data Capital’, MIT Technology Review, 21 March 2016 <https://www.technologyreview.com/s/601081/the-rise-of-data-capital/> (accessed 8 December 2017).
14. Viktor Mayer-Schönberger and Kenneth Cukier, Big Data: A Revolution That Will Transform How We Live, Work and Think (London: John Murray, 2013), 5; Steve Jones, ‘Why “Big Data” is the Fourth Factor of Production’, Financial Times, 27 December 2012 <https://www.ft.com/content/5086d700-504a-11e2-9b66-00144feab49a> (accessed 9 December 2017); Neil Lawrence, quoted in Alex Hern, ‘Why Data is the New Coal’, The Guardian, 27 September 2016 <https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/sep/27/data-efficiency-deep-learning> (accessed 9 December 2017).
15. Gustavo Grullon, Yelena Larkin, and Roni Michaely, ‘Are U.S. Industries Becoming More Concentrated?’ SSRN, 2017 <https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2612047> (accessed 8 December 2017).
16. David Dayen, ‘This Budding Movement Wants to Smash Monopolies’, Nation, 4 April 2017 https://www.thenation.com/article/this-budding-movement-wants-to-smash-monopolies/(accessed 8 December 2017).
17. David Autor et al., ‘The Fall of the Labor Share and the Rise of Superstar Firms’, 1 May 2017 <https://economics.mit.edu/files/12979> (accessed 8 December 2017).
18. Angelo Young, ‘How to Break Up Alphabet, Amazon and Facebook’, Salon, 31 May 2017 <https://www.salon.com/2017/05/31/how-to-break-up-alphabet-amazon-and-facebook/> (accessed 8 December 2017).
19. Paula Dwyer, ‘Should America’s Tech Giants Be Broken Up?’ Bloomberg Businessweek, 20 July 2017 <https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-07-20/should-america-s-tech-giants-be-broken-up> (accessed 8 December 2017).
20. James Ball, ‘Let’s Challenge Google While We Still Can’, The Guardian, 16 April 2015 <https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/apr/16/challenge-google-while-we-can-eu-anti-trust> (accessed 8 December 2017).
21. BI Intelligence, ‘Amazon Accounts for 43% of US Online Retail Sales’, Business Insider E-Commerce Briefing, 3 February 2017 <http://uk.businessinsider.com/amazon-accounts-for-43-of-us-online-retail-sales-2017-2?r=US&IR=T> (accessed 9 December 2017).
22. Young, ‘How to Break Up Alphabet, Amazon and Facebook’.
23. Dwyer, ‘Should America’s Tech Giants be Broken Up?’
24. Jonathan Taplin, Move Fast and Break Things: How Facebook, Google, and Amazon Cornered Culture and Undermined Democracy (New York: Little, Brown and Company, 2017), 8.
25. Connie Chan, cited in Frank Pasquale, ‘Will Amazon Take Over the World?’ Boston Review, 20 July 2017 <https://bostonreview.net/class-inequality/frank-pasquale-will-amazon-take-over-world> (accessed 8 December 2017).
26. Klaus Schwab, The Fourth Industrial Revolution (Geneva: World Economic Forum, 2016), 10.
27. Martin Ford, Rise of the Robots: Technology and the Threat of a Jobless Future (New York: Basic Books, 2015), 175.
28. See David Singh Grewal, Network Power: The Social Dynamics of Globalization (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 2008).
29. See Michael Lewis, Flash Boys: Cracking the Money Code. London: Allen Lane, 2014.
30. Jaron Lanier, Who Owns the Future? (London: Allen Lane, 2014), xvi.
31. Jonathan P. Allen, Technology and Inequality: Concentrated Wealth in a Digital World (Kindle Edition: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), Kindle Locations 596–601.
32. Cited in Elizabeth Anderson, Private Government: How Employers Rule Our Lives (and Why We Don’t Talk About It) (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2017), 30.
33. Alan Ryan, On Politics: A History of Political Thought from Herodotus to the Present (London: Penguin, 2013), 212.
34. John Locke, Second Treatise of Government, in Two Treatises of Government and A Letter Concerning Toleration, eds. Ian Shapiro (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2003), 111.
35. Locke, Second Treatise, 112.
36. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Discourse on the Origins of Inequality, translated by Donald A. Cress (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1992), 44.
37. Karl Marx, Capital Vol. 1 in Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Collected Works Vol. 35 (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1996), 705.
38. Cicero, De Officiis, translated by W. Miller (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1913), cited in Eric Nelson, ‘Republican Visions’, in The Oxford Handbook of Political Theory, eds. John S. Dryzek, Bonnie Honig, and Anne Phillips (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 197.
39. Larry Siedentop, Inventing the Individual: The Origins of Western Liberalism (London: Allen Lane, 2014), 16–17.
40. Aaron Perzanowksi and Jason Schultz, The End of Ownership: Personal Property in the Digital Economy (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2016), 17.
41. Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations (Ware: Wordsworth, 2012), Book III, ch. ii, 382.
42. Friedrich Hayek, The Constitution of Liberty (Abingdon: Routledge, 2009), 123.
43. G. W. F. Hegel, Elements of the Philosophy of Right, translated by H. B. Nisbet (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), §§41, 73.
44. Smith, Wealth of Nations, Book V, ch. i, 709.
45. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Manifesto of the Communist Party, in Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Collected Works Vol. 6 (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1976), 500.
46. Letter from Thomas Jefferson to Isaac McPherson, 13 August 1813, cited in James Boyle, The Public Domain: Enclosing the Commons of the Mind (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2008), 19.
47. See discussion in Robert A. Dahl, A Preface to Economic Democracy (Cambridge: Polity Press in association with Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1985), 67.
48. Piketty, Capital, 471.
49. Kevin J. Delaney, ‘The Robot that Takes Your Job Should Pay Taxes, Says Bill Gates’, Quartz, 17 February 2017 <https://qz.com/911968/bill-gates-the-robot-that-takes-your-job-should-pay-taxes/> (accessed 8 December 2017).
50. Allen, Technology and Inequality, Kindle Locations 638–44.
51. Allen, Technology and Inequality, Kindle Locations 379–81.
52. Brian Merchant, ‘Fully Automated Luxury Communism’, The Guardian, 18 March 2015 <https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2015/mar/18/fully-automated-luxury-communism-robots-employment> (accessed 8 December 2017).
53. Trebor Scholz and Nathan Schneider, eds., Ours to Hack and to Own: The Rise of Platform Cooperativism, a New Vision for the Future of Work and a Fairer Internet (New York: OR Books/Counterpoint, 2017).
54. Francis Fukuyama, The Origins of Political Order: From Prehuman Times to the French Revolution (London: Profile Books, 2012), 66.
55. Parmy Olson, ‘Meet Improbable, the Startup Building the World’s Most Powerful Simulations’, Forbes, 15 June 2015 <https://www.forbes.com/sites/parmyolson/2015/05/27/improbable-startup-simulations/#6ae2da044045> (accessed 8 December 2017).
56. Kevin Kelly, The Inevitable: Understanding the 12 Technological Forces that Will Shape Our Future (New York: Viking, 2016), 110.
57. Boyle, Public Domain, 38.
58. Richard Susskind and Daniel Susskind, The Future of the Professions: How Technology Will Transform the Work of Human Experts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 307.
59. See generally Boyle, Public Domain.
60. Boyle, Public Domain, 5.
61. Boyle, Public Domain, 41.
62. Digital Millennium Copyright Act 1998.
63. Boyle, Public Domain, 11.
64. Ibid.
65. Yochai Benkler, The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2006), 96.
66. Benkler, Wealth of Networks, 49.
67. Boyle, Public Domain, 50; Perzanowksi and Schultz, End of Ownership, 135; see also Peter Drahos with John Braithwaite, Information Feudalism: Who Owns the Knowledge Economy? (London: Earthscan, 2002).
68. Brynjolfsson, McAfee, and Spence, ‘New World Order’.
69. Susskind and Susskind, Future of the Professions, 1.
70. Susskind and Susskind, Future of the Professions, 307.
71. Arun Sundararajan, The Sharing Economy: The End of Employment and the Rise of Crowd-Based Capitalism (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2017), 3–5.
72. Lauren Goode, ‘Delivery Drones Will Mean the End of Ownership’, The Verge, 8 November 2016 <https://www.theverge.com/a/verge-2021/google-x-astro-teller-interview-drones-innovation> (accessed 8 December 2017). This piece imagines the hammer located in a ‘central place’, presumably under common ownership. The general point is the same.
73. Allen, Technology and Inequality, Kindle Locations 2600–2601.
74. Allen, Technology and Inequality, Kindle Locations 2592, 2645–2647.
75. Evgeny Morozov, ‘To Tackle Google’s Power, Regulators Have to Go After its Ownership of Data’, The Guardian, 2 July 2017. <https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/jul/01/google-european-commission-fine-search-engines?CMP=share_btn_tw> (accessed 8 December 2017).
76. Hamid R. Ekbia and Bonnie A. Nardi, Heteromation, and Other Stories of Computing and Capitalism (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2017), 25.
77. Doug Laney, ‘To Facebook, You’re Worth $80.95’, CIO Journal: Wall Street Journal Blogs, 3 May 2012, cited in Ekbia and Nardi, Heteromation, 94 (original emphasis).
78. Jaron Lanier, Who Owns the Future? (London: Allen Lane, 2014), 15.
79. Lanier, Who Owns the Future? 231, 5.
80. Andreas Weigend, Data for the People: How to Make our Post-Privacy Economy Work for You (New York: Basic Books, 2017), 24.
81. Pedro Domingos, The Master Algorithm: How the Quest for the Ultimate Learning Machine Will Remake Our World (London: Allen Lane, 2015), 275.
1. Max Weber, ‘The Profession and Vocation of Politics’ in Political Writings, eds. Peter Lassman and Ronald Speirs (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 356.
2. Chris Baraniuk, ‘Google Responds on Skewed Holocaust Search Results’, BBC News, 20 December 2016. <http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-38379453> (accessed 8 December 2017).
3. Plato, The Republic, translated by Desmond Lee (London: Penguin, 2003), Book V, Part VII, 474d, 192.
4. Rosa Luxemburg, ‘The Russian Revolution’, (1918), ch. 6, translated by Bertram Wolfe (New York: Workers Age Publishers, 1940) Marxists <https://www.marxists.org/archive/luxemburg/1918/russian-revolution/ch06.htm> (accessed 9 December 2017).
5. See, e.g. Julie E. Cohen, ‘The Regulatory State in the Information Age’, Theoretical Inquiries in Law 17, no. 2 (2016): 369–414.
6. Frank Pasquale, ‘From Holocaust Denial to Hitler Admiration, Google’s Algorithm is Dangerous’, Huffington Post, 2 June 2017 <https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/holocaust-google-algorithm_us_587e8628e4b0c147f0bb9893> (accessed 8 December 2017).
7. Danielle Keats Citron and Frank Pasquale, ‘The Scored Society: Due Process For Automated Predictions’, Washington Law Review 89, no. 1 (26 March 2014) <https://digital.law.washington.edu/dspace-law/bitstream/handle/1773.1/1318/89WLR0001.pdf?sequence=1> (accessed 1 December 2017).
8. Gerald Dworkin, The Theory and Practice of Autonomy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 88.
9. Ibid.
10. Ibid.
11. Dworkin, Autonomy, 87.
12. Meg Leta Jones, Ctrl + Z: The Right to Be Forgotten (New York: New York University Press, 2016), 86.
13. See John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2003), ch. 18.
14. R. B. Friedman, ‘On the Concept of Authority in Political Philosophy’, in Authority, ed. Joseph Raz (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1990), 58.
15. Adam Entous, Craig Timberg, and Elizabeth Dwoskin, ‘Russian Operatives Used Facebook Ads to Exploit America’s Racial and Religious Divisions’, Washington Post, 25 September 2017 <https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/technology/russian-operatives-used-facebook-ads-to-exploit-divisions-over-black-political-activism-and-muslims/2017/09/25/4a011242-a21b-11e7-ade1-76d061d56efa_story.html?utm_term=.8d517bd8e72e> (accessed 8 December 2017).
16. See Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data, and repealing Directive 95/46/EC (General Data Protection Regulation).
17. Cathy O’Neil, Weapons of Math Destruction: How Big Data Increases Inequality and Threatens Democracy (New York: Crown, 2016), 211; Christian Sandvig, Kevin Hamilton, Karrie Karahalios, and Cedric Langbort, ‘Auditing Algorithms: Research Methods for Detecting Discrimination on Internet Platforms’, paper presented to ‘Data and Discrimination: Converting Critical Concerns into Productive Inquiry,’ a preconference at the 64th Annual Meeting of the International Communication Association (22 May 2014) Seattle, WA, USA <http://www-personal.umich.edu/~csandvig/research/Auditing%20Algorithms%20--%20Sandvig%20--%20ICA%202014%20Data%20and%20Discrimination%20Preconference.pdf> (accessed 11 December 2017).
18. Andrew Tutt, ‘An FDA for Algorithms’ Administrative Law Review 69, no.1 (2017): 83–123.
19. Viktor Mayer-Schönberger and Kenneth Cukier, Big Data: A Revolution that Will Transform How We Live, Work and Think (London: John Murray, 2013), 180.
20. Charles de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws, translated by Anne M. Cohler, Basia Carolyn Miller, and Harold Samuel Stone (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989) (Kindle Edition).
21. Lawrence Lessig, ‘Introduction’, in Richard Stallman, Free Software, Free Society: Selected Essays of Richard M. Stallman (Boston: GNU Press, 2002), 9.
22. On algorithmic transparency see Frank Pasquale, The Black Box Society: The Secret Algorithms that Control Money and Information (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2015).
23. See Mireille Hildebrandt, ‘Legal and Technological Normativity: More (and Less) than Twin Sisters’, Techné: Research in Philosophy and Technology 12, no. 3 (Fall, 2008): 169–83.
24. Carol Gould, Rethinking Democracy: Freedom and Social Cooperation in Politics, Economy, and Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 26.
25. Michael J. Sandel, What Money Can’t Buy: The Moral Limits of Markets (London: Penguin, 2012), 10.
26. Karl Marx, On the Jewish Question, in Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Collected Works Vol. 3 (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1975), 154.
1. Yuval Noah Harari, Homo Deus: A Brief History of Tomorrow (London: Harvill Secker, 2015), 25.
2. Elizabeth Lopatto, ‘Gene Editing Will Transform Cancer Treatment’, The Verge, 22 November 2016 <https://www.theverge.com/a/verge-2021/jennifer-doudna-crispr-gene-editing-healthcare> (accessed 8 December 2017).
3. See, e.g., Francis Fukuyama, Our Posthuman Future: Consequences of the Biotechnology Revolution (London: Profile Books, 2002); Max More and Natasha Vita-More, eds., The Transhumanist Reader: Classical and Contemporary Essays on the Science, Technology, and Philosophy of the Human Future (Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2013).
4. See, e.g. Julian Savulescu, Ruud ter Meulen, and Guy Kahane, eds., Enhancing Human Capacities (Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011); Justin Nelson et al., ‘The Effects of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) on Multitasking Throughput Capacity’, Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 29 November 2016 <https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2016.00589/full> (accessed 8 December 2017); Michael Bess, ‘Why Humankind Isn’t Ready for the Bionic Revolution’, Ozy, 24 October 2016 <http://www.ozy.com/opinion/why-humankind-isnt-ready-for-the-bionic-revolution/72555?utm_source=dd&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=10242016&variable=af3d1702308a23693509dd3317fe68e7> (accessed 8 December 2017).
5. Joel Garreau, Radical Evolution: The Promise and Peril of Enhancing Our Minds, Our Bodies—and What It Means to Be Human (New York: Broadway Books, 2005), 7.
6. Yuval Noah Harari, Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind (London: Vintage Books, 2011); Harari, Homo Deus; Wendell Wallach, A Dangerous Master: How to Keep Technology from Slipping Beyond Our Control (New York: Basic Books, 2015), 172.
7. See Michael J. Sandel, The Case Against Perfection: Ethics in the Age of Genetic Engineering (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2007), 5.
8. Eric Schmidt and Jared Cohen, The New Digital Age: Reshaping the Future of People, Nations and Business (London: John Murray, 2014), 26–7; Wallach, Dangerous Master, 141; Yiannis Laouris, ‘Reengineering and Reinventing Both Democracy and the Concept of Life in the Digital Era’, in The Onlife Manifesto: Being Human in a Hyperconnected Era, ed. Luciano Floridi (Cham: Springer, 2009), 136.
9. See Sandel, Case Against Perfection.
10. Steve Fuller and Veronika Lipińska, The Proactionary Imperative: A Foundation for Transhumanism (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), 122.
11. See e.g. Harari, Sapiens, 410; Sandel, Case Against Perfection, 15.
12. Jaron Lanier, Who Owns the Future? (London: Allen Lane, 2014), 78.
13. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), [64], 91.
14. Harari, Homo Deus, 44.
15. David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1983), 25.
16. David Miller, ‘Political Philosophy for Earthlings’, in Political Theory: Methods and Approaches, eds. David Leopold and Marc Stears (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 37.
17. H. L. A. Hart, The Concept of Law (Second Edition) (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), ch. ix.
18. See also the claims in Peter H. Diamandis and Steven Kotler, Abundance: The Future is Better than You Think (New York: Free Press, 2014).
19. Nick Bostrom, Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 22.
20. Bostrom, Superintelligence, 21.
21. Bostrom, Superintelligence, 93.
22. Bostrom, Superintelligence, 21.
23. See Ray Kurzweil, The Singularity is Near (London: Duckworth, 2010); Murray Shanahan, The Technological Singularity (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2015).
24. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Manifesto of the Communist Party, in Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Collected Works Vol. 6 (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1976), 489.
25. Thomas Jefferson to John Adams, 4 September 1823, Library of Congress <https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/jefferson/202.html> (accessed 8 December 2017).