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Académic des Sciences 57, 64–5, 180
acorn worm 13, 92, 94
amino acids 151–2, 153, 157, 159
aphid 39–40, 212
Aristotle 21–3, 25–6, 44–5, 106, 227, 228, 233, 237
arthropods 97, 182
Avery, Oswald 134–5, 136
Awgulewitsch, Alexander 179
Bacon, Francis xiii, 99–100, 172, 185
bacteriocytes 212, 213
bacteriophage lambda (virus) 147, 166–9
Baer, Karl Ernst von 36, 47, 73, 120
Bateson, William 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 172, 186, 234, 235
Darwin, reconciliation with 236, 237; Darwinism, opposes 102, 103, 227, 229, 236; death 126; emphasises importance of the monstrous 100–1, 177, 194; experiments 104–6, 107, 110, 111; genetic variation, attempts to solve origin of xii-xiii, 89–90, 96–107, 110–13; genetics, coins term 113; homeosis, advances 175; Mendelism, adopts 112; meristic variation, work on 96–8, 191; vertebrates, work on 91–2, 94–5 see also Materials for the study of Variation
Beadle, George W. 160, 169
Beagle 17, 57, 69, 70–1, 72, 74–5, 81, 106, 107
Berrill, N. J. 93
bestiary xiii, 98–100
Bible, The 31, 73, 74, 250
Boerhaave, Hermann 38
Bois-Regard, Nicolas Andry de 35, 36
Bonnet, Charles 38–42, 43, 46, 48, 170
Boveri, Theodor 123–4
Boyle, Robert 29
Bragg, Lawrence 136, 137, 168
Bragg, William 136, 137, 168
bread mould 160, 169, 171
Bridges, Calvin B. 127
Brooks, William Keith 94, 114
Brünn Society for the Study of Natural Science 107, 111
Buchnem (bacteria) 212–13
Buffon, George-Louis Leclerc Comte de 85, 86, 113, 124, 125, 126, 143, 144–5
butterfly 106
California Institute of Technology (Caltech) 127, 176
Cambridge University 69, 91, 137, 138, 143
cell theory:
birth of 44–7; division of cell 46–7; ingredients of cell 46; mitochondria, origin of 214–16; multicellular organisms, birth of 217–19; nucleus, origin and elaboration of 213–14, 215; origin of cell 46–7, 214; preformation, effect upon 47; protoplasm 46; recombination 121–7; sperm or ova cell division 121; term ‘cell’ coined 45; unicellular states 44–5
Charles I, King 24
Charles X, King 57
chromosomes:
alleles 122, 152, 176; behaviour 120–30; birth 121; chiasmata 121, 122, 123; identifying the substance of 131–52; linkage groups 117–19, 125, 126; meiosis 121–7; numbers in different species 120–1; recombination 121–7
‘chromosomes in heredity, The’ (Sutton) 124
Cleopatra 22
cloning 247, 249
Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory 116
College of Physicians 24
Columbia University 113, 115, 127, 137
Fly Room 115–16, 176
Considérations sur les corps organises (Bonnet) 40, 48
cosmetic surgery 245
Crick, Francis xi, 138, 139, 140, 142, 143, 144, 145–6, 148, 150, 155, 161
Cromwell, Oliver 24
crustaceans, evolution of 182–3
Cuvier, Georges 57–65, 68, 73, 80, 98, 180
Dalton, John 43
Darwin, Charles 91, 93, 106, 107, 124, 127, 143, 228
anecdotal style 102; Bateson challenges 94, 98, 100–1, 103, 175; Bateson, reconciliation with 236–7; Beagle voyage 69–72, 75; death 111; effect of theories on modern biology xiii-xiv ; effect of theories on science of the day 87–8, 94, 98, 100–1; gemmules, venture into 86–7, 113; Goethe, relationship to 57; inheritors 102, 114; life 65, 67–9; natural selection, elegance of 82–3; natural selection, influences of others upon idea of 61, 73, 74, 76, 77–9, 227; natural selection, publication of first paper 75–83; nature-philosophy, reaction to 227, 233–4; pangenesis, theory of 86–7; political and religious views 72–3, 77–9; popularity wanes 115; theory of evolution, missing ingredients of 145–6; variation, accepts as the engine of change 17, 78–80; variation, links transmutation and evolution to 73, 74, 79, 80, 195; variation, natural selection fails to explain origin of 83–4, 89–90, 104; ‘warm little pond’ 208; see also On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, Or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life
Darwin, Elizabeth Anne 77
Darwin, Erasmus 68
De la generation des vers dans le corps de I’homme (‘An Account of the Breeding of Worms in Human Bodies’) (Bois-Regard) 35
De la recherché de la vérité (On the Search for Truth) (Malebranche) 30, 31
De Vries, Hugo 111–12, 113, 116, 123–4, 143, 144
Descartes, Réné 30
disease and disorders, genetic:
albinism 159; alkaptonuria 156–9; cystic fibrosis 153; dormant 166–7; Duchenne muscular dystrophy 153; medical response to 153, 156–9, 166–8, 243–5; phenylketonuria 156–9; skin cancer 167–8
Dissertatio epistolica de formatione pulli in ovo (‘The Formation of the Chicken in the Egg’) (Malpighi) 29, 30
DNA 217, 233, 237
Alu 202–3, 205; deoxyribose phosphate 138–9; enzymes and 157; four base construction 133–4, 138–40; generational transfer of 142–3; Hoxgene 174, 179, 181; identified as genetic material 134–8; ingredients of 133; junk 201–6, 210, 220–1, 246; LINEs 201–5; mutation 143–5; nucleotides 141; operator 163–4, 167, 189; path between organism and 165; phosphorus content 135–6; purine 139–40; pyrimidine 140; reading 148–55; sequencing 166, 226, 241; SINEs 202–5; structure xi, 136, 137–55; T4 bacteriophage 146–9; triplet of bases standing for single amino acids 146, 148–55; ultraviolet light, sensitivity to 167–8; Watson and Crick double helix 137–52, 155
Dobzhansky, Theodosius 127, 234
Double Helix, The (Watson) 138
E. coli 146–7, 148, 161, 163, 165, 168, 169, 190, 212
Early Theories of Sexual Generation (Cole) 85
echinoderms 13
Einstein, Albert 236
embryo, human:
amniotic cavity 6; blastocyst 5–6, 9; chorionic cavity 6; comparative embryology 11–14, 66; development of x, 3–13, 18–19; differences between eggs and 26; ectoderm 7, 8, 10, 18, 171; efficiency of 9; egg mythology and 20–1; endoderm7, 8, 9, 10, 171; fertilization 26–7, gap gene mutation 185, 194; gastrulation 7; germinal disc 6, 11, 18, 27; historical evolution, connection with xii, 10–14, 56–7; implantation 6; maternal-effect mutation 185; menstrual blood 22; mesoderm 7–9, 171; morula 5; neural crest 8, 12; neural groove 8; neural tube 171; notochord7, 8, 11, 12–14, 171; pair-rule gene mutation 185, 194; pharyngeal arches 12–14; placenta 6; point at which an embryo becomes a life, problem of 7–19; primitive streak 7; primordial germ cells 19, 171; regulatory genes of 170–2; segment-polarity mutation 185; screening 247; sex organs, development of 19, 171; somites 8, 171; speed of development 9; spinal cord 11; yolk sac 6, 9, 10, 18, 171; zygote 5, 9, 17
English Civil War 24
enzymes:
beta-galactosidase 161, 162, 163–4, 165, 169, 190; function 157, 158–9; genetic mutation, role in 158, 159–60; homogentisate 1, 2-dioxygenase 157, 158–9; phenylalanine hydroxylase 158–9, 165; substance of 157–8
epigensis 29, 39, 39, 48, 233
Escherichia coli 146
Essay on the Principle of Population (Malthus) 76
European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg 184
evolution, human 66–90
bacterial evolution and 209–18; cell theory illuminates see cell theory; Darwin’s theory of see Darwin; early theories of 1–65; embryology, connection with see embryo, human; genetic see genome, human and gene; insect 182–3 see also fruit fly 182–3; Lamarck begins modern idea of 61; micro 235–6; mutation and variation see genetic mutation and genetic variation; nature-philosophy, connection with see nature-philosophy; network view of genome illuminates see genome, human, network view; preformation, view of see preformation; sexual 196 see also embryo, human; vertebrates and 91–103
Exercitationes de generatione animalium (‘On the Generation of Animals’) (Harvey) 23, 24, 27
experiments, small number of species selected for 105–7, 111
Fabricius, Hieronymous 23, 25, 26–7, 29, 30, 39, 42
Fitzroy, Robert 69, 70, 71
Franklin, Rosalind Elise 137, 139, 142–3, 147, 168
fresh-water polyp 38–9
frog, African 105
fruit fly 105–6, 115, 144, 160
bric-a-brac gene 186–7; chromosomes, number of 121; development genes 184; engrailed gene 187, 188, 189, 190; Hox cluster 177–9, 181–3; mutations 177, 184–6, 196; number of genes 218–19; wingless gene 187, 188, 189, 190, 193; segment-polarity model 188–91; variation 116–19, 186–7, 196
Galapagos Islands 70, 71–2, 78, 80
Galileo 34
Galton, Francis 86, 102
Garcia-Fernandez, Jordi 180
Garrod, Archibald 156, 157, 160, 169
Garstang, Walter 93
Gaskell, Walter 93–4
Gasking, Elizabeth 31, 43
genes:
and traits, differences between 154–5, 160; ANT-P (fly) 177; collinearity 177–8, 183; Deformed 179, 183; species differentiation 178–85; embryonic development, role in 184–6; evolution of 180–3; first recognised as a unit of inheritance 160; FOXP2 222–6; gap genes 185, 194; homeosis and 183; Hox 174–87; Urn 1 173, 175–6, 194; maternal-effect 185; mutations 173–7, 184–5; network view of 155, 156–72; number of human 180–1, 201; operon 161–72, 177; pair-rule 185, 194; Pax 175; physical nature of 113, 135; plant 178–9; reading process 148–50; recessive traits 156–60; regulatory 161–72; repressor 163–72, 190; segment-polarity 185; structural 162–3
genetics:
Bateson coins term 112–13; birth of 119–20, 123–4; cytologists early investigations into 119–20, 123, 124, 233
genetic diseases and disorders see diseases and disorders, genetic
genetic mutation:
bithorax complex (fly) 176–7; chemically induced 116–18; embryonic 186–7; enzymes and 157–60; human 154–5, 155–60; fruit fly 116–17, 176–7; historical records of xiii, 98–100; homeosis and 174--5, 177, 178; mechanism for 152–5; network genetics and 160–72; plant 178–9; regulatory genes and 172, 173–87
genetic variation 14–17
Bateson attempts to solve nature of xii-xiii; Bateson challenges Darwin’s theories of gradual change 94–103, 104–6; biometricians study 102; chemically induced 116–18; Darwin bases natural selection on xii, 17, 73, 74, 78, 79, 80, 195; Darwin fails to prove generation of 83–6, 89; demarcation of species, problem of 17; discontinuous 100–3, 104–6; genes and traits, distinction between 154–5; intracellular pangenesis 111 - 12, 123–4; Mendelism 108–11, 112–13, 123–4, 125, 126; meristic 97–8; origin of 67, 71–3; recessive traits 156–60; regulatory genes and 172–99; toleration of networks as explanation for 195–9
genetic modification (GM) of crops xv, 248–9
genome, human:
bacterial genome evolution 209–18; chimpanzee, genome differences 240–2; chromosome, function see chromosome; code, solving structure of 137–52; cytologists investigate 119–20, 124; distance of each gene from any other 119; embryo growth see embryo, human; eukaryotes, first 213–16; eukaryotes, sequencing of 217, 218; evolutionary inheritance of 9–10, 15, 56–7, 66, 201–7, 212, 222; first maps 119; genes and traits, distinction between 154–5; increase in complexity 238–9; inherited disease and 153–4; junk DNA 201–6, 212, 220; length ix; linkage groups 117–19, 125, 126; main function ix-x; mitochondria, origin of 214–16; modern cell born 214; mutation see genetic mutation; natural selection, properties united in theory of 83; nucleus, origin and elaboration of 213–14, 215; number of genes in 201, 219–20; number of genes in relation to complexity of species 220–1; prospects for modification xv, 243–50; recessive traits 156–60; RNA as initial carrier of human genetic material 208, 209; sequencing 166; sequencing, first genomes to undergo 207; transition to self-awareness, role in 222–6, 239–43; unique 218, 222–6, 239–43; variation see genetic variation
genome, network view of:
creationists argue against 235–6; history of discovery 156–72; hox cluster and 177–87; internet as model for 193–4; microevolution and 235–6; operon, genome as 161–72; population genetics, compared to 234–5; segment-polarity model 188–94, 230; speciation and 230–3; theory of 155, 194–9, 200–1, 228–30; variation, explains 194–9, 229–30
Gilbert, Walter 165–6
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von xii, 53–7, 62, 65, 67, 73, 87, 96, 98, 101, 170, 175, 178, 180, 191, 236
Gratzer, Walter 142, 143
grasshopper 124
Haeckel, Ernst 76, 87
Haldane, J.B.S. 91
Haller, Albrecht von 38, 39, 43, 48, 114, 170
Hartsoeker, Nicolas 33, 36–7
Harvard University 166 Harvey, William 23–7, 28, 29, 47, 53, 84, 101, 143, 227, 233
Henslow, John Stevens 69, 70, 71
Highmore, Nathaniel 24, 34
History of Embryology (Needham) 21
History of Generation, The (Highmore) 24
HIV-1 202, 243
Hohenheim, Theophrastus von 37 see also Paracelsus 84, 99, 172
Holland 33–4
Holland, Peter 180
Hooke, Robert 29, 36, 45
Hooker, Joseph 81
horse roundworm 123
house mouse 220–1
Hull, David 82
Huygens, Constantijn 33
Huygens, Chistiaan 33, 34–5
Innocent XII, Pope 28
Investigations into Generation (Gasking) 31
IVF (in vitro fertilization) xv, 247, 248–9
Jacob, Francis 161–5, 169
Jacobs, Donna 179
James I, King 24, 179
jellyfish 178
John Hopkins University 91, 94, 114
John Jones Institute 91
King’s College, London 137
Lamarck, Jean Baptiste de 61, 83, 89, 114–15, 235
lancelets 11, 12, 13, 92, 180
larval lamprey 14
Laue, Max von 136–7
Leeuwenhoek, Antony van 33, 34, 40, 44, 85
Lewis, Edward B. 176, 177, 183, 187
Linnean Society 82, 93, 94
Lwoff, Andre 165
Lyell, Charles 74, 75, 76, 79, 80
Malebranche, Nicholas 30
Malpighi, Marcello 28–9, 32, 34, 39, 47
Malthus, Thomas 76–7, 78
Materials for the study of variation (Bateson) xiii, 89–90, 95–6, 98, 100, 102–3, 104, 110, 174, 184, 195, 223
Matthaei, Heinrich 150, 151
Maupertuis, Pierre-Louis Moreau de 85
McGinnis, William 179
Medical University of South Carolina 179
Mémoires sur les insects (Reaumur) 39
Mendel, Gregor 106–11, 112–13, 115, 117–18, 119, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 143, 144, 146, 148, 156, 175, 176
microscope:
invention 3, 4, 24; science (microscopy) 28–9, 33–4, 120
Miescher, Johann Friedrich 131, 132, 133, 135
Monod, Jacques 161–5, 169, 179
Monsters and Marvels (Pare) 99, 172
Morgan, Thomas Hunt 91, 113, 114, 115–16, 119, 124–5, 126–7, 134–5, 144, 146, 160, 170, 175, 176, 195, 227, 234
Muller, Hermann Joseph 127
Museum of Natural History, France 58
mycoplasmas 209–12
Natural History Museum 15
natural selection:
bible, clashes with 73–4; birth of idea xii 71–3; Darwin’s first paper on 80–2; destiny, contains no element of 76–7, 88–9; destiny, perverted as an instrument of progressive 87–9, 101; elegance 83; endurance 82; Lyell’s influence upon 74, 75, 76, 79, 80, 81; Malthus influence upon 76–8; modern science, effects of theory upon xiii-xiv; popularity, inability to prove origin of variation effects 89–90; rehabilitation in ‘modern synthesis’ 195; superabundance 76; term 75; time scale 73–4; uniformitarian opposition to 74; variation, dependence upon existence of 78–9, 83–4, 89, 104, 195
Nature 142, 143
nature-philosophy xii, 52, 67
depictions of practitioners xiv; embryology and evolution, brings forth first connections between 56–7, 66; Goethe and 53–7; link with modern theory of evolution 61, 63, 66, 68, 73, 75, 76, 80, 83, 87, 98, 101, 145; scala naturae 56; vis essentalis, 52–3, 56
Needham, Joseph 21
Newton, Isaac 236
Nirenberg, Marshall 150, 151
Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine
1933 126
1946 127
1965 165
1980 166
1995 183
nucleic acid 132–3
Nusslein-Volhard, Christiane 184, 185, 186, 187–8, 194, 230
Odell, Garrett M. 188, 192–3, 226, 229–30
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, Or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life (Darwin) xiii, 79, 82, 91, 93, 98, 127
Onania 37
ova 121–7
Ovary of Eve: Egg and Sperm and Preformation, The (Pinto-Correia) xv, 35
Owen, Richard 36
Padian, Kevin 204
Paracelsus 84, 99, 172
Paré, Ambroise 172, 185, 186
parthenogenesis 40
Pasteur Institute, Paris 161
Pauling, Linus 138
Payne, Fernandus 114–15, 116, 144
Pearson, Karl 102
Philosophie zoologiaue 61
Pliny the Elder 21
pneumococcus bacteria 134–5
Poulton, Edward 102
preformationism xi, 49–50, 227, 233
birth of 27–8, 30–2; Bonnet’s justification of 39–48; death of 43–4, 46–7, 48–53; depictions of practitioners xiv; regeneration and 39; spermism and 36–8
Principles of Geology (Lyell) 74, 76
proteins:
amino acids, relation to 132–3; as a carrier of genetic information 133–4; chromosomes and 132; collagen 165; enzymes and 157; keratin 165; nucleic acid and 132; polyphenylalanine 150; repressor 163–6; term coined 132; versatility 132
Ptashne, Mark 166, 168
Réaumur, Rene-Antoine Ferchault de 39–40
RNA (ribonucleic acid) 149, 202
as initial carrier of genetic material in human ancestors 207–8; function 149–55; genomes 207; polyuridylic acid 150; transfer 151, 162; uracil 149, 150, 151; versatility 207
Rockefeller Institute Hospital 134
Röntgen, Wilhelm 136
Rothschild Zoological Museum 15
Rothschild, Lionel Walter 15
roundworm 218
Royal Horticultural Society, London 112
Royal Society, London 29, 40
Saint-Hilaire, Etienne Geoffroy 57–8, 59, 61–3, 64–5, 67, 68, 80, 91, 96, 98, 172, 175, 180, 191
Schleiden, Matthias 45–6
Schwann, Theodore 45–6
sea squirts 11, 12, 13, 92
Selfish Gene, The (Dawkins) 234
semen, early experiments with 22, 25, 26–7, 42–3
Seven Years War 48–9
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) 243
shrimp 182
Soret, Frédéric 57
Spallanzani, Lazzaro 38, 42–3, 46, 85, 91
sperm 26, 27
as parasites 35–6; birth 171; cell theory proves individuality of cell structure 44–5; discovery of 33, 34–5; meiosis (cell division) 121; preformation, link with 36–8; recombination 121–7; spermism 36, 37–8; term coined 36; unicellular structure discovered 45–7
Stanford University, California 160
Stebbing, Thomas 94
Steiner, Rudolph xii
Stewart, Robert 69
Stock, Gregory 246
Sturtevant, Alfred H. 127
Sutton, Walter 124
Swammerdam, Jan 30, 32, 42, 47
T4 bacteriophage 146, 148
Tatum, Edward L. 160, 169
teleost fish 181
Theoria generationis (‘Theory of Generation’) 48
Trembley, Abraham 38–9, 170
University of Bologna 28
University of California, Berkeley 204
University of Washington, Seattle 188, 190
Voyage of the Beagle, The (Darwin) 70–1
Wallace, Alfred Russell 80–1, 82
Watson, James 137, 138, 139, 140, 142, 143, 144, 145–6, 155
Weldon, Walter 102
Wieschaus, Eric 184, 185, 186, 187, 194, 230
Wilkins, Maurice 137, 142
Wolff, Caspar Friedrich 48–52, 53, 55, 56, 88–9
X-rays 116, 136, 137, 138, 143, 168
Yale University 179
zebra fish 181