10: MORAL FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY

    1. Personal correspondences. Out of respect for the victims and families of the victims of these crimes, I will give no further identifying information so as not to give any personal satisfaction to these prisoners of seeing their names or accounts in print.

    2. Harris, Sam. 2012. Free Will. New York: Free Press, 5.

    3. Libet, Benjamin. 1985. “Unconscious Cerebral Initiative and the Role of Conscious Will in Voluntary Action.” Behavior and Brain Sciences, 8, 529–566.

    4. Haynes, J. D. 2011. “Decoding and Predicting Intentions.” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1224, no. 1, 9–21.

    5. Fried, I., R. Mukamel, and G. Kreimann. 2011. “Internally Generated Preactivation of Single Neurons in Human Medial Frontal Cortex Predicts Volition.” Neuron, 69, 548–562. See also Haggard, P. 2011. “Decision Time for Free Will.” Neuron, 69, 404–406.

    6. Kurzban, Robert. 2012. Why Everyone (Else) Is a Hypocrite. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    7. Ultimatum game research and applications are reviewed here: Camerer, Colin. 2003. Behavioral Game Theory. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    8. I consider the fate of Homo economicus in a book-length analysis: Shermer, Michael. 2007. The Mind of the Market. New York: Times Books.

    9. Dennett, Daniel. 2003. Freedom Evolves. New York: Viking.

  10. Brass, Marcel, and Patrick Haggard. 2007. “To Do or Not to Do: The Neural Signature of Self-Control.” Journal of Neuroscience, 27, no. 34, 9141–9145.

  11. Ibid., 9143.

  12. Ibid., 9144.

  13. Libet, Benjamin. 1999. “Do We Have Free Will?” Journal of Consciousness Studies, 6, no. 809, 47–57.

  14. For a discussion of how the brain operates to make economic decisions that feel “free” to the decision maker see Glimcher, P. W. 2003. Decisions, Uncertainty, and the Brain: The Science of Neuroeconomics. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. See also Steven Pinker’s excellent discussion on free will and determinism in Pinker, Steven. 2002. The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature. New York: Viking, 175.

  15. Dennett, Daniel. 2003.

  16. Scheb, John M., and John M. Scheb II. 2010. Criminal Law and Procedure, 7th ed. Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning.

  17. Hare, Robert. 1991. Without Conscience: The Disturbing World of the Psychopaths Among Us. New York: Guilford Press; Baron-Cohen, Simon. 2011. The Science of Evil: On Empathy and the Origins of Cruelty. New York: Basic Books; Dutton, Kevin. 2012. The Wisdom of Psychopaths: What Saints, Spies, and Serial Killers Teach Us About Success. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux.

  18. Personal interview, July 23, 2012.

  19. Quoted in Dutton, 2012.

  20. Fallon, James. 2013. The Psychopath Inside: A Neuroscientist’s Personal Journey into the Dark Side of the Brain. New York: Current, 1.

  21. Ibid., 190.

  22. Ibid., 206.

  23. Dutton, Kevin. 2012, 200.

  24. www.heroicimagination.org

  25. Dutton, 2012, 222.

  26. goo.gl/VYaGA

  27. UPI press release. 1966. “Sniper in Texas U. Tower Kills 12, Hits 33.” New York Times, August 2, 1.

  28. Letter dictated by Whitman on Sunday, July 31, 1966, 6:45 p.m. In the collections of the Austin History Center. goo.gl/muBEJ8

  29. Report to the Governor, Medical Aspects, Charles J. Whitman Catastrophe. 1966. Whitman Archives. Austin American-Statesman, September 8.

  30. Heatly, Maurice. 1966. “Whitman Case Notes. Whitman Archives.” Austin American-Statesman, March 29.

  31. Raine, Adrian. 2013. The Anatomy of Violence: The Biological Roots of Crime. New York: Pantheon.

  32. Ibid., 309–310.

  33. Ibid., 67.

  34. Ibid., 69.

  35. Ibid., 326.

  36. Kiehl, Kent A., et al. 2001. “Limbic Abnormalities in Affective Processing by Criminal Psychopaths as Revealed by Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging.” Biological Psychiatry, 50, 677–684.

  37. Aharoni, Eyal, Gina Vincent, Carla Harenski, Vince Calhoun, Walter Sinnott-Armstrong, Michael Gazzaniga, and Kent Kiehl. 2013. “Neuroprediction of Future Rearrest.” PNAS, 110, no. 15, 6223–6228.

  38. 2011 Global Study on Homicide. UN Office on Drugs and Crime, 63–70. goo.gl/Hz2ie

  39. Ibid., 73.

  40. Kellerman, A. L., and J. A. Mercy. 1992. “Men, Women, and Murder: Gender-Specific Differences in Rates of Fatal Violence and Victimization.” Journal of Trauma, July, 33, no. 1, 1–5. goo.gl/ie5isw

11: MORAL JUSTICE: RETRIBUTION AND RESTORATION

    1. www.nelsonmandela.org

    2. Buss, David. 2005. The Murderer Next Door: Why the Mind Is Designed to Kill. New York: Penguin.

    3. Ibid., 70.

    4. Ibid.

    5. Ibid., 106.

    6. Ibid.

    7. Ibid.

    8. Collins, Randall. 2008. Violence: A Micro-Sociological Theory. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    9. Buss, 2005.

  10. De Waal, Frans. 1982. Chimpanzee Politics: Sex and Power Among the Apes. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 203, 207.

  11. ______. 1989. Peacemaking Among Primates. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

  12. ______. 2005. Our Inner Ape. New York: Riverhead Books, 175.

  13. De Waal, Frans, and Frans Lanting. 1998. Bonobo: The Forgotten Ape. Berkeley: University of California Press; Kano, Takayoshi, and Evelyn Ono Vineberg. 1992. The Last Ape: Pygmy Chimpanzee Behavior and Econology. Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms International.

  14. De Waal, Frans B. M. 1997. “Food Transfers Through Mesh in Brown Capuchins.” Journal of Comparative Psychology, 111, 370–378.

  15. Brosnan, Sarah F., and Frans de Waal. 2003. “Monkeys Reject Unequal Pay.” Nature, 425, September 18, 297–299.

  16. Cords, M., and S. Thurnheer, 1993. “Reconciling with Valuable Partners by Long-Tailed Macaques.” Behaviour, 93, 315–325.

  17. De Waal, Frans. 1996. Good Natured: The Origins of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

  18. Koyama, N. F., and E. Palagi. 2007. “Managing Conflict: Evidence from Wild and Captive Primates.” International Journal of Primatology, 27, no. 5, 1235–1240.
     Koyama, N. F., C. Caws, and F. Aureli. 2007. “Interchange of Grooming and Agonistic Support in Chimpanzees.” International Journal of Primatology, 27, no. 5, 1293–1309.

  19. I document the evidence for this thesis in The Science of Good and Evil, and the logic of why actually believing you are a moral person rather than faking it was worked out by Robert Trivers in Trivers, Robert. 2011. The Folly of Fools: The Logic of Deceit and Self-Deception in Human Life. New York: Basic Books.

  20. In support of this claim see de Waal, Frans. 2008. “How Selfish an Animal? The Case of Primate Cooperation.” In Paul Zak, ed., Moral Markets: The Critical Role of Values in the Economy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

  21. Brosnan, Sarah F. 2008. “Fairness and Other-Regarding Preferences in Nonhuman Primates.” In Paul Zak, ed., Moral Markets: The Critical Role of Values in the Economy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

  22. Henrich, Joseph, Robert Boyd, Sam Bowles, Colin Camerer, Herbert Gintis, Richard McElreath, and Ernst Fehr. 2001. “In Search of Homo economicus: Experiments in 15 Small-Scale Societies.” American Economic Review, 91, no. 2, 73–79.

  23. Henrich, Joseph, Robert Boyd, Sam Bowles, Colin Camerer, Ernst Fehr, and Herbert Gintis. 2004. Foundations of Human Sociality. New York: Oxford University Press, 8.

  24. Gintis, Herbert, Samuel Bowles, Robert Boyd, and Ernst Fehr. 2005. Moral Sentiments and Material Interests. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
     Boyd, Robert, and Peter J. Richerson. 2005. The Origin and Evolution of Cultures. New York: Oxford University Press.

  25. Boehm, Christopher. 2012. Moral Origins: The Evolution of Virtue, Altruism, and Shame. New York: Basic Books.

  26. There are critics of this assumption—usually cultural anthropologists and sociologists who place a much stronger emphasis on the role of learning, culture, and the environment than I think is perhaps warranted by the evidence—but almost no one today denies that we have an evolved nature, and that facts about this nature may be gleaned from these numerous sources.

  27. Figure based on table III in Boehm, 2012, 196; see also table 1 in Boehm, Christopher. 2014. “The Moral Consequences of Social Selection.” Behaviour, 151, 167–183.

  28. Lee, Richard B. 1979. The!Kung San: Men, Women, and Work in a Foraging Society. New York: Cambridge University Press, 394–395.

  29. Boehm, 2012, 201. Boehm also makes the argument for group selection—in addition to individual selection—in his book, which I think is unnecessary in making his case for the evolution of altruism and the problem of free riding and bullying. The group may seem coherent and cohesive, but it is still a group of individuals, per my discussion of the issue in chapter 1.

  30. Ibid., 201.

  31. Bentham, J. 1789/1948. The Principles of Morals and Legislation. New York: Macmillan.

  32. goo.gl/iUSguA

  33. Cooney, Mark. 1997. “The Decline of Elite Homicide.” Criminology, 35, 381–407.

  34. Transcript of Goetz’s videotape confession available here: goo.gl/oRHSxJ See also the documentary film “The Confessions of Bernhard Goetz”: goo.gl/iLYt5W

  35. Fletcher, George P. 1999. A Crime of Self-Defense: Bernhard Goetz and the Law on Trial. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Fletcher writes: “There is a way to deal with the problem as a moral question. The reason that Goetz was charged with a crime of self-defense was precisely that the law enforcement agencies and the district attorney felt strongly that he had overreacted, that he was blameworthy for having overreacted, and that he ought to be punished.” Quoted in the documentary film The Confessions of Bernhard Goetz: goo.gl/iLYt5W

  36. Quoted in the documentary film The Confessions of Bernhard Goetz: goo.gl/iLYt5W

  37. Black, Donald. 1983. “Crime as Social Control.” American Sociological Review, 48, 34–45.

  38. MacRae, Allan, and Howard Zehr. 2011. “Right Wrongs the Maori Way.” Yes! Magazine, July 8. goo.gl/PBd67u

  39. New Zealand Ministry of Justice. “Child Offending and Youth Justice Processes.” goo.gl/m7HYht

  40. McElrea, Fred W. M. 2012. “Twenty Years of Restorative Justice in New Zealand.” January 10. goo.gl/24mtP

  41. goo.gl/JrPmw6 See as well this from the New Zealand Ministry of Justice: goo.gl/m7HYht And here a judge talks about restorative justice in New Zealand: goo.gl/24mtP

  42. MacRae and Zehr. 2011. “Right Wrongs the Maori Way.”

  43. McCann, Michael. 2007. “No Easy Answers.” SI.Com. goo.gl/lWkvwU

  44. The collection process became even more problematic when O. J. was subsequently incarcerated for another crime in which he illegally entered a hotel room brandishing a gun to retrieve what he said were stolen items from his football memorabilia collection. He was charged with criminal conspiracy, kidnapping, assault, robbery, and use of a deadly weapon. This too was considered to be a crime against the state—instead of the holders of said memorabilia—and for taking the law into his own hands Simpson was sent to prison, where he remains to this day. See State of Nevada v. O. J. Simpson et al. goo.gl/wHkBc8

  45. Zehr, Howard, and Ali Gohar. 2003. The Little Book of Restorative Justice. Intercourse, PA: Good Books, 10–14. Available online as a PDF: goo.gl/ssvHRl

  46. Diamond, Jared. 2012. The World Until Yesterday: What Can We Learn from Traditional Societies? New York: Viking.

  47. Ibid.

  48. Ibid.

  49. Woolf and Riley are featured together in a short film titled The Woolf Within. goo.gl/NVMRt

  50. goo.gl/u1VSma