LAND & PEOPLE
LAND & PEOPLE |
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One of the largest countries in Europe, Spain is situated on the Iberian Peninsula, which it shares with two other countries: Portugal on the west and and the Principality of Andorra to the north. The Pyrenees run across the neck of the peninsula and form Spain’s border with France. The large central plateau, the Meseta, is bordered and divided by several mountain ranges. Madrid, situated at the geographical center, at an average altitude of 2,100 feet (655 m), is the highest capital city in Europe.
Although Spain has rivers that are numbered among the longest in Europe (the Tajo, Ebro, and Duero), large areas of the country such as the Levante area in the southeast and most of the Canary Islands suffer from a scarcity of water. Linked to this problem is erosion, with millions of tons of topsoil being blown away each year. However, not all of Spain is dry or barren. The deep inlets of Galicia, the Cantabrian coast, and the snowy highlands of the Pyrenees are just a few examples of Spain’s variety of landscape.
From a tourist’s point of view, the coastline is immensely important. Spain has over two thousand beaches, many of them of great beauty. One out of six of the “Blue flags” given worldwide by the World Trade Organization to beaches of outstanding quality and high environmental standard is in Spain. They are grouped together under famous names corresponding to their position, such as the Costa Brava, Costa Dorada, Costa de Azahar, Costa Blanca, Mar Menor, Costa del Sol, Costa de la Luz, Rias Bajas and Rias Altas, Costa Cantábrica, Costa Canaria, and Costa Balear.
The total area of national territory is 195,350 square miles (505,955 sq. km), which includes the Canary and Balearic Islands and the two small enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla in Northern Africa. There is an incredible natural diversity to be enjoyed. As the British naturalists Chapman and Buck commented in their book Wild Spain (1893): “In no other land can there be found, within a similar area, such extremes of scene and climate.”
Although Spain lies in the temperate zone, its mountainous nature means that there are three differing climates: generally, wet, dry, and arid.
The wet climate (Oceanic and Mountainous), with more than 30 inches (800 mm) of precipitation per year occurs along the northwestern coast of Galicia and inland to Cataluña, and includes the northeastern coastal area that borders with France. These areas show only slight variations in temperature, with mild winters and cool summers. A cloudy sky and frequent rainfall are common, although less so during the summer months.
About 72 percent of the country has a dry climate (Mediterranean and Continental), receiving between 11 and 30 inches (300–800 mm) of precipitation per year. It is characteristic of the Levante area, the coast of Cataluña and most of the Balearic archipelago; the central plateau, and the valleys of the rivers Ebro, in the northeast, and Guadalquivir in Andalucía. Summer in these areas brings a blazing sun and an intense blue sky, with occasional, short-lived, local thunderstorms.
The arid climate, defined by less than 11 inches (300 mm) of rainfall per year is found in the some areas of the Levante, on the coast of Murcia (in the southeast) and in some interior areas.
The Canary Islands have a subtropical, Atlantic climate, which is generally dry except for the mountainous areas. They enjoy an almost constant temperature of just over 68°F (20°C), with only minor variations between seasons.
Spanish people’s loyalty to their country is especially evident when they travel or live abroad. Generally, they value their culture, gastronomy, climate, and the people enormously. Together, they represent what is meaningful in life for the average Spanish person. Therefore, you might be surprised to see a Spaniard passionately discussing and defending his own region against another. This is largely the result of the different perceptions the Spanish have about their history and the way it influenced their particular region.
There is, of course, no such thing as a typical Spaniard, but as in any other culture regional stereotypes abound: the entrepreneurial and greedy Catalans of the northeast, the hot-blooded and lively Andalusians of the south, and the good-natured and picaresque Castilians from the central Meseta. It is possible to distinguish people from different regions by paying attention to their accent, linguistic expressions, and their mannerisms. In the past, mountain ranges hindered communications, different climates influenced local character, and divisions arose that still have not been overcome. Long before the Catholic monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella united the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon by marriage and overthrew Muslim rule in 1492, there were various kingdoms within the peninsula, and Castilian dominance, for them, meant only a reduction in power. Spain was united in name only. The Golden Age did indeed bring great riches to the country, but not to the whole country, for most of the wealth was channeled to Castile or remained in the ports. Catalonia, which had been a major trading power, was at first not even allowed to trade with America.
The Basque Country and Catalonia fought hard for autonomy, which they finally received in 1978. Galicia, Andalucía, Asturias, and Cantabria followed, and today, there are nineteen autonomous regions that make up Spain. Catalonia sees itself as more modern and cosmopolitan than the rest of the country. Some citizens and politicians often use this perception to create a distance between the Catalans and the rest of Spain, going as far as promoting Catalonia as a separate state.
Differences in climate, traditions, and the character of the people in some regions, highlighted by the local language and dialects, may explain an initial feeling of disorientation that a Spaniard might experience when moving to a different region.
In general, however, the modern Spaniard is proud of his country. When Franco died in 1975 he left Spain weary of dictatorship and hungry for democracy and a place in the international community. In 1986 Spain became a member of both the European Union and NATO.
It is impossible to do justice in a few pages to Spain’s rich and varied history. What follows is merely a brief synopsis.
Early Inhabitants
The Iberian Peninsula has been occupied for hundreds of thousands of years. Human bones from the Middle Pleistocene (at least 280,000 years old) have been found in the Cueva Mayor (“Main Cave” at Atapuerca, Burgos) and have helped to document human evolution in Europe.
The most advanced people living on the peninsula in classical antiquity were known as the Iberians. They lived along the Mediterranean and southern Atlantic coasts, and are now thought to be natives of the peninsula. The Celts lived mainly in the north and west except for the western Pyrenees, where the Basques lived, whose origin still remains uncertain.
The Greeks came to Spain, but had only two settlements, in the northeast. Many of the Greek artifacts found in Spain were actually passed on by Phoenician middlemen. In the ninth century BCE the Phoenicians founded their first settlement at Cadiz and established themselves along the southeastern Mediterranean coast. They traded oil and wine for silver, but also brought religious ideas, skilled metalworking, and literacy to the people. This period, sometimes known as the “orientalization” of prehistoric Spain, had an important impact on Iberian culture. The number of colonies diminished toward the end of the sixth century; those remaining were closer to Carthage, the most important of the Phoenicians’ western Mediterranean settlements. However, by 218 BCE the Carthaginians, under Hannibal, had pushed far up the peninsula and brought upon themselves the wrath of the Roman Empire.
The Romans
The Romans landed in Ampurias, Gerona (Catalonia) in the second century BCE to destroy the power of the Carthaginians and make Spain part of their empire. It took them two hundred years to subdue the people. They constructed roads, irrigation systems, and engineering marvels. Some of the impressive examples—such as the aqueduct at Segovia, the bridge over the Tagus at Alcántara, or the amphitheater at Mérida—remain to this day. Spain’s current language, religion, and laws stem from this period. Some of the upper classes in the towns and cities of Spain formed part of the elite of the Roman Empire. They included the philosopher and writer Seneca, the poet Martial, and several members of the Roman Senate, including Trajan and Hadrian, who later became emperors.
The Visigoths arrived in the fifth century CE, but the last Ibero-Roman strongholds did not fall until the seventh century CE.
The Arab Influence
In the year 711, Moors from northern Africa sailed across the mere eight miles (12.8 km) that separated them from Spain and, within a few years, had pushed the Visigoths right back to the Cantabrian Mountains in the north of the country. They remained in Spain for over eight hundred years, a time of tolerance when Muslims, Christians, and Jews lived together in peace. Medieval Spain was the only multiracial and multireligious country in Western Europe, and much of the development of Spanish civilization in religion, literature, art, and architecture during the later Middle Ages stemmed from this fact. Many of the beautiful buildings built by the Moors—such as Seville’s Giralda Tower and Alcázar and the magical Alhambra of Granada—still enchant us today.
Different emirates rose and fell during this time. One example, the Caliphate of Córdoba, produced a brilliant civilization that lasted just over a hundred years before splitting into a number of rival princedoms. The court culture embraced fields as varied as historiography, calligraphy, poetry, music, botany, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, ivory carving, and metalwork. The Moors stayed in Spain until 1492, although by the second half of the thirteenth century their power had been limited to the stronghold of Granada.
The Reconquista
The divisions among the Moors paralleled those occurring in Christian Spain. The country was divided into different kingdoms, which were unwilling to unite forces until the second half of the fifteenth century.
Finally, Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile united, at least on paper, their kingdoms. In practice during their reign each ruled his or her kingdom independently. The saying “Tanto monta, monta tanto, Isabel como Fernando” (“Both Isabella and Ferdinand amount to the same”), highlights the equal power of both according to their prenuptial agreement, which was very uncommon at that time. The marriage of the “Catholic Kings” led the Reconquista, or “Reconquest”, the name given to the struggle to gain back the territory lost to the “nonbelievers.”
Aided by the Inquisition they set out to free Spain from Arab domination and to achieve religious unification. Moors and Jews, who had actively contributed to the rise of an educated and commercial elite, and who held many administrative posts in Christian Spain, aroused jealousy and hatred in a population that saw itself as the defender of Christianity against the infidel.
Forcible attempts at conversion included confiscation of property, and torture, which often led to death. The Spanish Inquisition was founded in 1478 to root out heresy. After the last Moorish city, Granada, was taken, in 1492, all Jews who refused to convert to Christianity were expelled. Those who converted become subject to the Inquisition, whose role was to prevent backsliding among the “New Christians.”
During the Protestant Reformation, fear of heresy led the Church to oppose new ideas, making Spain retreat slowly into intellectual conservatism.
By 1609 the last of the Moors had left, and Spain was bereft of both agricultural and administrative expertise. However, some influence remained. Many Christians from other countries had also studied with the Moors. One example was the School of Translators founded in the twelfth century at Toledo, where Jewish, Christian, and Muslim scholars had worked side by side. The resulting translations into Latin brought this treasury of human knowledge and philosophy not only to Spain, but also to Italy and France, planting the seeds of the Renaissance.
The Golden Age
The conquest of Granada allowed Castile to concentrate major resources and effort on overseas exploration instead of on domestic conflicts. The support that Christopher Columbus received from Isabella was indicative of this new policy. In 1492, during an expedition that was meant to establish a new route to Asia, Columbus made his great discovery of America—the New World. Spain and Portugal divided the spoils between them, and almost all of South America, Central America, North America, and the Philippines were added to the Spanish possessions. By exploiting the indigenous population, gold and silver, the primary objectives of the conquistadores, flowed through into Spain in fabulous quantities. In the sixteenth century, Spain was the most important power in the world, with a huge empire, fleets on every sea, and a brilliant cultural, artistic, and intellectual life.
When Charles I (elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1519 as Charles V) came to the throne, Spain was still divided into separate kingdoms and principalities. However, by the time he abdicated in favor of his son, Philip II, in 1556, Spain was on its way to becoming a centralized and absolute monarchy, although Catalonia, Navarre, Aragon, Valencia, and the Basque Country were still allowed a considerable degree of autonomy. This shift of power within Spain led to Catalonia, the most important trading region, not receiving any share in the new markets, and it was actually prohibited from dealing with the New World. By ridding itself of both the Jews and the Catalans, Spain deprived itself of its economically most active citizens and finally had to depend on German and Italian financiers.
Very little of the American treasure seems to have been invested in the economy. Most of it was used for display by the court, to pay for imports, for the armies abroad, and to satisfy foreign creditors. Thus Spain, with all the treasure of the New World at its command, remained a poor country.
During the sixteenth century the Church enlarged its already dominant position in Spanish life, and the Spanish Inquisition reached its greatest power. At the same time the Counter Reformation sought to reclaim Protestant Europe for the Church and to raise the spiritual tone of the Catholic countries. The Jesuit order, founded by St. Ignatius Loyola, an ex-soldier, was a major force. Its missionaries went all over the world and succeeded in converting millions to Catholicism. The life of a Jesuit was one of immense risk, and thousands of priests were persecuted or killed on their mission of conversion. However, in some nations, such as India and China, the Jesuits were welcomed as men of wisdom and science.
Education was of utmost importance to the Jesuits. In nearly every major city in Europe they established schools and colleges, and for a hundred and fifty years they were leaders in European education. (Through their loyalty to papal policies, the Jesuits were later drawn into the struggle between the papacy and the Bourbon monarchies and in the middle of the eighteenth century they were expelled from many countries including Spain. In 1814 they were reestablished once more.)
It was also a truly “Golden Age” for Spanish arts and literature. The novel reached its highest level with Cervantes’ Don Quixote, which has been compared to Shakespeare’s Hamlet and Homer’s Iliad. Written to mock the popular novels of chivalry that glorified the ideals of courtesy, constancy, bravery, and loyalty, it was also considered part of the picaresque tradition (describing the adventures of a pícaro, a wandering rogue). There was a profusion of great poets, such as Garcilaso de la Vega, San Juan de la Cruz, and Luis de Góngora. The theater benefited from the many plays of Lope de Vega, Tirso de Molina, and Calderón de la Barca. Likewise, in the world of art Diego Velasquez, “El Greco” (Domenikos Theotokopoulos), Zurbarán, and Murillo were prominent artists of the time.
The Decline
With Spain, Philip II had also inherited Sicily, Naples, Sardinia, Milan, Franche-Comté, the Netherlands, and all the Spanish colonies. His reign is still credited with the phrase “El imperio en el que nunca se pone el sol” (“The empire on which the sun never sets”). However, a series of long, costly wars and revolts, capped by the defeat by the English of the “Invincible Armada” in 1588, began the steady decline of Spanish power in Europe. The nineteenth century brought invasion by Napoleon, who put his brother on the throne and started the furious conflict, referred to by the Spanish as the War of Independence and by the English as the Peninsular War. Spain ousted France, but only with the help of the British and the Portuguese. Later came the revolt and independence of most of Spain’s colonies. There were also three wars over the succession, the brief ousting of the monarchy, and the establishment of the First Republic (1873–74), when the idea of Spain as a federal state was considered. Finally, the Spanish–American War (1898) sealed its fate. Spain lost Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines to the United States, and the days of empire were over.
By the end of the nineteenth century there were deep divisions within Spanish society. The Socialist and Anarcho-Syndicalist parties began to gain a wide following among the lower classes, particularly in industrial Catalonia, rural Andalusia, and in the mining districts of Asturias. Strikes and uprisings, suppressed with great brutality, became common. The Church, which supported the landowners, aroused anticlerical feeling, which was often violent, among revolutionary, and even liberal, elements. Meanwhile, the military watched everything closely in its self-imposed role as the guardian of the core values of Spanish society.
King’s Alfonso XIII’s support of General Miguel Primo de Rivera’s military dictatorship in 1923 led to public mistrust and an overwhelming republican majority in the elections of 1931, after Primo de Rivera’s resignation in 1930. Alfonso went into exile (April 14, 1931). The government introduced a range of reforms, including autonomy for the Basque Country and Catalonia, and restrictions on the power of the Church. The conservatives feared even more changes and grouped together for the elections in 1933. Meanwhile, internal divisions among the left began to show and they ran as separate parties. They lost. The right-wing government immediately began to reverse the reforms carried out since 1931.
The Civil War
The next elections, in 1936, were won by the Popular Front, a coalition of several left-wing parties, and the reforms were reinstated once again. The conservatives immediately began to plan resistance. Rumors of a military coup led the government to transfer several high-ranking military officers to remote postings, hoping to make communication more difficult. (Francisco Franco was sent to Morocco.) Despite their efforts the conservative military rebellion took place on July 18. The organizers expected a quick victory. Instead, the civilian population took up arms in support of the government. The insurgents, or Nationalists, who soon came under the leadership of General Francisco Franco, embraced most conservative groups, notably the monarchists, most of the army officers, the clericalists, the landowners and industrialists, and the Carlists (a right-wing political movement, opposed to liberal secularism and economic and political modernism).
The right-wing rebels realized they would now have to look for outside help, and appealed to the fascist dictatorships in Italy, Germany, and Portugal, who sent supplies and men. The navy remained loyal to the government, so Hitler’s pilots began by transporting soldiers and equipment from Spanish Morocco. Their destruction the following April of the Basque city of Guernica shocked the world.
Despite almost universal support for the Republic among British intellectuals and widespread support among the working classes, the British conservative government preferred not to act. Not only did it fear a larger international fight, but it was also more in sympathy with the rebels’ conservative policies than the government’s. France sympathized with the government but, fearing its own army, felt in too weak a position to do more. After sending a score of planes they proposed a nonintervention policy that was maintained throughout the war (although Germany and Italy merely ignored it). The left-wing Loyalists received some meager support only from Russia and Mexico.
The 1936 Spanish election had already been considered a great victory for the working classes, so the military uprising was seen as an assault against working people’s interests everywhere. The rapid intervention of foreign troops made the Civil War international and it became an example of the growing worldwide struggle between fascism and democracy. Foreign volunteers arrived to fight on both sides. Those who fought with the Loyalists were called the international brigades. They came from a variety of left-wing groups but were nearly always led by Communists. This created problems with other Republican groups, such as the Workers’ Party of Marxist Unification (POUM) and the Anarchists, who provoked several days of rioting and fighting in May 1937 in Barcelona. This internal dissension on the Left damaged their spirit and weakened their army.
Despite military inferiority and bloody internal divisions, the Loyalists made a remarkably determined stand, particularly in central Spain. By the beginning of 1938, however, the territory held by the Loyalists had shrunk drastically, and with the fall of Barcelona in January 1939 the war was almost over. Madrid surrendered in March and the Loyalist government and many thousands of refugees fled into France.
In total, about 3.3 percent of the Spanish population died during the war, with another 7.5 percent being injured. Available information suggests that there were between 500,000 and 600,000 deaths from all causes during the Spanish Civil War, of which 220,000 were a direct result of the Francoist repression. The economic blockade of Republican-controlled areas caused malnutrition in the civilian population that is believed to have caused the deaths of around 25,000 people. After the war it is claimed that Franco’s government arranged for the executions of 100,000 Republican prisoners, and it is estimated that another 35,000 later died in concentration camps.
Franco’s Dictatorship
A dictatorship was set up under Franco that restored the favored position of the Church and returned its properties. The Movimiento Nacional (National Movement) became the only political party, encompassing all right-wing groups, and the leftist opposition was suppressed. The Cortes (Parliament) and Catalan and Basque autonomy were abolished—although the Cortes was reestablished in 1942. Although it gave aid to the Axis (Germany and Italy) during the Second World War, Spain did not actually take part in the fighting. However, the United Nations, refusing to recognize the constitutionality of the Franco regime, in 1946 urged its members to break diplomatic relations with Spain; this resolution was not rescinded until 1950. An agreement with the United States in 1953 provided for US bases in Spain and for economic and military aid. Spain entered the United Nations in 1955.
Growing political unrest, partly over the problem of succession to the Franco regime, became increasingly evident in the 1950s, and at the start of the 1960s the Church, which had long been silent, began to voice some opposition to aspects of the repressive dictatorship. In 1962 a series of strikes, beginning in the coalfields of Asturias, indicated widespread discontent. Student demonstrations also occurred. Basque separatism posed another serious problem for the regime. Their terrorist organization, ETA (Euskadi ta Askatasuna), fought against the regime. Its greatest success was the murder of Franco’s Prime Minister Carrero Blanco in 1973. During this regime ETA enjoyed a lot of public support, but this changed once democracy had been restored.
A new organic law (constitution) was announced by Franco in 1966. It separated the post of head of government from chief of state, provided for direct election of about one-quarter of the members of the Cortes, gave married women the vote, made religious freedom a legal right, and ended government control of labor unions. The forming of new political parties was still discouraged. Press censorship was ended in 1966, but strong guidelines remained.
Economically, Spain progressed dramatically in the 1960s and early 1970s, stimulated in part by the liberal economic policies espoused by Opus Dei (a Roman Catholic lay order promoting Christian values and working to suppress liberalism and immorality—controversial among Catholics because of its secretive nature, emphasis on discipline, and its conservatism and wealth). Growth was particularly pronounced in the tourist, automobile, and construction industries.
The Transition
In 1969 Franco named his successor, Juan Carlos, the son of the legitimate heir to the throne, the king-in-exile Alfonso XIII. Juan Carlos had sworn an oath of allegiance to Franco and his regime and seemed to be willing to maintain it. In fact, he held reformist aspirations. The death of Franco on November 20, 1975, and the accession of Juan Carlos as king two days later, opened a new era: the peaceful transition to democracy.
Arias Navarro, the conservative head of the government, was incapable of making the democratic transition that the king supported. When he resigned in 1976, Adolfo Suárez Gonzalez, a former Francoist minister, replaced him. Suárez entered office promising that elections would be held within one year, and his government moved to enact a series of laws to liberalize the new regime.
Spain’s first elections since 1936 were held on June 15, 1977. Suárez and his new party Unión de Centro Democrático (UCD) were returned with 34 percent of the vote. Under Suárez, the new Parliament set about drafting a democratic constitution that was overwhelmingly approved by voters in a national referendum in December 1978. Varying levels of autonomy were granted to the Basque Country, Catalonia, and the other regions in Spain.
However, this was not enough for some of the Basque separatists. ETA has continued to commit murders, although the violence has abated since the 1990s when many leaders were arrested. Confronted by terrorism and economic recession, the UCD disintegrated into factions and, after heavy defeats in local elections, Suárez resigned in January 1981.
The inauguration of Leopoldo Calvo Sotelo, also a member of the UCD, was interrupted by the attempted military coup of Lieutenant Colonel Antonio Tejero, who occupied the Cortes (February 23, 1981) and held the government and the deputies for eighteen hours. It failed, owing to King Juan Carlos’ resolute support of the democratic constitution. This was a turning point as the population accepted the king as a true champion of democracy, not a pawn of the old regime. Calvo Sotelo was left with the task of restoring confidence in democracy. His most notable achievement was Spain’s entry into NATO in 1982.
The election of October 1982 marked the final break with the Francoist legacy by returning the Partido Socialista Obrero Español (PSOE) under its leader, Felipe González, with a solid majority to the Cortes. This was the first government in which none of the members had served under Francoism, and it paved the way toward a new future. Spain became a member of the European Community in 1986, and in 1992 the country achieved prominence with the Expo ’92 World’s Fair in Seville and the Olympic Games in Barcelona. PSOE remained in power until 1996, when a center-right government took office. José María Aznar López, leader of the Partido Popular (PP) became prime minister in coalition with the Catalan nationalists. Aznar introduced a government austerity and privatization program, and the economy experienced significant economic growth. In 1999 Spain became part of the European Union’s single currency plan and, benefiting from the prosperous economy, Aznar led the PP to a parliamentary majority in the March 2000 elections. Spain has finally become a stable democracy.
“The Iberians never would amalgamate, never would … put their shields together—never would sacrifice their own local private interest for the general good,” said the nineteenth-century English traveler and writer Richard Ford. The Spaniards are generally very proud of their own region, which is why they can sometimes seem individualistic. This pride in their traditions, customs and language brought the Spanish the need for self-government, leading to the creation of the Comunidades Autónomas (Autonomous Communities). Today, Spain is divided into nineteen regions, two of them, Ceuta and Melilla in North Africa, are “autonomous cities” and the other seventeen “autonomous communities”: the Basque Country, Catalonia, Galicia, Andalusia, Asturias, Aragon, Balearic Islands, Canary Islands, Cantabria, Castile-León, Castile-La Mancha, Extremadura, Madrid, Murcia, Navarre, La Rioja, and Valencia.
For the first five years the central government allowed all regions control of the organization of institutions, urban planning, public works, housing, environmental protection, cultural affairs, sports and leisure, tourism, health and social welfare, and the cultivation of the regional language, where there was one. After five years they could accede to “full autonomy,” but the meaning of this phrase was not clearly defined.
The transfer of powers to the autonomous governments has been determined in an ongoing process of negotiation between the individual communities and the central government. This process has given rise to repeated disputes. The communities, especially Catalonia, have complained that the central government has dragged its feet in ceding powers and in clarifying financial arrangements. Not all regions have the same powers. For instance, the Basque Country and Catalonia have their own police forces, and Navarra has a different financial arrangement from the others. Indeed, some regions deserve a special mention.
Due to their distinctive culture and history, the Spanish Constitution from 1978 granted the regions of Catalonia, Galicia, and the Basque Country the maximum level of autonomy. This is why they are known as “the historic nations”. Situated in the north of the country, near France, they were under Moorish rule for a very brief period, if at all. Just like the other sixteen regions, they have their own traditions and customs, however they also maintain their own languages (not dialects) —Catalan, Euskera, and Galician. With Spanish, these three are considered official languages within their respective regions. Galicia is the poorest of the regions, and is not as vocal about autonomy as the others. The Basque Country and Catalonia are the most industrialized areas in Spain, and have a different work ethic from the rest of the country. A significant number of their citizens do not appreciate being referred to as Spanish, and show fierce loyalty to their own flags—the ikurriña in the Basque Country and the senyera in Catalonia— which today can be seen hanging from some balconies and windows in support of independence and has become a matter of political debate. Andalusia is the largest region in Spain, visited by many thousands of tourists each year. Despite being very distinctive from the other regions, for many it epitomizes traditional rural Spain.
The Basque Country (Euskal Herria)
The Basques occupied the northern part of Spain (and part of France) thousands of years before the rise of the Roman Empire. Their region is known as Euskal Herria, or Euskadi in their own language, Euskera. This language is neither Latin-based nor related to any of the Indo-European languages, and there is much speculation about its roots. Researchers have linked it to languages in many other parts of the world, but none of these links can be proven.
Basque people can seem very different from their neighbors. Physically they tend to be taller and sturdier, and they have the highest proportion of rhesus-negative blood in Europe (25 percent), and one of the highest percentages of type O blood (55 percent). Fiercely independent, they retained their own sovereignty until nearly the fourteenth century. Even then they were only nominally integrated and could veto laws by saying “we obey but do not comply.” It was not until the nineteenth century that the centralist government in Madrid deprived them of these rights. Fearing for their language and their culture, they began pressing for reforms and for greater autonomy. However, the Civil War and fascist dictatorship that followed prohibited all outward signs of Basque identity, and the very speaking of Euskera was declared illegal.
The Basques suffered terribly during the Spanish Civil War and under the subsequent oppression, which explains why some separatists gradually began to organize themselves clandestinely. The terrorist group Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA), in Euskera “Basque Country and Freedom”, was created in 1959 with the aim of fighting for their independence. Since then, the organization has committed more than 700 attacks, killed around 900 people, and kidnapped approximately 90 people. Although many of their members left once autonomy was achieved, they have continued terrorist attacks throughout Spain, hoping to achieve complete independence for the Basque Country. However, they no longer have the support of the majority.
Despite its strong industrial character, owing to its mining sector, the Basque region offers a green and rugged landscape, wild coastlines, and a Michelin gastronomy in which the star is the pintxo, a small slice of bread with a topping, fastened with a toothpick. Many of the renowned Spanish chefs are, in fact, Basque. People drink more here, however; drunkenness is not as frowned upon as in other areas of the country. Spanish is the dominant language, which is just as well, as you will not understand a word of Euskera. The Basques are a proud people, with a rich heritage that merits respect.
Catalonia (Catalunya)
Catalonia is situated on the northwestern Mediterranean coast, bordering France and Andorra. Its population exceeds seven million people, with 75 percent of this number living in or near the capital, Barcelona. Commercially successful, it is the richest region of Spain and considers itself more “European” than other areas. The local language, Catalan, stems from Latin but sounds different from Spanish especially because of its accent and rhythm. Many two-syllable Latin words are reduced to one. For example, noctem (night) becomes noche in Spanish and nit in Catalan, and totus (all) is todo in Spanish and tot in Catalan.
Like the Basque Country, many Catalans have never felt part of Spain. Despite being subject to Castile and Aragon from 1479, it maintained its own local government until the eighteenth century and the Spanish War of Succession. It had its own Mediterranean empire at one stage, and today Catalan is still spoken in Alguers in Sardinia.
On September 11, 1714, the Bourbon troops entered Barcelona. It was like 1066 to the English. The government was suppressed, Spanish became the language of administration, universities were closed, and Catalonia was totally under the control of Madrid. During Franco’s dictatorship Catalan was not permitted in schools, and was only gradually allowed in public. When autonomy was granted reforms started. Nowadays, the Catalan region is mostly bilingual and both languages are used daily and the old institutions have been reestablished.
There have been a large number of immigrants to Catalonia from the poorer regions of Spain. As the numbers grew (a million in the 1960s alone), Spanish language and customs began to take over. It was a culture shock for both sides. The Catalans expected their regional traditions to be accepted and adopted, while the newcomers, could not see why they should be expected to change. After all, they were still in their own country.
The Catalan people have few of the traits considered to be characteristically Spanish. They are hardworking, entrepreneurial, reliable, and serious. (Other Spaniards see them as despotic, greedy, and materialistic.) They might not be as spendthrift, or generous, as the others (the term depending on your point of view). You will not easily see them buying rounds of drinks, but they will pay for their own. They might not seem as friendly as the rest of the Spaniards, but this is due to a natural reserve on their part. They are polite and generally, if asked, will help you but they will not intrude. Catalonia is probably the most international region of Spain and many different languages can be heard spoken in the streets. Life is a bit more similar to northern Europe, but you may miss the warm welcome of other parts of Spain.
Galicia
Galicia is the other region of Spain that has its own language and nationalistic feeling. It is situated in the cold, wet, northwest corner of the peninsula. It shares a similar climate and mastery of poetry, songs, and music with the Celtic countries (Ireland, Wales, and Scotland). Despite emphasizing its Celtic links, there is no evidence that this region had any more contact with the Celts than any other.
Unlike the Basque and Catalan regions, Galicia remains relatively poor, agricultural, and dominated by rural society. It is estimated that for the last five centuries one in three Galician males has had to leave his homeland to work in another part of Spain, Europe, or South America. In some parts of South America the word gallego (meaning “Galician”) is a synonym for “Spaniard.” (One of the most famous descendants of Galician immigrants is Fidel Castro.)
Galician nationalism, which appeared as early as the 1840s, recalled a mythical Golden Age when the medieval kingdom of Galicia existed. There had indeed been a king of Galicia who was crowned in 1111; the kingdom was partitioned some years later, however, and the southern part would become Portugal. The northern part fell into disorder until it was incorporated into the kingdom of Castile in 1483.
Despite a study in 1990 stating that 63 percent of the population of Galicia speak and understand galego (the Galician spelling of the word for their language), it is not used by the middle and upper classes and is therefore not linked to social progression. Many families now bring up their children to speak Spanish.
Franco was originally from Galicia, but the region did not profit from the dictatorship. Forgotten or ignored by most governments, as they wield no power, the Galicians are generally mistrustful, hardworking, and hospitable. Among other Spaniards they have a reputation for caution and guile. However, their region is a joy to visit in the summer, when festivals abound in the villages. The cooler climate and beautiful views complement the fresh seafood and an extensive offer of regional white wines. This is also the preferred season to set out on the Santiago pilgrimage route (El Camino de Santiago), a Christian route that departs from several points in Spain and meets in the Galician capital, Santiago de Compostela. The lack of modernization does not generally bother tourists, but, on the contrary, seems to add to the attraction to the point of making them feel the morriña, a Galician expression meaning nostalgia or longing.
Andalusia
Andalusia covers an area of approximately 33,694 square miles (87,268 sq. km), which is 17.3 percent of Spanish territory. This makes it the largest single region, with an area greater than countries such as Belgium or the Netherlands. It is probably one of the best-known regions of Spain, as it embraces the Costa del Sol and its enviable climate. However, the interior can be harsh in winter and exhausting in summer when the thermometer can reach 113 degrees Farenheit (45 degrees Celsius). Estepa, near Seville, is known as la sartén (the frying pan) because of the heat.
Traditionally, much of Andalusia has consisted of vast estates with absentee landlords and casual laborers. Poverty led to migration, especially from the 1950s to the 1970s, and to subsidies by the central government after the dictatorship. (From 1982 and for over ten years “las malas lenguas” (spiteful tongues) said that the President of Spain, Felipe González, who was from Seville, favored his own region. For instance, expressways in the Basque Country and Catalonia are toll operated, while those in Andalusia are mostly free.
The 1992 Expo World’s Fair in Seville, which celebrated Spain’s role in the discovery of America, was as important to Andalusia as the Olympics were to Catalonia. The infrastructure was improved and a large part of Seville was modernized. The region now has more than 15,000 miles (over 24,000 kilometers) of expressways and highways, and some of the best international airports in the world. The rail links have also improved beyond any expectation, and it is now possible to travel from Seville to Madrid in just two and a half hours taking the high-speed train AVE.
Despite the modernization of Andalusia, it is still possible to step into a village and sample a taste of the “real” Spain. Nothing can compare with the white villages of Andalusia, sparkling beneath the clear blue skies. Even along the Costa del Sol, the villages of Casares, Manilva, and Mijas are easily accessible.
Andalusia is known as the heart of the most famous Spanish folklore (but not the only one). Here you can find the true magic of flamenco and see bullfighting at its most authentic. Myths like Don Juan and Carmen were based here. The list of Andalusian festivals is endless, and the openness of the people makes it a very appealing place to visit and join in.
Unlike the other regions mentioned above, the people of Andalusia generally have some of the characteristics thought to be more stereotypical of the Spanish. They are friendly, hospitable, generous, and spontaneous, who find few obstacles not to make the most of their day. If you are only spending a short time in Spain, visiting Andalusia might be your best choice.
Madrid and Barcelona
Madrid with a population 3.3 million and Barcelona with 1.63 million are the two largest cities in Spain. Madrid has been the capital since the reign of Philip II, in the mid-sixteenth century. Its position in the geographical center of the country is symbolic. “La Puerta del Sol” (Gate of the Sun) is known as the “kilómetro cero” of Spain (the zero kilometer of the Spanish radial motorways). Despite the autonomy of the regions, centralization continues. It may seem a bourgeois, grand, and rather suffocating sort of city on first acquaintance; however, it is open to all—its temperament having been formed by the influx of citizens from a diverse country, a large empire, and the accompanying army of bureaucrats.
Barcelona is the largest city on the Mediterranean, and its reputation as the hub of trade is two thousand years old. For many years it was the economic heart of the country, while Madrid was the center of government and administration. Now they compete for the international market.
The 1992 Olympic Games were supremely important for Barcelona, enabling it to prove its professionalism on the international stage. It was also a chance to rehabilitate the old city. A belt of decrepit factories was removed, and the seashore was extended and opened. The roads were improved to make better communications between the city and the rest of the region. The Games were a huge success.
The rivalry between Spain’s two preeminent cities is notorious, and nowhere is it more evident than in football. Real Madrid and Barcelona have their fans not only in Spain but throughout Europe. Since the 1940s their matches, referred to as “el clásico” (the classic), overshadow any others played in the country. During Franco’s rule a win for Barcelona was seen by the Catalans as a victory against the dictator. Today it is a question of being the best.
Despite the fact that Madrid is the seat of government and home of the royal family, almost all the ideas that have shaped Spain’s modern history—republicanism, federalism, anarchism, syndicalism, and communism—have found their way into Spain by way of Catalonia. In his book The New Spaniards, John Hooper adds that fashions, whether in clothing, philosophy, or art, are usually accepted in Barcelona years before Madrid.
Both cities have a wealth of things for the visitor to do. A visit to Madrid must include the great monuments to history and culture: the Royal Palace; the Prado Museum with its extensive collection of works by Goya, Velazquez, and El Greco; the Reina Sofia Modern Art Museum, home of Picasso’s Guernica; and the Thyssen-Bornemísza Museum, which traces the history of art from thirteenth-century Italy to modernism. When night falls, Madrid bustles. The bars are full, and overflow on to the sidewalks on summer evenings. When on holidays, recharge your batteries at siesta time, and prepare to join in the fun.
In Barcelona, take the time to amble through the narrow lanes of the Gothic Quarter, where you will find the imposing cathedral whose construction began in the thirteenth century and continued for the next six hundred years. A stroll down La Rambla takes you past the Liceu opera house, recently renovated after being burned down in 1994. This promenade is always bustling with shoppers, and street entertainers perform along its length. At its end, the great statue of Christopher Columbus looks out to sea and the new marina stretches before you.
See the Picasso and Miró Museums, and Gaudi’s soaring, unfinished cathedral, the Sagrada Familia. Then relax at a street café among the amazing buildings, and do a little “people-watching.” A busy, cosmopolitan city, where ancient and modern stand side by side, Barcelona will never disappoint you.
