VII. THE SEVEN LAST PLAGUES (15:1–16:21)

Chapter 15 serves to introduce seven angels who in the following chapter will pour out on the entire heathen world the seven bowls of divine wrath. The seven bowls are the third series of seven in the interrelated sequence of seals, trumpets, and bowls. The divine retribution revealed by the seals and announced by the trumpets is now fully executed by the bowls. While the three series cover the same period leading up to the end, each presenting God’s judgment under a different set of images, from a literary standpoint the bowls are an unfolding of the seventh trumpet, just as the trumpets were an expansion of the seventh seal. In understanding Revelation, however, it is important that one does not project this literary device onto the one-dimensional plane of historical sequence. The visions are intended to confront readers with vivid portrayals of eschatological truth rather than to supply them with data for a precise chronology of the consummation.

Before the seven plague angels receive the seven bowls filled with the wrath of God, we hear those who have emerged victorious over the beast singing a song of praise to God for his great and righteous works (vv. 3–4). It is the song of redemption that began with Moses and found its completion in the sacrificial death of the Lamb. God is to be praised because his ways are just and true.

The angels come from the presence of God (the temple in heaven, v. 5) and receive from one of the living creatures the golden bowls of divine wrath. Immediately the temple is filled with the glory of God so that no one can enter until the plagues have been completed. Chapter 16 describes the outpouring of the seven bowls of wrath. It is a time of tremendous upheaval and unprecedented suffering. The land, sea, inland waters, and solar system all bear the impact of God’s wrath. People gnaw their tongues in agony, and incited by demons the kings of the whole earth prepare for the final battle. When the seventh bowl is poured out, a voice from heaven declares that the plagues have run their course and we stand now on the threshold of eternity. The entire cosmos is in turmoil; a “storm-theophany”1 fills the air, the world collapses under a great earthquake, and gigantic hailstones fall from the sky. The wrath of God has run its full course.2

A. PREPARATION FOR THE BOWL-PLAGUES (15:1–8)

1I saw in heaven another great and marvelous sign: seven angels with the seven last plagues—last, because with them God’s wrath is completed. 2And I saw what looked like a sea of glass mixed with fire and, standing beside the sea, those who had been victorious over the beast and his image and over the number of his name. They held harps given them by God 3and sang the song of Moses the servant of God and the song of the Lamb:

“Great and marvelous are your deeds,

Lord God Almighty.

Just and true are your ways,

King of the ages.

4Who will not fear you, O Lord,

and bring glory to your name?

For you alone are holy.

All nations will come

and worship before you,

for your righteous acts have been revealed.”

5After this I looked and in heaven the temple, that is, the tabernacle of the Testimony, was opened. 6Out of the temple came the seven angels with the seven plagues. They were dressed in clean, shining linen and wore golden sashes around their chests. 7Then one of the four living creatures gave to the seven angels seven golden bowls filled with the wrath of God, who lives for ever and ever. 8And the temple was filled with smoke from the glory of God and from his power, and no one could enter the temple until the seven plagues of the seven angels were completed.

These preparatory words create an atmosphere of awesome solemnity. John’s readers are about to experience a terrifying portrayal of the final outpouring of God’s wrath. The seriousness of the situation calls for words of assurance that God’s ways are just.

1 In chapter 12 the visions of the radiant woman (v. 1) and of the great red dragon (v. 3) were called signs. John now sees another great and marvelous sign in heaven. Signs point beyond themselves and disclose the theological meaning of history. That there are seven angels having seven plagues speaks of the certainty and completeness of divine wrath against all unrighteousness.1 They are great and marvelous in their awe-inspiring effect2 on all of nature, the human race, and the kingdom of Antichrist. Chapter 16, which will tell the story, moves with an ever increasing crescendo from noisome and grievous sores, through water turned to blood, and scorching sun, to an earthquake so great that the entire configuration of earth is violently altered. These are the last of the plagues in that they complete3 the warnings of God to an impenitent world. All that remains is final judgment itself. The plagues anticipate the final outpouring of divine retribution and are met with blasphemy by people whose hearts, like that of Pharaoh, are hardened against God (v. 21). The use of Exodus typology throughout this vision is worthy of special note.4

2 Verses 2–4 form an interlude of victory and praise that stands in sharp contrast with the narrative that follows. The exultation of the heavenly chorus is as glorious as the visitation of wrath is somber. John sees those who have emerged from their final battle with the beast standing victorious upon the crystal surface before the throne. Carrying harps of God, they join their voices in an anthem of praise celebrating the holiness of God and the righteousness of his works.

The “sea of glass” is mentioned twice in the Apocalypse. In 4:6 it was said to be as “clear as crystal,” while in the present passage it is “mixed with fire.” While several options are offered as to the intent of this image,5 most likely it is nothing more than a descriptive detail intended to heighten the splendor of the scene. While the larger context has much to say about wrath and judgment, the interlude itself (vv. 2–4) treats quite a different subject.

These who stand on6 the crystal pavement are those who have emerged victorious7 over the beast. They have not abandoned their faith nor succumbed to the threats of Antichrist. They are the overcomers to whom the seven letters hold out promise of eating of the tree of life (2:7), protection from the second death (2:11), hidden manna (2:17), authority over the nations (2:26), white garments (3:5), the honor of becoming a pillar in the temple of God (3:12), and the privilege of sitting with Christ on his throne (3:21). Little wonder that they break out in song!

The struggle against the beast is actually a struggle against paying homage to his image or being marked with the number of his name.8 The two additional phrases explain and make explicit what victory over the beast consists of. The harps that the victors play are harps of God in that they belong to the celestial litany. The “pleasant harp” (Ps 81:2, NKJ) is an appropriate instrument for songs of praise.

3–4 The song of the victors is a song of praise to God for his great and marvelous acts. It celebrates his righteous and redemptive activity beginning with Moses and culminating with the Lamb. We are not to understand two songs, but one. The deliverance of which Moses and the people sang in Exod 15:1–18 prefigured the greater deliverance wrought by the Lamb. Although some commentators take the song of Moses as a reference to the final address of the great lawgiver recorded in Deuteronomy 32, 9 the many parallels between Exodus 15 and Revelation 15 argue the more widely accepted earlier song. For example, “Great and marvelous are your deeds.… Who will not fear you, O Lord, and bring glory to your name?” (Rev 15:4) echoes “Who among the gods is like you, O LORD? Who is like you—majestic in holiness, awesome in glory, working wonders?” (Exod 15:11). This song commemorating Israel’s greatest deliverance was sung on Sabbath evenings in the synagogue service. Its imagery was stamped on the consciousness of every pious Jew.10 The theme of victory in Exodus 15 becomes the basis for praise and adoration in the song of the victors. God is worthy of glory and honor because his great and marvelous works are true and righteous. The song does not celebrate the judgment of God upon his enemies but the righteousness of his great redemptive acts. As Moses triumphed over Pharaoh, and as the risen Lord was victor over the world (John 16:33), so also the faithful have maintained their fidelity against all demands of the imperial cult.

The structure of the hymn suggests that it may have been used in the liturgy of the early church. The first four lines are a classic example of synonymous parallelism:

“Great and marvelous are your deeds,

Lord God Almighty;

Just and true are your ways,

King of the ages.”

Verse 4 raises the rhetorical question,

“Who will not fear you, O Lord,

and bring glory to your name?”

and is followed by three causal clauses,11

“For you alone are holy;

All nations will come and worship before you,

For your righteous acts have been revealed.”

Practically every phrase of the hymn is taken from the rich vocabulary of the OT. For the first strophe cf. Ps 111:3 (“Glorious and majestic are his deeds”); Amos 4:13 (“the Lord God Almighty is his name”); Deut 32:4 (“all his ways are just”); Jer 10:7 (“O King of the nations”). In the Nestle-Aland text almost 80 percent of the words in the hymn (10 of 48) are italicized to show that they have been taken from the OT.12

The hymn begins by extolling God’s “deeds” and his “ways.” The first are cause for wonder and praise. The second emphasizes God’s justice and faithfulness. We need not limit this ascription of praise to any particular event. All God’s redemptive works are great and marvelous. They are met with awe, not simply because of their magnitude, but also because of their intrinsic righteousness. In keeping with the OT, God’s righteousness is most often seen in his saving acts on behalf of his people.

As in the earlier song of the elders (11:17–18), God is designated the Almighty. He possesses the power to carry out whatever he determines to do. This title, which is ascribed to God nine times in the book of Revelation, is found but once in the NT outside the Apocalypse (2 Cor 6:18), where, as here, it reflects the language of the Septuagint. That God is the Almighty is supremely appropriate in the present context of ultimate victory. He is also King of the Ages.13 His sovereignty is everlasting. Jeremiah speaks of the everlasting king at whose wrath the earth trembles, and whose indignation the nations are unable to abide (Jer 10:10). The ways of the heavenly king, says John, are absolutely just and completely in accord with truth.

The second part of the hymn continues in the language of Jer 10:7, while at the same time echoing the Song of Moses (Exod 15:11). The rhetorical question it raises, “Who will not fear you, O Lord, and bring glory to your name?” is in response to the ascription that has preceded. In turn it prompts the threefold basis for such praise that follows.14

Universal recognition of the Lord as the one true God is a common expectation in the OT (cf. Phil 2:9–11, echoing Isa 45:23). The confidence that during the messianic age the nations of the world will worship the God of Israel and bring glory to his name (Ps 86:9; Mal 1:11; cf. Rom 15:9–12) is adapted by John as an expression of the complete sovereignty of God over all the hostile opposition of the beast and his followers in the last days. To glorify the name of God is to praise him for what he is and all that he has accomplished. All shall come before God in worship because he alone is holy.15 God is to be praised by all nations because his righteous acts have been fully manifested.16 We should probably interpret v. 4 as a metaphor of victory rather than an actual scene to be enacted at some specific time and place.17 A strictly literal interpretation could infer a doctrine of universal salvation unless the worship offered is in grudging recognition of his righteous acts.

5–6 The praise of God, sung by the victorious redeemed as the song of Moses and the Lamb (vv. 2–4), is followed immediately by a description of the angels who will pour out the final seven judgments. John sees the heavenly temple open and the seven angels of devastation emerge. The temple is more closely defined as “the tabernacle of the Testimony,”18 a reference to the period of Israel’s sojourn in the wilderness. In this context it emphasizes that the final plagues come from the presence of God and are the expression of his unalterable opposition to sin. The ancient tabernacle was a “Tent of the Testimony” (Num 17:7; 18:2) because it contained the two tables of testimony brought down from Mt. Sinai by Moses (Exod 32:15; Deut 10:5).

As in v. 1, the seven angels are described as having the seven plagues, even though they do not receive the bowls of wrath until the following verse (v. 7). That they come out of the temple points to the divine origin of their commission.19 Their robes of linen,20 clean and shining, denote the noble and sacred nature of their office (cf. Ezek 9:2; Dan 10:5). Golden girdles are symbolic of royal and priestly functions. John repeatedly pictures these moments in OT images. Here the angels (1) come from the presence of God, (2) are arrayed as priests, and (3) will now receive their “censers.”

7 It is from the four living creatures that the seven angels receive the golden bowls of divine wrath. These guardians of the throne appear throughout Revelation (4:6; 5:6; 6:1; 7:11; 14:3; 15:7; 19:4) and are appropriate as intermediaries between God and the avenging angels. Each of the seven angels receives a golden bowl.21 In 5:8 the golden bowls were full of incense representing the prayers of the saints.22 Since the mention of the golden bowls in Revelation is limited to these two contexts, John may be calling our attention to the relationship between prayer and divine retribution. Gold does not necessarily denote the service of God. The great harlot of chapter 17 holds in her hand “a golden cup … filled with abominable things” (17:4).

The cups are full of the wrath of God. The vivid scene of 2 Thess 1:7–9 is about to be expanded in detail (Rev 16). It is the wrath of a God whose existence has neither beginning nor end. He is a living God, fully able to execute punishment upon all his adversaries.

8 As the angels receive their bowls of wrath, the temple is filled with smoke, symbolizing the glory and power of God (echoing 1 Kgs 8:10–11). In the OT God often revealed his presence by cloud or smoke. He descended upon Mt. Sinai, and smoke ascended as a great furnace (Exod 19:18). When the glory of God filled the tabernacle in the wilderness, a cloud rested upon it (Exod 40:34). In Isaiah’s vision of the heavenly temple, the adoration of God by the seraphim was followed by smoke that filled the sanctuary (Isa 6:4). The smoke that fills the heavenly temple in Revelation indicates the presence of God in all his glory and power actively to carry out his judgment upon wickedness. Until the seven plagues are finished, no one is able to enter the temple. Once the time of final judgment has come, none can stay the hand of God. The time for intercession is past. God in his unapproachable majesty and power has declared that the end has come. No longer does he stand knocking: he enters to act in sovereign judgment.

Thus the stage is set. Because these are the “final” plagues, John has prepared his readers by stressing the awesome nature of the occasion. They have been reminded that the redemptive deeds of the Almighty God are great and marvelous. As King, his ways are just and true. Judgment comes from the temple in heaven that is his eternal abode. When the bowls of wrath are delivered to his angels of judgment, the temple is filled with the smoke of his glory. By such a breathtaking scenario John prepares his listeners for the actual outpouring of divine wrath.

B. PLAGUES POURED OUT (16:1–21)

1Then I heard a loud voice from the temple saying to the seven angels, “Go, pour out the seven bowls of God’s wrath on the earth.”

2The first angel went and poured out his bowl on the land, and ugly and painful sores broke out on the people who had the mark of the beast and worshiped his image.

3The second angel poured out his bowl on the sea, and it turned into blood like that of a dead man, and every living thing in the sea died.

4The third angel poured out his bowl on the rivers and springs of water, and they became blood. 5Then I heard the angel in charge of the waters say:

“You are just in these judgments,

you who are and who were, the Holy One,

because you have so judged;

6for they have shed the blood of your saints and prophets,

and you have given them blood to drink as they deserve.”

7And I heard the altar respond:

“Yes, Lord God Almighty,

true and just are your judgments.”

8The fourth angel poured out his bowl on the sun, and the sun was given power to scorch people with fire. 9They were seared by the intense heat and they cursed the name of God, who had control over these plagues, but they refused to repent and glorify him.

10The fifth angel poured out his bowl on the throne of the beast, and his kingdom was plunged into darkness. Men gnawed their tongues in agony 11and cursed the God of heaven because of their pains and their sores, but they refused to repent of what they had done.

12The sixth angel poured out his bowl on the great river Euphrates, and its water was dried up to prepare the way for the kings from the East. 13Then I saw three evil spirits that looked like frogs; they came out of the mouth of the dragon, out of the mouth of the beast and out of the mouth of the false prophet. 14They are spirits of demons performing miraculous signs, and they go out to the kings of the whole world, to gather them for the battle on the great day of God Almighty.

15“Behold, I come like a thief! Blessed is he who stays awake and keeps his clothes with him, so that he may not go naked and be shamefully exposed.”

16Then they gathered the kings together to the place that in Hebrew is called Armageddon.

17The seventh angel poured out his bowl into the air, and out of the temple came a loud voice from the throne, saying, “It is done!” 18Then there came flashes of lightning, rumblings, peals of thunder and a severe earthquake. No earthquake like it has ever occurred since man has been on earth, so tremendous was the quake. 19The great city split into three parts, and the cities of the nations collapsed. God remembered Babylon the Great and gave her the cup filled with the wine of the fury of his wrath. 20Every island fled away and the mountains could not be found. 21From the sky huge hailstones of about a hundred pounds each fell upon men. And they cursed God on account of the plague of hail, because the plague was so terrible.

We come now to the third and final series of numbered plagues. Once again we encounter the four/three structure in which the first four plagues are closely related and the final three intensify the entire series. Unlike the seals of chapter6 and the trumpets of chapters 8–9 in which the sixth plague is followed by an interlude, the bowls move relentlessly to a close. They are the final series depicting the outpouring of God’s wrath and as such there is no place for yet another interlude. There are, however, two expansions within the final series. Following the third bowl plague, in which the inland waters are turned to blood, an angel declares that God’s judgments are just because the inhabitants of the earth have shed the blood of his saints and prophets (vv. 5–7). And following the sixth bowl-plague evil spirits from the mouth of the dragon go out to gather the kings of the whole world for the final battle.

The chapter is given over in its entirety to the carrying out of the final series of plagues. The parallels between this series of judgments and the trumpet-plagues (chaps. 8–11) are readily apparent. In each series the first four plagues are visited upon the earth, sea, inland waters, and heavenly bodies respectively. The fifth involves darkness and pain (cf. 16:10 with 9:2, 5–6), and the sixth, enemy hordes from the vicinity of the Euphrates (cf. 16:12 with 9:14ff.). Both series draw heavily for their symbolism on the ten Egyptian plagues. The turning of water into blood (8:8; 16:3, 4) parallels the first Egyptian plague in which Moses struck the waters of the Nile, turning them to blood (Exod 7:20). The darkening of the sun (8:12; cf. 16:10) has as its counterpart the ninth Egyptian plague in which thick darkness prevailed over the land for three days (Exod 10:21–22). In the following discussion a number of other parallels will be mentioned.

It would be wrong, however, to imagine the Seer slavishly setting forth a standard set of plagues. Nor is he attempting a careful recapitulation of each of the seven trumpet-plagues under the new symbolism of bowls. John freely employs the vocabulary of natural disaster to describe the prophetic visions of the imminent and catastrophic denouement of human history. While it is true that both series deal with the same crucial period of time just before the end, overly subtle interpretations in the interest of a plague-by-plague recapitulation overlook the distinct differences between the two series. Among the more important are: (1) the trumpet-plagues are partial in their effect (one-third of the earth is burned, 8:7; one-third of the sea becomes blood, 8:8; see also 8:9–12), while the bowls are universal (“every living thing in the sea died,” 16:3; “every island fled away,” 16:20) and final; (2) the trumpets are to a certain extent a call to repentance, while the bowls are the pouring out of divine wrath; and (3) people are affected indirectly by the first four trumpets but are directly attacked from the outset by the bowls.

It should also be noticed that the bowls are poured out in rapid succession1 with the customary interlude between the sixth and seventh elements of the sequence missing. The three numbered series are cyclical restatements employing images of greater and greater intensity.2 Each series brings us to the end, but in each successive case the severity and magnitude of judgment are heightened significantly.3

As a result of the seventh bowl of wrath being poured out into the air an unprecedented earthquake splits Babylon the Great into three parts. John is telling his readers that in the end God will make the city of Rome drink “the wine of the fury of his wrath” (v. 19). This anticipates the more detailed fall of the city that is found in the two chapters that follow. In chapter 17 Rome is pictured as an opulent and self-indulgent prostitue who sits astride the scarlet beast who ultimately turns on her, eating her flesh and burning her with fire (v. 16). In chapter 18 Rome is portrayed as fallen, with the kings, merchants, and the maritime industry mourning their great loss. Both chapters picture the end of Rome, that evil nemesis whose claims to deity and whose cruel attempts to enforce emperor worship have brought such suffering and distress to the people of God.

1 Isaiah counsels Israel to “hear that uproar from the city, hear that noise from the temple! It is the sound of the LORD repaying his enemies all they deserve” (Isa 66:6). John also hears a loud voice from the temple instructing the angels of recompense to pour out upon the earth the seven bowls of God’s wrath.4 The voice, presumably, is the voice of God, for according to the previous verse (15:8) no one is allowed to enter the temple until the seven angels have completed their mission.5 In placing the adjective before the noun the Greek text stresses the impressive nature of the loud voice6 that comes from the heavenly sanctuary.7 There is no necessary connection between this command and the prayers of the saints (cf. 8:3–5), although some relationship could exist.

2 The first angel is dispatched and carries out his awesome task of pouring out the wrath of God upon the followers of the beast.8 Those who once bore the mark of the beast are now visited by the “marks” of God.9 The first bowl brings “loathsome and malignant ulcers” (Phillips) on people. We are reminded of the sixth Egyptian plague in which sores in the form of boils and abscesses broke out on people and beasts throughout the land (Exod 9:9–11).10 Job spoke from experience of the pain and irritation of such afflictions (Job 2:7–8, 13).

3 The second angel goes to the earth11 and pours his bowl on the sea, turning it to blood. This parallels the first plague of Exod 7:19ff. in which the waters of Egypt were turned to blood. It also parallels the second trumpet in which a burning mountain fell into the sea, turning it to blood (8:8–9). Note that in all three instances it is water, one of humanity’s basic requirements and of critical importance in the more arid regions of ancient civilization, that is affected by divine judgment. The sea becomes like the blood of a dead person—that is, coagulated and rotting. In such a state it obviously cannot support life. All sea life dies.12

4 The third angel pours his bowl upon the rivers and springs of water, turning them to blood.13 In the corresponding trumpet-plague a third part of the rivers and fountains of the waters were made bitter by a great burning star that fell from heaven (8:10–11). The parallels that exist between the first four trumpets and the first four bowls display an intensification of divine recompense in which the two series share the same imagery. As the sea when turned to blood brought death to all living in it (v. 3), so also do the rivers and springs of water spread death when turned to blood. In recounting the story of the Exodus the Psalmist says that God “turned their rivers to blood; they could not drink from their streams” (Ps 78:44). John draws freely from the vocabulary of judgment and adapts it appropriately to describe the final plagues.

5–6 The righteousness of God’s action in turning water to blood is attested to by the angel of the waters (vv. 5–6). In Jewish thought the elements of nature were held to be under the jurisdiction of appropriate angels.14 In Rev 7:1 we learned of angels who restrained the four winds of the earth, and in 14:18 of an angel who had charge of the fire. 1 Enoch 66:2 tells of angels of punishment who held the subterranean waters in check. Whether such an angel is here referred to is uncertain.15 In any case, the lyric utterance of the angel closely resembles that of the overcomers in 15:2–4 who sang the song of Moses and the Lamb.

“You are just in these judgments”	“Just and true are your ways”
“you who are and who were”	“King of the ages”
“the Holy One”	“you alone are holy”
“because you have so judged”	“for your righteous acts have been revealed”16

The judgment of God is neither vengeful nor capricious. It is an expression of his just and righteous nature. All caricatures of God that ignore his intense hatred of sin reveal more about human nature than about God. In a moral universe God must of necessity oppose evil. “Righteous are you, O LORD,” declared the Psalmist, “and your laws are right” (Ps 119:137).17

As in 11:17, God is addressed as the one who is and who was. In 1:4, 8 and 4:8 the title was expanded to include a future reference (“who is to come”), but in the present context this is unnecessary because the final sequence of events has already begun.18

The syntactical relationship between vv. 5 and 6 is not clear. It is probably best to take v. 6 as a separate sentence that provides further evidence of the righteousness of God in carrying out his judgment by turning the waters to blood.19 Because they had poured out the blood of the saints, God has given them blood to drink.20 The punishment is tailored to fit the crime.21 Isaiah declared that the oppressors of Israel would eat their own flesh and be drunk on their own blood (Isa 49:26). In Wis 11:16 we read, “By what things people sin, by these they are punished.” That the determined action of God in righteous retribution and its resulting consequence is something more than momentary discomfort is supported by the Greek perfect tense, “and you have given them blood to drink.”22 Those who have shed the blood of the faithful are said to be “worthy” (AV) of receiving blood to drink.23 “It is what they deserve” (TCNT). A comparison with the saints in Sardis who will walk with Christ in white—“for they are worthy” (3:4)—is not intended.

The saints and prophets are not two distinct groups but faithful believers, some of whom exercised prophetic gifts.24 The prophetic ministry within the early church involved not only prediction (as in Acts 11:28; 21:10–11) but also edification, exhortation, and consolation (1 Cor 14:3).

7 A second voice confirms the justice of God’s retributive act. The speaking altar is obviously a personification (cf. 9:13). It represents the corporate testimony of the martyrs in 6:9 and the prayers of the saints in 8:3–5.25 It is significant that throughout Revelation (except in 11:1) the altar is connected with judgment (6:9; 8:3–5; 9:13; 14:18; 16:7). The principles of sacrifice and judgment are inextricably interwoven. Like the angel in charge of the waters, the voice of the altar echoes the song of Moses and the Lamb (15:3–5), whose judgments are true and just.26 Both reflect OT passages such as Ps 19:9 (“The ordinances of the LORD are sure and altogether righteous”). God’s acts of judging27 are in accordance with truth and are absolutely just.

8–9 The fourth angel pours out his bowl upon28 the sun, and people are scorched by its fiery heat (cf. the Egyptian plague of darkness, Exod 10:21ff.). After the blast of the fourth trumpet, a third of the sun, moon, and stars were darkened for a third of the day and night (8:12). But now the fourth bowl is followed with intense heat rather than a partial eclipse. In the first instance the sun was struck so that its light was diminished; this time the heat is intensified.29 Fire is commonly connected with judgment in Scripture (see Deut 28:22; 1 Cor 3:13; 2 Pet 3:7). The sovereign control of God over the entire process of retributive justice is emphasized by the fact that the power to scorch people is said to be given to the sun.30

In v. 9 the intensity of the heat is reemphasized by the expression that may be translated “scorched with a great scorching.”31 Over against this terrible plague we may compare the lot of those in heaven upon whom the sun “will not beat … nor any scorching heat” (7:16). The heathen world does not respond to this great pain by repenting and giving glory to God. Instead they blaspheme his name. Following the great earthquake of 11:13 the nations were “dazzled into homage and conversion”32—a temporary condition at best—but now, knowing full well that it is God himself who controls the plagues, they refuse to repent but resort to blasphemy. Like Pharaoh, they have hardened their hearts, and repentance is out of the question. They have gradually taken on the character of the false god they serve.

10 When the fifth angel pours out his bowl of wrath upon the throne of the beast, a darkness settles over the kingdom and people gnaw their tongues in pain.33 The throne of the beast would be his authority or dominion,34 and in John’s day Rome was the geographical focus of that power. The resulting darkness is reminiscent of the ninth Egyptian plague (Exod 10:21–29). This supernatural darkness not only intensifies the distress of the previous plagues, but also adds a terror of its own.35 The torments of darkness are vividly portrayed in Wisdom of Solomon 17. While some have adopted a less literal interpretation of this plague36 it is still true that it causes such agony that people gnaw37 their tongues in agony.

11 Far from repenting of their evil, the followers of the beast curse God because of their pains and sores. They have become one in character with their evil master, whose most characteristic activity is to blaspheme God and his followers (13:5, 6; cf. 13:1; 17:3). The term “God of heaven” may reflect Dan 2:44, where it is used of the One who in his sovereignty destroys the kingdoms of this world and establishes his universal reign. That people blaspheme because of their pains and their sores indicates that the discomfort of the previous plagues continues into the present. But punishment does not bring repentance. The decision to persevere in evil has permanently precluded any possibility of a return to righteousness.38

12 When the sixth bowl is poured out upon the Euphrates, the river dries up, thus opening a way for the kings from the East. There is at least a literary parallel between the sixth bowl and the sixth trumpet. When the sixth trumpet sounded, four angels bound at the Euphrates were released to lead a vast army of grotesque horses to the slaughter of one-third of the world’s population (9:13–19). The Euphrates marked the eastern boundary of the land given by covenant to Abraham and his seed (Gen 15:18; Deut 1:7–8; Josh 1:3–4). It also separated the Roman Empire on the east from the much feared Parthians whose expert cavalry bowmen had conquered the entire territory from the Euphrates to the Indus. It is frequently pointed out that in the OT God’s great redemptive acts were often associated with the drying up of water. The Exodus (Exod 14:21) and the entrance into Canaan (Josh 3:14–17) are the two major examples.39 In the present context it is the enemy that is allowed to advance for war by the drying up of the Euphrates.

It is unlikely that John is alluding to the famous capture of Babylon by Cyrus the Persian, but the incident is relevant. Herodotus40 tells us that Cyrus, finding the city seemingly impregnable, temporarily diverted the Euphrates, which ran through the center of Babylon, leaving open the riverbed, through which his armies entered and captured the city.

The kings from the East have been variously interpreted. Walvoord notes that as many as fifty different interpretations have been advanced.41 Whatever the ultimate reference, the historical context of John’s imagery favors the interpretation of the kings as Parthian rulers. The tradition that Nero, although dying by his own hand, would return from the East leading a great army of Parthian warriors is preserved in the Sibylline Oracles (4:115–39). Some confusion results from the fact that this tradition is partially intertwined in Revelation with an older tradition that portrayed a final assault on the people of God by the united kings of earth (Joel 3:2; Zeph 3:8). The kings of the East (v. 12) who will lay siege to Rome (17:15–18 and chap. 18) are distinct from the kings of the whole world (v. 14) who will wage the final war against Christ and the armies of heaven (19:11–21; note 17:12–14 as well).42

13 Verses 13–16 are sometimes taken as a brief interlude between the sixth and seventh bowls similar in structure to the break between the sixth and seventh seals (chap. 7) and the sixth and seventh trumpets (10:1–11:14). This would limit the sixth bowl to v. 12 only and thus depart from John’s custom of making the fifth and sixth plagues in each series considerably longer than the first four. Verses 13–16 should be viewed as a topical expansion of v. 12 (with v. 15 serving as a summons to readiness). The drying up of the Euphrates may have suggested the frogs of v. 13, which in turn would remind the reader of the second Egyptian plague (Exod 8:1–15). In any case, preparation for war is the common theme.

John sees three evil spirits coming out of the mouths of the dragon, the beast, and the false prophet. The dragon is without doubt the seven-headed dragon of chapter 12 (specifically identified as Satan in 12:9), and the beast is the beast out of the sea as described in the first ten verses of chapter 13. The false prophet (appearing by that name for the first time) is surely the beast out of the earth of 13:11–17.43 The evil spirits come out of the mouths of the unholy triumvirate, suggesting the persuasive and deceptive propaganda that in the last days will lead people to an unconditional commitment to the cause of evil.44 These historically conditioned symbols reveal eschatological truth that far transcends the limitations of their origins. In time the Roman Empire would crumble, but beyond all temporary manifestations of secular power the entire structure of human opposition to the kingdom of God will come crashing down in defeat. In the mind of the apocalyptist this will happen not by the gradual turning of people to the truth but by the dramatic and sudden return of the warrior Christ. People duped by the subtle propaganda of secularism have cut themselves off from the source of truth and must bear the inevitable consequences.

That the three spirits looked like frogs emphasizes their uncleanness45 and perhaps their endless croaking. Williams takes the final phrase in an adverbial sense and supplies a verb—“Then I saw three foul spirits leap like frogs from the mouths of the dragon.”

14 The first clause of v. 14 is a parenthetical remark that explains why the spirits are called evil. “They are diabolical spirits performing wonders” (Phillips).46 The following clause (“and they go out”) connects with “three evil spirits” of v. 13 and completes the sentence that began, “Then I saw.”47 John’s syntax invites considerable conjecture at times. The activity of the deceptive and demonic spirits reminds us of the living spirit who through the mouth of Ahab’s prophets would entice the profligate king into battle (1 Kgs 22:19–23). Jesus warned that in the last days false prophets would arise and by signs and wonders would lead many astray (Matt 24:24). Paul wrote of the lawless one whose appearance would be with “all kinds of counterfeit miracles, signs and wonders” and with “evil’s undiluted power to deceive” (2 Thess 2:10, Phillips). The evil spirits in Revelation work their spell on world rulers rather than ordinary people. By deceit they gather the kings of the whole world48 for a great battle against God and the hosts of heaven (explained in detail in 19:11–21).49 This epoch is designated “the great day50 of God Almighty.” It is the day when God will reckon with the ungodly nations of the world. Israel believed that in the last days her enemies would gather to war against her (Ezek 38–39; Zech 14; 1 Enoch 56:5–8; 90:13–19), but God would intervene and bring victory. Joel foretells a great and terrible day of the Lord (Joel 2:11) when God will gather the nations into the valley of Jehoshaphat and execute judgment upon them (Joel 3:2). The great assize described by John goes beyond nationalistic expectations. It is nothing less than the climax of human history when, in the words of the twenty-four elders, God the Almighty takes up his great power and enters into his reign (11:17).

15 The interjection of a warning in the midst of a prophecy of final conflict is entirely appropriate. When all the forces of the beast are gathered for the last battle, the believer will enter a period of supreme crisis.51 It is Christ himself who says, “Behold, I come like a thief!”52 We are reminded of the unexpectedness that the historical Jesus connected with his own return (Matt 24:42–44) and of Paul’s statement that the day of the Lord will come “like a thief in the night” (1 Thess 5:2). The faithful are admonished to be on the alert for this great event—not taken by surprise as a soldier who, when the alarm is sounded, must run away naked53 because he has misplaced his clothing. The kind of spiritual preparedness that Christ requires is the discernment that cuts through the deceptive propaganda of Satan and his henchmen (cf. 13:13–15). The beatitude is the third of seven that are found in Revelation (1:3; 14:13; 16:15; 19:9; 20:6; 22:7, 14). It promises the blessing of God for those who remain faithful in the critical hours that lie ahead.

16 Following the parenthesis of v. 15, the narrative resumes and leads directly into one of the more cryptic and difficult problems of Revelation. The kings of the world are said to be gathered together to the place “that in Hebrew is called Armageddon.” Magedon is normally connected with Megiddo, the ancient city lying on the north side of the Carmel ridge and commanding the strategic pass between the coastal plain and the valley of Esdraelon. It is one of history’s famous battlefields, having witnessed major conflicts all the way “from one fought by Tuthmosis III in 1468 B.C. to that of Lord Allenby of Megiddo in 1917.”54 “By the waters of Megiddo” Barak and Deborah defeated the chariots of Sisera (Judg 4–5; cf. 5:19). Ahaziah, wounded by the arrows of Jehu, fled to Megiddo, and died there (2 Kgs 9:27).

Instead of Armageddon, the NRSV and a few others use the designation Harmagedon55 which would mean “the Mountain of Megiddo.” But here a difficulty arises: there is no Mt. Megiddo. It is possible that Harmagedon could be a reference to the hill country near Megiddo or perhaps a reference to Megiddo and Mt. Carmel in the same breath.56 In John’s day the tell or mound upon which Megiddo was built was about seventy feet in height, hardly enough to justify the designation Mount. One frequent suggestion is that the Apocalyptist began with Ezekiel’s prophecy of a great eschatological slaughter of the nations on “the mountains of Israel” (Ezek 38:8–21; 39:2, 4, 17) and then made the reference more specific by adding the name Megiddo as the place where so often in Israel’s history the enemies of God were destroyed.57Still others interpret the term in reference to some ancient myth in which an army of demons assault the holy mountain of the gods. If one reads Armageddon (instead of Harmagedon), the reference could be to the city of Megiddo rather than to a mountain.58

Others interpret Harmagedon without reference to Megiddo. Some have held it to be the “mount of assembly” mentioned in Isa 14:13.59 Or it could be a corruption in the Hebrew text for “his fruitful mountain” or the “desirable city” (i.e., Jerusalem). As Rome is to be overthrown by the kings of the East (16:12; 17:16–17), so the kings of the whole world will be destroyed in final conflict outside the city of Jerusalem (see Joel 3:2; Zech 14:2ff.). Yet another suggestion is that Megiddo could be derived from a root meaning “to cut, attack, or maraud.” In this case Mt. Megiddo would mean “the marauding mountain” (a variant to Jeremiah’s “destroying mountain,” Jer 51:25) and indicate that John expected the battle not in northern Palestine but at Rome.60

As in the case of the number of the beast (13:18), the cryptic nature of the reference has thus far defeated all attempts at a final answer.61 Fortunately, geography is not the major concern. Wherever it takes place, Armageddon is symbolic of the final overthrow of all the forces of evil by the might and power of God. The great conflict between God and Satan, Christ and Antichrist, good and evil, that lies behind the perplexing course of history will in the end issue in a final struggle in which God will emerge victorious and take with him all who have placed their faith in him.62 This is Har-Magedon.

17 It is not surprising that there are a number of similarities between the last trumpet and the final bowl: they both bring history to a close. Following the seventh trumpet loud voices in heaven proclaimed the realization of the kingdom of God (11:15), the twenty-four elders announced the arrival of the time of judgment (11:18), the temple of God in heaven was opened (11:19), and there were flashes of lightning, rumblings, peals of thunder, an earthquake, and a great hailstorm (11:19–21). Likewise the seventh bowl is followed by a loud voice from the heavenly temple declaring God’s purpose accomplished (16:17), judgment falls upon the entire earth (16:19–20), and there are flashes of lightning, rumblings, and peals of thunder, along with the greatest of all earthquakes and tremendous hailstones (16:18, 21).

The seventh bowl is poured out into the air, the atmosphere that surrounds the earth.63 A loud voice from the heavenly sanctuary proclaims, “All is over!” (Moffatt). The seven plagues (15:1) have run their course, and the human race stands on the threshold of eternity. The loud voice is the voice of God. The blending of heavenly sanctuary and throne room64 was seen in 7:15 and 8:5 as well.

18 The divine proclamation is accompanied by flashes of lightning, rumblings, and peals of thunder—the same “storm-theophany”65 we encountered in similar scenes in 4:5; 8:5; and 11:19 (cf. Exod 19:16–18). The earth is rocked with an earthquake far greater than any since the human race has inhabited the earth. The severity of the earthquake is emphasized by the statement, “No earthquake like it has ever occurred since man has been on earth,66 so tremendous was the quake.” This would have a vivid impact upon people living in a century that had experienced a great number of severe quakes.

19 The great city that is split into three parts is undoubtedly to be identified as Rome. This follows from the fact that in the following chapter Rome is repeatedly referred to as the “great city” (vv. 10, 16, 18, 19, 21).67 The subsequent reference in the same verse to Babylon does not imply yet another different city.68 For John the allusion would be to Rome as the center of Satanic power and oppression against the fledgling church. The division of the great city into three parts indicates the completeness of its destruction. That all the cities of the nations fall with Rome indicates the dominant role of the great capital in its network of imperial communications.

God remembers to give Rome “the wine-cup of his passionate wrath.”69 No longer does the kindness and patience of God (intended to lead people to repentance, Rom 2:4) restrain his righteous indignation against all who have by their own free will decided irrevocably for evil. If God were not to punish unrighteousness, the concept of a moral universe would have to be discarded.

20 When the sixth seal was opened, there followed a great earthquake, dramatic cosmic disturbances, and “every mountain and island was removed from its place” (6:12–14). Likewise the great earthquake of the seventh bowl causes every island to flee away and the mountains to disappear. Some writers see in the reference to the removal of “every island” an allusion to the author’s imprisonment on the island of Patmos.70 Others find eschatological hostility toward mountains due to prophetic denunciation of high places.71 But the references are probably general in nature and represent the devastating effects of the tremendously violent earthquake.72 Similar indications of the end are found in As. Mos.10:4 and 1 Enoch 1:6. In Rev 20:11 the earth and sky flee away before the presence of the one who sits upon the great white throne.

21 The storm of divine wrath reaches its climax with hundred-pound73 hailstones falling from the sky upon people. In the OT God repeatedly punished the enemies of his people with hail. As the armies of the five kings fled before Joshua, God cast down great hailstones, killing more than died by the sword (Josh 10:11). Ezekiel prophesied against Gog a great shaking in the land with torrential rain and hailstones (Ezek 38:18–22). Hail was part of the accepted arsenal of divine retaliation.

The plague of hail produces no change in those who dwell on the earth. After each of the three final plagues people blaspheme God (16:9, 11, 21). Even the exceedingly great74 hail fails to shatter their confidence in the kingship of Apollyon, the angel of the Abyss (9:11), and bring them to acknowledge the sovereignty of the God of heaven. Their Faustian bargain has transformed them into blasphemers who carry out to the end the hatred of the beast for God.

With this vision, the Revelation might have come to an end—in terms of God’s judgments. But the vision does not end here. What follows is an extended description of Rome as a luxurious prostitute who meets a gruesome death at the hands of the scarlet beast she commands (chap. 17). The demise of the great city is then described in chaper 18 as a great funeral dirge complete with the mourning of kings, merchants, and all seafaring people whose livelihood depended upon Rome’s insatiable appetite for extravagance. Both chapters spell out in detail what is involved in the final bowl judgment.