VIII. THE FALL OF BABYLON (17:1–19:5)
Chapters 17 and 18 portray the judgment of God on the great (read “notorious”) prostitute, Rome, that citadel of pagan opposition to the cause of Christ. From a literary point of view the two chapters are distinct. In chapter 17 the harlot appears in a vulgar display of the trappings of wealth and power, and drunk with the blood of martyrs. In chapter 18 she is a city brought to ruins from her former position of world domination. After the opening vision (17:1–6) John learns from an interpreting angel the meaning of its various symbols. The seven heads are both seven hills and seven kings (v. 9), its ten horns are ten kings who join the beast in warring against the Lamb (vv. 12–14), the waters on which the prostitute is seated represent the nations of the world (v. 15), and the woman herself is the capital city of Rome (v. 18).
While the symbols themselves are not difficult to understand, the picture is complicated by such additional intricacies as the statement that the beast “belongs to the seven” yet “is an eighth king” (v. 11). Anticipating some bewilderment the angel-interpreter adds, “Here is a problem for a profound mind!” (v. 9, Goodspeed). By contrast the following chapter (18) is fairly clear: it is a dirge over the fallen capital. Kings, merchants, and all seafarers bewail its destruction. Echoes from the prophetic taunt songs of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel reverberate throughout the chapter.
It is clear that both chapters deal with the same epic event—the downfall of Rome, the center of power and influence that is threatening the early church. Chapter 17 portrays the overthrow of “Babylon” in terms of the destruction of a prostitute who sits astride the scarlet beast and flaunts her vile profession. In chapter 18 the central meaning of this entire episode comes into sharp focus; the prostitute is a city, and that city is “Babylon,” that is to say, Rome. Both chapters fill in in detail the essential meaning of the seventh bowl judgment. Chapter 17 combines a fuller interpretation of the two visions of chapter 13 with the final outpouring of God’s wrath as depicted by the last bowl judgment and sets the stage for the funeral dirge of chapter 18. From this point on John is laying before us his own “tale to two cities”—the city of man (earthly Babylon) and the city of God (the Jerusalem above).
19:1–10 is a great burst of heavenly jubilation over the fall of Babylon. It follows in stark contrast to the mournful dirges of chapter 18. It gives expression to the incredible rejoicing in heaven when the citadel of paganism and opposition to the people of God finally collapses. It prepares the way for the triumphal return of the Lamb and the establishment of the eternal reign of God.
A. THE PROSTITUTE AND THE SCARLET BEAST (17:1–18)
1. The Vision (17:1–6)
1One of the seven angels who had the seven bowls came and said to me, “Come, I will show you the punishment of the great prostitute, who sits on many waters. 2With her the kings of the earth committed adultery and the inhabitants of the earth were intoxicated with the wine of her adulteries.”
3Then the angel carried me away in the Spirit into a desert. There I saw a woman sitting on a scarlet beast that was covered with blasphemous names and had seven heads and ten horns. 4The woman was dressed in purple and scarlet, and was glittering with gold, precious stones and pearls. She held a golden cup in her hand, filled with abominable things and the filth of her adulteries. 5This title was written on her forehead:
MYSTERY
BABYLON THE GREAT
THE MOTHER OF PROSTITUTES
AND OF THE ABOMINATIONS OF THE EARTH.
6I saw that the woman was drunk with the blood of the saints, the blood of those who bore testimony to Jesus.
When I saw her, I was greatly astonished.
One of the seven bowl-angels now invites John to view the punishment to be meted out to the notorious prostitute with whom the kings of earth have committed adultery and whose adulteries have intoxicated the inhabitants of the earth (vv.1–2). Taken into the desert by the Spirit, John sees a loathsome prostitute astride a scarlet, seven-headed beast (vv. 3–6). In her hand is a golden cup filled with the filth of her adulteries, and on her forehead she bears the title “Mother of Prostitutes.” Her ultimate sin is that she has gorged herself on the blood of God’s people. She is the one responsible for the suffering and bloodshed brought upon the struggling church.
1 The Seer is summoned by one of the seven bowl-angels to view the judgment of the infamous prostitute. In 21:9 the same angel appears to show John the Bride, the wife of the Lamb.1 The connection is not accidental. When the great prostitute with all her seductive allurements is exposed and destroyed, then the Bride of Christ will be seen in all her beauty and true worth.
In OT prophetic discourse the imagery of the prostitute is commonly used to denote religious apostasy. Isaiah laments that the once faithful Jerusalem has become a prostitute (Isa 1:21). Jeremiah speaks of Israel’s “adulteries and lustful neighings” (elsewhere she is a wild donkey “sniffing the wind in her craving,” Jer 2:24) and “shameless prostitution” (Jer 13:27; cf. Jer 2:20–31; Ezek 16:15ff.; Hos 2:5). Since the prostitute of the Apocalypse is a pagan city (cf. 17:18), it is more likely that a passage like Nah 3:4 or Isa 23:16, 17 supplies the immediate background. In the former, the prostitute is Nineveh, who betrays nations with her harlotries and her charms (cf. Rev 17:4). Isaiah pictures Tyre as a forgotten prostitute. In the context of Revelation 17 and 18 the imagery is not that of religious profligacy but of the prostitution of all that is right and noble for the questionable ends of power and luxury.
Whether Jezebel or Cleopatra sat for the portrait John is now painting makes little difference.2 The prostitute is Rome.3 Adorned in luxury and intoxicated with the blood of the saints, she stands for a dominant world system based on seduction for personal gain over against the righteous demands of a persecuted minority. John’s images are timeless in that they portray the essential conflicts of humanity from the beginning of time until the end. At the close of history the great prostitute stands as the final and intensified expression of worldly power. The apocalyptic proclamation that the prostitute shall soon be stripped naked and be utterly destroyed (17:16) comes as a necessary and welcome reminder that God is forever sovereign and continues to occupy the throne of the universe. He will judge with equity the enemies of righteousness and will usher in the kingdom of eternal joy.
The prostitute is pictured as sitting upon4 many waters. According to v. 15, the waters are peoples, multitudes, nations, and languages. Since the prostitute is later named Babylon the Great (17:5), it would appear that this part of the description comes from Jer 51:13, where Babylon is said to dwell “by many waters.” The reference to the numerous canals that distributed the waters of the Euphrates to the surrounding territory symbolizes the influence of Rome as it flows out throughout the entire world.
2 The kings of the earth who have committed adultery with the great prostitute are the nations who have entered into illicit relations with Rome. They represent the apostate nations that Rome has enticed into idolatrous worship of herself and the beast. The influence of her pernicious doctrines has spread to the entire pagan population. The inhabitants of the earth are further identified in 17:8 as those “whose names have not been written in the book of life.”5 They are portrayed as drunk with the intoxicating influence of Rome’s seductive practices. In a somewhat similar way Jeremiah pictured Babylon as a gold cup in the Lord’s hand whose wine the nations drank and went mad (Jer 51:7).6
3 The Seer is now carried away into a desert to watch the coming judgment of the prostitute.7 Four times in the Apocalypse John is said to be in the Spirit (1:10; 4:2) or carried away in the Spirit (17:3; 21:10).8 The reference is to that state of ecstasy in which John experienced the entire visionary experience recorded in the Apocalypse (cf. 2 Cor 12:1–3). It does not necessarily point to some new state of exaltation that came over him. In this context the desert is not a place of divine protection and nourishment (as in 12:6, 14), but an appropriate setting for a vision of judgment.9 It may have been suggested by the opening statements of Isaiah’s oracle against Babylon in chapter 21. In the course of Jewish history the desert had often been the setting for unusual and visionary experiences (Exod 3:1ff.; 1 Kgs 19:4ff.; Matt 4:1ff.).
As the vision begins to unfold, John sees a woman seated upon a scarlet beast. That she was earlier said to be sitting upon many waters (v. 1) should cause no problem. The constantly shifting scenes of apocalyptic should not be taken with a rigidity that imposes artificial conformity on its symbols. The scarlet-colored beast is the beast that rose out of the sea in chapter 13 (vv. 1ff.). It is the great persecuting power that rules by brute force and is the supreme enemy of Christ and the church.10 The scarlet color does not necessarily convey an idea such as “ostentatious magnificence.”11 Nor is it symbolic of the blood of martyrs. Rather, it is primarily descriptive and heightens the terrifying appearance of the beast. Like its master, the great red dragon of chapter 12, it is terrifying to behold. Blasphemous names cover its entire body.12 The reference is to the blasphemous claims to deity made by Roman emperors, who employed such titles as theios (divine), sōtēr (savior), and kyrios (lord). The blasphemies are not so much directly spoken against God by the beast as they are implied by his self-deification. The beast (like the dragon of chap. 12) has seven heads and ten horns (cf. 13:1). These are interpreted later in the chapter (vv. 9–14, 16–17).
4 The woman who sits astride the scarlet beast is clothed in luxurious garments and adorned with gold and costly jewels. Purple and scarlet signify the luxury and splendor of ancient Rome. Both dyes were expensive to extract. Purple was often used for royal garments (Judg 8:26; Dan 5:7), and scarlet was a color of magnificence (cf. Nah 2:3). The costly and spectacular garb of the prostitute should be contrasted with the “fine linen, bright and clean,” worn by the Bride of the Lamb (Rev 19:8). The prostitute is lavishly adorned with gold13 and precious stones. In her hand she holds a golden cup that promises a heady draught of carnal satisfaction. Its contents, however, are quite otherwise. The cup is full of the “abominable things and14 the filth of her adulteries.”15 Moral corruption and all manner of ceremonial uncleanness are what she offers.16
5 The description of the prostitute continues with special attention to the name written on her forehead. There are seven other references in Revelation to the marking of the forehead. In 13:16, 14:9, and 20:4 the mark is the mark of the beast. Elsewhere it is the seal or name of God (7:3; 9:4; 14:1; 22:4). Placing the name upon the forehead (probably upon a headband) appears to have been a custom of Roman courtesans.17 The NIV includes MYSTERY as part of the inscription (following the punctuation of Tischendorf), but it is better understood as indicating that the name is to be understood in a mystical rather than literal sense. The NEB translates, “Written on her forehead was a name with a secret meaning.” Only those to whom the meaning is revealed (v. 7) will grasp the full significance of the title.18
The prostitute is Babylon the Great, that great system of godlessness that leads people away from the worship of God and to their own destruction (see before on 14:8). Specifically she is Rome, who, like Babylon of old, has gained a worldwide reputation for luxury, corruption, and power.19 Not content with her own evil vice, she spawns her harlotry and abominable practices throughout the world. She is the “mother of whores and of every obscenity on earth” (NEB). Tacitus describes Rome as the place “where all the horrible and shameful things in the world congregate and find a home.”20 Certainly Juvenal’s account of the vile and debased profligacy of the Roman Empress Messalina, who served incognito in the public brothels, is an indication of the depths of immorality in the ancient capital.21
6 The woman John sees is drunk with the blood of righteous martyrs. The figure recalls OT passages such as Isa 49:26, where it is prophesied that the oppressors of Israel “will be drunk on their own blood as with wine.”22 The metaphor was common among Roman writers as well.23 It portrays the wanton slaughter of a great number of believers along with the intoxicating effect it produces upon the murderous prostitute.24 Although the Neronian massacre after the great fire of A.D. 6425 may have been in the back of John’s mind, the drunken prostitute pictures the final days of persecution at the end of the age.
The woman is said to be drunk “from the blood of the saints and from the blood of the witnesses of Jesus” (lit.). The text, however, does not intend two groups. They are saints,26 that is, believers who have sacrificed their lives in faithful testimony to Jesus. The second expression specifies more closely the first and more general designation. The revolting and gory spectacle causes John to wonder “with a great wonder” (ASV). When he was taken to the desert John had expected to see the judgment of the prostitute, but up to this point she appears triumphant. Ostentatiously attired and adorned in wealth, she sits upon the scarlet beast advertising her base trade and intoxicated with the blood of her victims. The true nature of the empire is at last fully revealed.
2. The Vision Interpreted (17:7–18)
7Then the angel said to me: “Why are you astonished? I will explain to you the mystery of the woman and of the beast she rides, which has the seven heads and ten horns. 8The beast, which you saw, once was, now is not, and will come up out of the Abyss and go to his destruction. The inhabitants of the earth whose names have not been written in the book of life from the creation of the world will be astonished when they see the beast, because he once was, now is not, and yet will come.
9“This calls for a mind with wisdom. The seven heads are seven hills on which the woman sits. They are also seven kings. 10Five have fallen, one is, the other has not yet come; but when he does come, he must remain for a little while. 11The beast who once was, and now is not, is an eighth king. He belongs to the seven and is going to his destruction.
12“The ten horns you saw are ten kings who have not yet received a kingdom, but who for one hour will receive authority as kings along with the beast. 13They have one purpose and will give their power and authority to the beast. 14They will make war against the Lamb, but the Lamb will overcome them because he is Lord of lords and King of kings—and with him will be his called, chosen and faithful followers.”
15Then the angel said to me, “The waters you saw, where the prostitute sits, are peoples, multitudes, nations and languages. 16The beast and the ten horns you saw will hate the prostitute. They will bring her to ruin and leave her naked; they will eat her flesh and burn her with fire. 17For God has put it into their hearts to accomplish his purpose by agreeing to give the beast their power to rule, until God’s words are fulfilled. 18The woman you saw is the great city that rules over the kings of the earth.”
The interpreting angel sets out to explain to John the mystery of the woman and the beast she rides. The seven heads of the beast (who emerged from the Abyss) are both seven hills and seven kings. Five of the kings have fallen, one now is, and one is yet to come. The beast is an eighth king. His ten horns represent ten other kings who join with the beast in waging war against the Lamb and are defeated. The beast and the ten kings turn their hatred on the prostitute andbring her to a gory death. Granted, this “interpretation” leaves considerable room for further discussion. In a general sense we immediately understand that here we see the appropriate end of “Babylon,” the cruel oppressor of God’s people. It is a picture of the self-destructive power of evil. Rome has overreached itself and is responsible for its own terrible destiny.
7 The angel responds to John’s astonishment by offering to explain the mystery of the woman and the beast on which she rides.27 It is a single mystery that involves both figures. Neither can be understood apart from the other. While the remainder of chapter 17 is primarily concerned with the interpretation of the beast, 18:1–19:5 details the judgment of the prostitute.
8 The Seer first learns from his angel-interpreter that the scarlet-colored beast “once was, now is not, and will come up out of the Abyss.” This is an obvious parody of the Lamb, who was put to death yet came back to life and now is alive forevermore (1:18; 2:8).28 The description is also an intentional antithesis to the One “who is, and who was, and who is to come” (1:4, 8; 4:8). In the broadest sense the beast is that satanically inspired power which, although having received the stroke of death, returns to hurl himself with renewed fury against the forces of God. It is this incredible power of resuscitation that causes the inhabitants of the earth to stand in awe. He is the beast of chapter 13 who had received a death-stroke in one of his heads and yet survived (13:3, 12, 14). Down through history he repeatedly “comes up out of the Abyss”29 to harass and, if it were possible, to destroy the people of God. He is the little horn of Daniel 7 (Antiochus Epiphanes) who rises out of the fourth kingdom (the “most terrifying” fourth beast, Dan 7:19) to make war against the saints (Dan 7:21). He is Nero, who instigates a persecution of the Christians to avert suspicion that he is responsible for the burning of Rome. The beast was; at the moment he is not. John wrote under the shadow of an impending persecution. The beast is about to come again. This coming will be his last, for now the King of kings and Lord of lords will throw him (along with the false prophet) alive into the fiery lake of burning sulfur (19:20). This is what it means that he will “go to his destruction” (see v. 11 as well).
John understood the persecution that lay in the immediate future to be the return of the beast expressed in the ruthless tyranny of the imperial government. He had exercised a controlling influence in the successive reigns of the emperors of Rome, but in this final sortie he is to be revealed for what he really is—the very incarnation of evil in its deep-seated hatred and violent opposition to God and all that is just and good.
The inhabitants of the earth stand in awe when they behold the beast. They are those whose names have not been written in the book of life (cf. Ps 69:28; Isa 4:3; Rev 3:5) from the creation of the world. John is not teaching a form of determinism (according to 3:5 names may be blotted out of the book of life), but emphasizing the great distinction that exists between the followers of the Lamb and those who give their allegiance to the beast. It is the reappearance of the beast that causes the astonishment on the part of the unbelieving world. The verb used to describe the coming of the beast is closely related to the noun30 that regularly describes the parousia or second coming of Christ (1 Cor 15:23; 1 Thess 2:19; 1 John 2:28; etc.).
9 In v. 8 the beast was portrayed as an evil power who had appeared throughout history and was about to put in one final appearance that would lead to his destruction. In the verses that follow (9–14) the angel relates this more general truth to John’s historical context by providing clues for the interpretation of the beast’s seven heads and identifying the ten horns as those forces that will join with the Antichrist in his last fierce assault upon the Lamb. The rather cryptic statement with which this section begins (“This calls for a mind with wisdom”)31 may be a warning to interpret with care, or an aside to the effect that what follows “is the clue for those who can interpret it” (NEB). The number of the beast in 13:18 was introduced with a similar statement, but in neither case has the meaning been clear. What is being said is that although the interpretation of the seven heads is not obvious, it may be understood by those who ponder the riddle with care and wisdom.32
The seven heads of the beast are first identified as seven hills upon which the prostitute is sitting. There is little doubt that a first-century reader would understand this reference in any way other than as a reference to Rome, the city built upon seven hills. Rome began as a network of seven hill settlements on the left bank of the Tiber, and was from the time of Servius Tullius (her sixth king) an urbs septicollis. The reference is commonplace among Roman authors.33 Some writers point out that in OT usage the hill may be a symbol of power (cf. Dan 2:35; Jer 51:25), and interpret the seven hills as successive kingdoms or empires.34
Others take the number symbolically.35 Whatever the overtones may be, the immediate reference is to the city of Rome. In John’s day Rome epitomized all the antagonism and opposition to the Christian faith. The beast is about to come from the Abyss and become incarnate in this hostile world order of which the city on seven hills is the governing center.
10 But now the plot thickens.36 The seven heads of the beast are also seven kings, five of whom have fallen, one is, and one has not yet come. The simplest answer would be that the angel is referring to a series of Roman emperors and pointing out that one more must rule for a short time before the final advent of the beast. The five that have fallen would be Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero; the one who is would be Vespasian, and Titus would be the one yet to come. This interpretation, however, has several problems. It regards Augustus as the first emperor although his predecessor, Julius Caesar, took the title Imperator, and was reckoned by many writers (both Roman and Jewish) as the first emperor.37 A second problem is the omission of the three rival emperors who ruled briefly between Nero (A.D. 54–68) and Vespasian (A.D. 69–79).38 Although Suetonius seems to dispose of them by referring to their reigns as rebellio trium principum,39 Josephus, in treating the bloody period between Nero and Vespasian, names both Galba and Otho as emperors and speaks of the troubles under Vitellius before the civil war was brought to an end.40 In the Sibylline Oracles (5:35) they are the “three kings” after Nero who “perish at each other’s hands.” It is therefore not at all certain that these three emperors should be passed over so lightly.
By starting with Augustus and skipping the three pretenders, we would arrive at Vespasian as the king who is, that is, the ruler in power at the time of the writing of the book. Yet the evidence is fairly conclusive that the book of Revelation was written at a considerably later period, during the reign of Domitian (A.D. 81–96). Different answers are offered for this anachronism. One frequent suggestion is that John incorporates an earlier oracle from the time of Vespasian.41 Another is that John placed himself back in time and after the manner of apocalyptists wrote history in the guise of prophecy. These and others lack persuasion.42 The text is quite clear: king number six is ruling at the time of John’s writing. However people try to calculate the seven kings as Roman emperors, they encounter difficulties that cast considerable doubt on the entire approach.
A different approach is to take the seven kings as a succession of secular empires. One writer, for instance, lists Egypt, Nineveh, Babylon, Persia, and Greece as the five that have fallen; Rome is the present kingdom; and the one to come is the Christian empire beginning with Constantine.43 Another has a slightly different listing and makes the seventh a “collective title for all antichristian governments between the fall of Rome and the final empire of antichrist.”44 The basic problem with this approach is that the Greek word under consideration is everywhere throughout the NT translated “king,” not “kingdom.”45
The most satisfactory explanation of the seven kings is that the number seven is symbolic and stands for the power of the Roman Empire as a historic whole.46 John is not interested in a careful tabulation of the past but is declaring the nearness of the end by the commonly accepted use of a numerical scheme. For John seven is the number of completeness. Five kings have fallen, one is, and the last one remains for only a short time. In other apocalyptic writings the number of ages or world periods conforms to different numerical schemes. In 2 Esdr 14:11 history is divided into twelve parts, of which 9½ (or 10½) have already passed.47 In the Apocalypse of Weeks, Enoch divides history into ten periods, seven of which are already past (1 Enoch 93), and three yet future that lead to eternal judgment (1 Enoch 91:12–17). The single purpose of the apocalyptists in all such number schemes is to declare the imminent end of the age. In Revelation the seven kings represent the entire period of Roman domination regardless of the exact number of emperors. The important point is that the end is drawing near.48
11 We now arrive at the heart of the riddle. The beast himself is an eighth king who is at the same time one of the seven. If the seven kings were specific Roman emperors, then the most likely candidate for number eight would be Domitian. This would identify the beast as the emperor reigning at the time John receives his vision. Yet three times in the chapter we are told that the beast is not (19:8 [twice], 11). At the time of writing, the beast has not yet ascended from the Abyss (19:8). He is an eighth in the sense that he is distinct from the other seven. He is Antichrist, not simply another Roman emperor. He is not a human ruler through whom the power of evil finds expression—he is that evil power itself. He belongs to the cosmic struggle between God and Satan that lies behind the scenes of human history. Yet he will appear on the stage of history as a man. He is “of the seven” (ek tōn hepta)—not “one of the seven”49—in that he plays the same sort of role as his earthly predecessors. He himself, however, belongs to another sphere of reality. His period of hegemony is the great tribulation preceding the return of the Messiah.
This interpretation requires no reliance upon the Nero Redivivus myth (see earlier in 13:3), although its existence would aid in the understanding of John’s prophecy of Antichrist. Nero, the epitome of evil and the abuse of power, was (he lived and ruled) and is not (i.e., he is now dead). Yet (according to the myth) he will return to life and once again seize power.50 Commentators who understand the eighth king as Domitian stress that early writers recognized a resemblance between Nero and Domitian.51 But since all the beast’s heads were part of the same imperial system through which the evil intent of Antichrist found expression, we would of course expect the two prominent persecutors to be comparable.
A somewhat different approach holds that the beast is Antichrist in but two of his heads (successive worldly kingdoms at enmity with God).52 He was embodied in Antiochus Epiphanes, he does not now exist in the same malevolent form, but will in the future arise from the Abyss in the person of the eschatological Antichrist. It is doubtful, however, that the essentially Gentile church in Asia Minor at the end of the first century would place into such an exclusive category a Syrian ruler who, more than 250 years before, had persecuted the Jews in Palestine. Certainly the terrors of the Neronian persecution in A.D. 64, which only a few years before had set the stage for Roman opposition to the Christian faith, would be a more likely historical expression of Antichrist.
12–13 The ten horns are said by the angel-interpreter to be ten kings who as yet have not received their royal power.53 When they do receive authority, they will turn it over to the beast and join him in war against the Lamb. The ten kings are not the ten emperors of Rome because, unlike the Roman emperor, these have received no kingdom as yet. Nor are they the kings of the earth who in 18:9 mourn the fall of Babylon. Many writers identify them as Parthian satraps coming from the east in a massive invasion under the leadership of a revived Nero. This would fit the context of the following paragraph in which the ten kings and the beast destroy the prostitute city Rome (19:16–18). Still others take them to be the governors of senatorial provinces who held office for one year. Whatever the immediate historical allusion, the complete fulfillment of the imagery awaits the final curtain of the human drama. Ultimately the ten kings are “purely eschatological figures representing the totality of the powers of all nations on the earth which are to be made subservient to Antichrist.”54 The number ten is symbolic and indicates completeness. It does not point to ten specific kings nor to ten European kingdoms of a revived Roman empire.
All the forces that join with Antichrist rule but a short period.55 With one mind they turn over their power and authority to the beast.56 They are willing colleagues who share the same hostility to Christ and his followers.
14 Verse 14 passes on quickly to the final conflict between Antichrist and the Messiah (19:11–21). It is a promise of victory for the Lamb in the battle of Armageddon. The Lamb will overcome his adversaries, for he is “Lord of lords and King of kings.” These well-known phrases emphasizing the sovereignty of God go back to Deut 10:17, where the Lord God is named the God of gods and Lord of lords (cf. Ps 136:2, 3; Dan 2:47; 2 Macc 13:4). In 1 Enoch 9:4 the Most High is named “Lord of lords, God of gods, King of kings, and God of the ages.”57 The beast will be overcome because he has met the One to whom everyone will ultimately be subordinate. The armies of heaven share his victory as well (cf. Rev 19:14). Those who overcome will exercise the authority of the Lamb over the nations of the earth and will rule them with an iron scepter (Rev 2:26–27). The concept of the righteous taking part in the destruction of the wicked is a standard apocalyptic theme. In 1 Enoch 98:12 the unrighteous are warned that they are to be delivered into the hands of the righteous, who will cut off their necks without mercy (cf. 1 Enoch 38:5; 91:12; 96:1). The specific role of those who accompany the Lamb in battle is not discussed. They are simply identified as called, chosen, and faithful.58
15 The angel continues his interpretation (cf. vv. 8 and 12) by identifying the waters upon which the prostitute sits as peoples, multitudes, nations, and languages. This fourfold grouping stresses universality.59 The imagery of the waters comes from Jer 51:13, where Babylon is pictured as dwelling by many waters,60 a reference to the Euphrates and its system of waterways in and around the city. For John the symbol serves to emphasize the vastness of the power of Rome, the capital city of the entire Mediterranean civilization.61
16 The fate of the prostitute is now related in phrases reminiscent of Ezekiel’s vivid allegory of Oholibah (Ezek 23:11–35), who doted on the Assyrians (23:12), was defiled by the Babylonians (23:17), and played the prostitute in the land of Egypt (23:19). The beast and the ten kings turn in hatred upon the prostitute (“they will deal with you in hatred,” Ezek 23:29), make her desolate (“strip you of your clothes and take your fine jewelry,” Ezek 23:26) and naked (“leave you naked and bare,” Ezek 23:29), eat her flesh (“cut off your noses and your ears,” Ezek 23:25), and burn her utterly with fire (“those of you who are left will be consumed by fire,” Ezek 23:25). This turning of the beast against the woman who sits on it speaks of “a terrible and mysterious law of political history, according to which every revolutionary power contains within itself the seed of self-destruction.”62 It describes the self-destroying power of evil. The wicked are not a happy band of brothers, but precisely because they are wicked they give way to jealousy and hatred, so that “at the climax their mutual hatreds will result in mutual destruction.”63
The woman who was once arrayed in purple and scarlet and adorned with jewelry (Rev 17:4) is now stripped bare. The eating of her flesh64 suggests wild beasts tearing at the body of their prey and portrays the fierceness with which the prostitute is attacked by her assailants. One is reminded of the bloody scene when Jezebel, having been thrown from the window and trampled by horses, was then eaten by the dogs except for skull, feet, and palms of hands (2 Kgs 9:30–37).65 Finally, the prostitute is burned with fire. Leviticus teaches that if the daughter of any priest defiles herself by becoming a prostitute, she is to be burned in the fire (Lev 21:9). So also is the man who takes a wife and her mother also—the three shall be burned in the fire (Lev 20:14).66
17 The angel explains that it was God who brought about the slaughter of the prostitute by putting it into the hearts of the ten kings to do his will. They were of one mind67 in relinquishing their sovereignty to the beast and joining in his assault upon the prostitute (v. 17) and in his final campaign against the Lamb (vv. 13–14). This verse denies the existence of any ultimate dualism in the world. In the final analysis the powers of evil serve the purposes of God. The coalition between the beast and his allies will continue until the words of God—the prophecies leading up to the overthrow of Antichrist—are fulfilled.
18 For the fourth time in this chapter the angel identifies and interprets a figure in the vision.68 The woman is the great city that rules over the kings of the earth. For John, the city is Rome. She is the wicked seducer whose pernicious influence has permeated the whole of the Mediterranean world. Yet Babylon the Great, source of universal harlotry and abomination (v. 5), is more than first-century Rome. Every great center of power that has prostituted its wealth and influence restores to life the spirit of ancient Babylon.69 John’s words extend beyond his immediate setting in history and sketch the portrait of an eschatological Babylon, which will provide the social, religious, and political base for the last attempt of Antichrist to establish his kingdom.
B. FUNERAL DIRGE OVER ROME (18:1–24)
John follows the vision of judgment that takes the life of the infamous prostitute with a detailed account of the destruction of Rome, that center of power, luxury, and fierce antagonism against the Christian faith. Drawing heavily upon prophetic oracles and taunt songs of Jewish scripture, the Apocalyptist records an extended dirge over the accursed city. The dirge is in three parts. First, in vv. 1–8 an angel invested with great authority comes down from heaven and declares that Babylon the Great is fallen. Another angel calls God’s people out of the city and proclaims judgment against her many crimes and sins. In the second part of the dirge (vv. 9–20) we hear the mournful lament of three different segments of society that had profited from Rome’s voracious appetite for material abundance—the kings of the world who had committed adultery with her (vv. 9–10), the merchants who supplied her with anything and everything she wanted (vv. 11–17a), and the maritime industry that brought her cargo from around the world (vv. 17b–20). The third and final segment is the actual fall of Rome (vv. 21–24). It is important to note that the entire dirge is poetic in language and form. To interpret the section as prose leads to some serious misunderstandings.
A number of scholars assume that some sort of Jewish source lies behind this section.1 The special source theory is based primarily on the large number of rare words in the chapter and differences of outlook that are held to exist.2 The idea of a non-Christian source is strengthened by what appears to be an antagonism against Rome so violent as to be inconsistent with teaching elsewhere in the NT concerning the state (e.g., Rom 13:1–7). But the author of Revelation is not at this point discussing how believers are to live under normal circumstances within the state. He is portraying in a prophetic manner the ultimate collapse of a monstrous antichristian world order determined to defeat the purpose of God in history. It is not personal vindictiveness but loyalty to God and his great redemptive purpose that moves the Seer to deliver a prophetic oracle in the accepted literary genre of his predecessors. Squeamishness about his rhetoric results more from a misunderstanding of the literary nature of the prophetic taunt song than from any supposedly sub-Christian ethic being expressed.
The argument against the idea of a specific source adapted by the Seer rests mainly upon John’s regular practice of drawing freely upon the words and phrases of Jewish literature. Elaborate attempts to discover an earlier source3 are unnecessary and detract from the accomplishment of the author himself. John is more original than some of his interpreters would allow him to be. In addition to describing what he actually “sees” in the visions given to him he serves as an inspired writer who not only comments on the visions but at times is actually involved in them (e.g., 11:1–2).
The greatness of John as a prophet is seen with great clarity in this section of the Apocalypse. Remember that Rome is at the height of her glory. She rules the world, and nations serve her interests as obedient servants. Her power is unchallenged. Over against this mighty monolith stands a lonely prophet in exile on a barren island in the Aegean. As Rome carries on her opulent lifestyle unaware of any pending danger, John sings her funeral dirge—in the past tense! Rome has fallen. The mighty city has become nothing but a haunt for evil spirits and unclean animals. Imagine how this message fell on the ears of believers in the seven churches. Facing persecution and loss, they are led by the prophetic Spirit to understand that their oppressor will soon be destroyed. The future is not desolate but filled with the joyful expectation of the vindication of their faith. John’s message could not have come at a more appropriate time.
1. Babylon Declared Desolate (18:1–8)
1After this I saw another angel coming down from heaven. He had great authority, and the earth was illuminated by his splendor. 2With a mighty voice he shouted:
“Fallen! Fallen is Babylon the Great!
She has become a home for demons
and a haunt for every evil spirit,
a haunt for every unclean and detestable bird.
3For all the nations have drunk
the maddening wine of her adulteries.
The kings of the earth committed adultery with her,
and the merchants of the earth grew rich from her excessive
luxuries.”
4Then I heard another voice from heaven say:
“Come out of her, my people,
so that you will not share in her sins,
so that you will not receive any of her plagues;
5for her sins are piled up to heaven,
and God has remembered her crimes.
6Give back to her as she has given;
pay her back double for what she has done.
Mix her a double portion from her own cup.
7Give her as much torture and grief
as the glory and luxury she gave herself.
In her heart she boasts,
‘I sit as queen; I am not a widow,
and I will never mourn.
8Therefore in one day her plagues will overtake her:
death, mourning and famine.
She will be consumed by fire,
for mighty is the Lord God who judges her.
The announcement of Babylon’s desolation comes in two segments. First, in vv. 1–3, an angel descends from heaven and its very presence illumines the earth. With great authority it announces that Rome has fallen. Then, in vv. 4–8, another voice from heaven calls the people of God out of the city, for it is about to receive a double portion of the suffering it inflicted on others.4 There is nothing ahead for the city but death, mourning and famine. The once proud monarch has been brought to ruin.
A major poetic feature in this section is the repeated sets of three lines. Rome has become a home for demons, a haunt for evil spirits, and a haunt for unclean birds (v. 2). Nations drink her adulterous wine, kings commit adultery with her, and merchants grow rich from her excessive luxuries (v. 3). The voice from heaven issues the order to give back to her what she has given, to pay her back double, and to mix her a double portion (v. 6). The plagues that overtake her are death, mourning, and famine (v. 8). Those who listened to this prophecy as it was read must certainly have been caught up in the rhythmic excitement of these passages, to say nothing of the message itself.
1 In vv. 1–3 an angel descends from heaven to announce the fate of Rome. The messenger is not the interpreting angel of the previous chapter (see vv. 1, 7, etc.) but “another angel.” The designation serves only to distinguish between the two and carries no special significance.5 The angel comes from the presence of God, empowered with great authority and reflecting the radiance and glory of God.6 One is reminded of the return of the glory of God to the temple through the east gate as described in Ezek 43:1–5. Elsewhere in Scripture God is pictured as dwelling in unapproachable light (1 Tim 6:16) and as wrapping himself in light as with a garment (Ps 104:2). Little wonder that those who come from his presence are marked by a lingering radiance (Exod 34:29–35). The authority of the angel should be understood in terms of the power required to proclaim to all the complete destruction of Rome7 as well as the incredible nature of what he is about to prophesy. In the ears of those who read the prophecy the collapse of mighty Babylon sounds absolutely impossible. John is about to tell them that God is now responding to the cry of the martyrs in the fifth seal.
2 The declaration of the angelic herald is like that of Isa 21:9 when news of the capture of Babylon by Cyrus reached the children of Israel—“Babylon has fallen, has fallen! All the images of its gods lie shattered on the ground!” With a mighty voice the angel shouts out that Babylon the Great has fallen.8 Babylon has always been symbolic of opposition to the advance of the kingdom of God. As it fell in times past, so will it be destroyed in the future. Part of the reason for using “Babylon” is that the readers will know what God did to the first Babylon and be quick to recognize that in giving Rome that title he will once again carry out his judgment on the city. The aorist tense denotes the certainty of future fulfillment. It is the prophetic way of declaring that the great purpose of God in triumphing over evil is a fait accompli.
The once-proud city of Babylon is to lie utterly desolate. It is to become the haunt for evil spirits and all kinds of unclean creatures. For background we should turn to Isaiah’s oracle against ancient Babylon. There we find that Babylon once fallen will never again be inhabited except by creatures of the desert (Isa 13:20–21). Satyrs (RSV), demonic creatures having the appearance of hairy goats, will leap about among the ruins to the howling of hyenas and jackals (Isa 13:21–22).9 There is some question about the meaning of the word twice translated “haunt” in v. 2 as well as the relationship between the parallel clauses.10 The structure of the verse suggests that the word is roughly parallel to “home.” Demons dwell among the ruins of Babylon, as do unclean spirits and animals. It is not a place of detention11 but a place where they dwell undisturbed. In any case, it is a prophetic picture of absolute desolation where the proud achievements of the human race become the demonic haunts of unclean and detestable creatures. Since Rome is already the habitation of evil spirits, it follows that when she falls nothing will remain but the evil spirits and ceremonially unclean creatures.
3 This verse supplies the reason for the fall of Rome. Again it is set out in a triplet progressing from the nations intoxicated by her adultery, to the kings of the earth who committed adultery with her, to the merchants who grew wealthy from her desire for luxury. Rome has fallen because she has made the nations drink12 the maddening wine of her adulteries.13 Adultery is a well-known figure in the OT for apostasy from God (Hos 4:10; Jer 3:2). It is used here to denote the unclean and illicit relationships between the capital of the empire and all the nations of the earth. In the last days it will be epitomized by worship of the beast. The merchants of the earth have profited from their economic alliances with Rome. They have become rich through the power of her luxury. The excessive luxury14 of Rome is spoken of as an actual power that has made the merchants of the earth rich.
4 John hears another voice from heaven, addressing itself first to the people of God (vv. 4–5) and then to those who execute his wrath (vv. 6ff.). The voice is probably that of an angel who speaks on behalf of God. Although the reference to believers as “my people” would seem to designate God as speaker, the following verse indicates otherwise by placing God in the third person. The people of God are called upon to come out of the doomed city. Prophets of former days had issued similar warnings. “Depart, depart, go out from there! Touch no unclean thing!” cried Isaiah (52:11). “Come out of her, my people! Run for your lives!” echoed Jeremiah (51:45).15 The call to separation has marked the elect throughout the history of God’s redemptive activity.16 The Jewish race had its origin with God’s command to Abram, “Leave your country … and go to the land I will show you” (Gen 12:1). “For what do righteousness and wickedness have in common?” asks Paul (2 Cor 6:14). The summons in Rev 18:4 suggests a literal flight from the doomed city (as Christian Jews fled to Pella at the fall of Jerusalem), but when projected on the larger screen of the consummation it becomes a call to the last generation of believers for “spiritual withdrawal from Vanity Fair.”17
The persecuted church has always faced the temptation to compromise with worldliness and thus ease the tension of living in a hostile environment. Separation is the order of the day: sometimes physical, always ideological. Augustine interpreted the section spiritually, commenting, “We must renounce our rights as citizens of this world, and flee unto God on the wings of faith” (De Civ. Dei 18.18).
Two reasons are given for separation from the city: so as not to share in her sins and so as not to receive any of her plagues (which brings together two basic issues in the book—sin and judgment). To share in her wickedness is to reap her recompense. The most common NT designation for a believer (“saint”) means to be set apart to God for a holy purpose.
5 Plagues are about to come upon the city because her sins have accumulated18 to such an extent that they extend up into heaven where God has not forgotten them. If the verse builds on Jer 51:9 (“for her judgment reaches to the skies”), the figure would be less vivid. God remembers the iniquities of Babylon and will make her drink the cup of his wrath (cf. 16:19).
6 The voice from heaven continues to speak, but it now addresses itself to undesignated agents of divine vengeance.19 With yet another triplet, the judgment is expressed in terms of repayment in kind. They are to give back to her as she has given, to pay her back double for what she has done, and to mix her a double portion from her own cup. Attempts to soften the passage out of consideration for the character of God (as well as the credibility of the Seer) misunderstand the eschatological wrath of a righteous deity.20 Babylon has shed the blood of prophets and saints (v. 24) and is about to receive in kind the reward for her cruelty. Not divine revenge but just requital is the issue. The martyrs of chapter 6 need wait no longer for the sovereign God, holy and true (6:10), to avenge the death of all whose faith has conquered the sword.
While it is true that “double [unto her] the double” was a “conventional expression for full requital,”21 it would appear that in this setting what is being called for is not lex talionis but a more severe form of punishment—one that corresponds to Babylon’s enlightenment.22 The parallel structure of the first two clauses and the demand for equal payment in the following verse favor the first interpretation. John follows the prophetic tradition—“Repay her for her deeds; do to her as she has done” (Jer 50:29). In the very cup from which she made the nations drink the maddening wine of her adulteries (Rev 14:8), she must now drink the wrath of God (cf. 2 Bar. 13:8).
7 With the second command for judgment (v. 7a) the repayment takes a new turn. Rome is to receive misery in exact proportion to the self-glorification and luxurious lifestyle she has chosen. Like the daughters of Zion who “walk with outstretched necks, flirting with their eyes” (Isa 3:16–17), the harlot Babylon is also to be smitten by the Lord. The Greek idea of hybris (an arrogant self-assertiveness that insults and abuses others)23 is an attitude uniformly decried in Scripture. “A man’s pride brings him low,” reads Prov 29:23. “For everyone who exalts himself will be humbled” is the NT counterpart (Luke 14:11). The humbling of Babylon will involve torment and grief.
The voice from heaven now gives the reasons for these judgments.24 With arrogant pride Rome sees herself as mistress of the world beyond any possibility of personal loss or sorrow. The rhetoric of her monologue is modeled after Isa 47:7–8, where Babylon, the lover of pleasures, says in her heart, “I am, and there is none besides me. I will never be a widow or suffer the loss of children.” Rome’s assertion that she is no widow is not a retort against the suggestion that she is without lovers, but indicates that she has not experienced the debilitating effects of war and loss of life. Her soldiers are victorious: they have not died on the fields of battle. There is no mourning in her streets.25
8 Because of her arrogant self-confidence, her plagues will come suddenly26 upon her, and she will be utterly devastated by the fire of divine judgment. Belshazzar, his court and his concubines, drinking wine from the sacred vessels of the temple, suddenly saw their fate being written on the wall of the palace by the fingers of a man’s hand (Dan 5). Rome, drunk with the blood of martyrs (17:6; 18:24), will suddenly meet a like disaster. The three plagues that come are death, mourning, and famine.27 Judgment by fire is a common Biblical concept. In one chapter in Jeremiah the Lord says that Babylon will be a “burned-out mountain” (51:25) whose dwellings (v. 30), marshes (v. 32), and high gates (v. 58) will all be set on fire. Fire will test the quality of each person’s work on the day of the Lord (1 Cor 3:13). In ancient times the smoke of a burning city signaled its collapse. Once under way, nothing can prevent the spread of its hungry flames until the city is left in smoldering ruins. In the case of Rome it is the Lord28 God in his strength who will bring about judgment by fire.
Even though the churches of John’s day were subject to opposition and oppression from the government, the certainty of God’s judgment would bring great hope. God has not forsaken them. His ears are not deaf to the cry of the martyrs for vindication. The announcement of Rome’s imminent demise, unbelievable as it would appear from all outward observation, was a sure indication that God stilled ruled the nations of the world and that he will never allow his eternal plan to be overthrown. His kingdom will prevail!
The judgment that will fall Rome will be like in kind to what she has meted out to others. She will be mixed a double portion from her own cup. She who boasted of her invincibility will be brought to nothing. As she has caused others to suffer every kind of hardship, so now she herself will experience the sorrow of deprivation and death. The point is not that the church will be able to rejoice because others suffer but that God in his justice will see to it that the arrogant cruelty of pagan Rome will not go unpunished.
2. Lament of Kings, Merchants, and Seamen (18:9–20)
9“When the kings of the earth who committed adultery with her and shared her luxury see the smoke of her burning, they will weep and mourn over her. 10Terrified at her torment, they will stand far off and cry:
“ ‘Woe! Woe, O great city,
O Babylon, city of power!
In one hour your doom has come!’
11“The merchants of the earth will weep and mourn over her because no one buys their cargoes any more—12cargoes of gold, silver, precious stones and pearls; fine linen, purple, silk and scarlet cloth; every sort of citron wood, and articles of every kind made of ivory, costly wood, bronze, iron and marble; 13cargoes of cinnamon and spice, of incense, myrrh and frankincense, of wine and olive oil, of fine flour and wheat; cattle and sheep; horses and carriages; and bodies and souls of men.
14“They will say, ‘The fruit you longed for is gone from you. All your riches and splendor have vanished, never to be recovered.’ 15The merchants who sold these things and gained their wealth from her will stand far off, terrified at her torment. They will weep and mourn 16and cry out:
“ ‘Woe! Woe, O great city,
dressed in fine linen, purple and scarlet,
and glittering with gold, precious stones and pearls!
17In one hour such great wealth has been brought to ruin!’
“Every sea captain, and all who travel by ship, the sailors, and all who earn their living from the sea, will stand far off. 18When they see the smoke of her burning, they will exclaim, ‘Was there ever a city like this great city?’ 19They will throw dust on their heads, and with weeping and mourning cry out:
“ ‘Woe! Woe, O great city,
where all who had ships on the sea
became rich through her wealth!
In one hour she has been brought to ruin!
20Rejoice over her, O heaven!
Rejoice, saints and apostles and prophets!
God has judged her for the way she treated you.’ ”
Verses 9–19 consist of three dirges raised over the fallen city of Babylon.29 They are chanted by the kings of the earth who have shared in her luxury (vv. 9–10), the merchants of the earth who have grown rich by supplying her insatiable appetite for luxury (vv. 11–17), and the entire maritime trade that had prospered in delivering her desires (vv. 17–19). The section is modeled after Ezekiel’s lamentation over Tyre (chap. 27). Fifteen of the twenty-nine commodities listed in Rev 18:12–13 are also found in Ezek 27:12–22. The same three groups of mourners are all referred to in the Ezekiel passage, although their reactions to the fall of the cities differ somewhat—the mariners cry bitterly (vv. 29–30), the kings shudder with horror (v. 35), and the merchants hiss (v. 36). Then in sudden and sharp contrast to the thrice-repeated “Woe! Woe, O great city” (vv. 10, 16, 19) heaven and God’s people on earth are called on to rejoice that God has judged the city for the way she treated them (v. 20). This prepares the way for the actual fall of Rome in the dramatic verses that follow (vv. 21–24).
9–10 The first lament is that of the kings of the earth. These are not the kings of 17:16 who turn upon Rome to bring her down to destruction, but the governing heads of all nations who have entered into questionable trade with the commercial center of the ancient world. They represent “the bankruptcy of an arrogant existence which believed that it was ‘secure’ because it was living in a perverted political order.”30 They have committed adultery (entered into illicit relations; cf. 17:2) with the prostitute and lived voluptuously31 with her. Now their fortunes have changed, and they weep and wail32 as the rising smoke announces her destruction by fire. Like the princes of the sea who are “clothed with terror” at the fall of Tyre (Ezek 26:16–18), the world leaders lament the unexpected disaster that falls upon Rome. The imagery of fire is prominent in the description of the eschatological collapse of the world order—epitomized in John’s day by Rome (17:16; 18:8, 17; 19:3; cf. Isa 34:10; Ezek 28:18). Peter speaks of the coming day of God when the heavens will be destroyed by fire and the elements will melt in the heat (2 Pet 3:12).
The kings of the earth do not rush to the rescue of their paramour but “stand at a distance, horrified at her torture” (TCNT). They are astounded that judgment could fall so suddenly (“in one hour”) upon a city as great and strong as Rome. They raise their voices in the sorrowful lament, “Woe! woe, O great city” (to be repeated by both the merchants [v. 16] and sailors [v. 19]). Both the English word “woe” and its Greek equivalent (pronounced ouai) have a desolate and mournful sound. The city that seemed so strong and powerful has fallen. In one hour her doom had come.33 Those who admired the accomplishments of strength are amazed that the most powerful city in existence lies smoldering in the ashes of destruction.
11 In vv. 11–17 the dirge is taken up by the merchants of the earth.34 They weep and mourn, not out of sympathy for the proud city now brought low, but because with its collapse they have been deprived of their major source of financial gain. There is no longer anyone to buy their merchandise. The tremendous volume of this trade may be inferred from contemporary writers such as Pliny and Aristides.35 The excessive luxury of Rome and its passion for the extravagant are well known.36 At one of Nero’s banquets the Egyptian roses alone cost nearly $100,000. Vitellius had a penchant for delicacies like peacocks’ brains and nightingales’ tongues. In his reign of less than one year he spent $20,000,000, mostly on food. One Roman, after squandering an immense fortune, committed suicide because he could not live on the pittance that remained—about $300,000. In the Talmud it is written, “Ten measures of wealth came down into the world: Rome received nine, and all the world one.”37 Small wonder that the suppliers of such gross extravagance mourned the passing of their market!
12–13 We are now presented with a list of imports brought from all over the world into Ostia, the port of Rome. The inventory is quite similar to the one found in Ezekiel 27, where Tyre is the chief maritime capital in a former period of splendor. The twenty-nine items fall into six groups of four to six each:38 (1) precious metals and gems, (2) fabrics for expensive clothing, (3) ornamental pieces, (4) aromatic substances, (5) foodstuffs, and (6) animals and people. The purpose of the long list is to impress the reader with the tremendous flow of trade that poured into Rome, enabling her to live luxuriously as the mistress of the world. Not every item requires discussion. At that time there was in Rome a passion for silver dishes. Women would bathe only in silver tubs. Even generals on the field insisted upon dining on silver dishes. Gems and pearls were greatly prized. Julius Caesar gave Servilia a single pearl costing more than $18,000. Purple was imported primarily from Phoenicia, where the expensive dye was extracted a drop at a time from a shellfish called the murex. Silk came from the distant land of China and was extremely expensive. Yet it was imported in such quantities that Josephus reports how the triumphant army appeared before Vespasian and Titus arrayed in silken garments.39
Citron wood was an expensive dark wood imported from North Africa and used for costly furniture and inlay work. Its unusual ornamental veining resembled at times the eyes of the peacock’s tail or the stripes or spots of wild animals.40 Seneca is reported to have had three hundred tables of citrus wood41 with ivory feet. The wood and various kinds of vessels are a further expansion of the merchandise of v. 11 that no one any longer will buy. Wealthy Romans ate from ivory plates. Ornaments of costly wood,42 bronze, iron, and marble decorated the homes of the rich. Cinnamon was an aromatic spice imported from South China. The prostitute in Prov 7:17 perfumed her bed with myrrh, aloes, and cinnamon (cf. Cant 4:14). The word translated “spice”43 is an Eastern perfume used to scent the hair. Incense was burned for its fragrant odor. Myrrh was used medicinally and as a perfume. Wheat was imported mainly from Egypt. The word translated “cattle”44 means a beast of burden. The carriage45 was a four-wheeled vehicle in which the Roman aristocracy rode.
The word translated “slaves” in many contemporary versions is literally “bodies.”46 This is a vivid commentary on the social conditions of the day. Slave traders regarded their human cargo as so much merchandise to be auctioned off to the highest bidder. It is estimated that there were as many as 60,000,000 slaves in the Roman Empire. The final item on the list, “souls of men,” is an old Hebrew phrase that, according to Swete, means little more than human livestock.47 It may, however, refer to something even more sinister than the regular slave trade. While some slaves served in the houses of the great, “there were others whose fate was to fight for their lives and to die for the entertainment of the Roman crowds in the amphitheaters built for that purpose by the Caesars.”48 Most commentators take the expression in apposition to slaves and translate the connective “even.”49
14 John now picks up the narrative that may have been lost in the long list of cargoes.50 The merchants, somewhat in irony, lament the fact that all the rich luxuries that Rome longed for have vanished forever. The concluding clause, “never to be recovered,” brackets the list along with the earlier statement, “no one buys their cargoes any more” (v. 11). The change to second person (“you”) is typical of the Seer’s freedom of expression. The riches (“dainties,” NRSV) probably refers to exotic foods, and the splendor51 to expensive clothing and decorative objects.52
15–17a The merchants’ dirge resumes following the parenthetical listing of imports to Rome. They had profited richly from their lively trade with the great capital of the world empire. Now, like the kings of the earth (v. 10), they take their stand at a safe distance to weep and mourn. Their lament is poetic in form. Continuing the use of triplets, the merchants describe the city as dressed in fine linen, purple, and scarlet; she glitters with gold, precious stones, and pearls. The merchants’ sorrowful song is like that of the kings, but the changes in phraseology are instructive. To the kings, Rome was the “city of power” (v. 10); to the merchants she is dressed in expensive clothes and adorned with costly ornaments (cf. 17:4). Each group sees her fall in terms of its own interests. The merchants mourn because so suddenly (“in one hour”) her great riches have been laid desolate.
17b–18 The dirge is now continued by a third group, those involved in and connected with the shipping industry. The “sea captain” was the steersman or pilot rather than the owner of the ship.53 The “sailors” were the rank-and-file seamen.54 “All who travel by ship” (“every one upon/to a place sailing,” lit.) is an awkward phrase but probably refers simply to passengers.55 “Those who earn their living from the sea” refers to all those whose livelihood depends on the maritime industry (cf. Ps 107:23) or, if the phrase is taken more literally (“as many as work the sea”), it could refer to such trades as fishing or pearl diving.56 Like the others, they too stand afar off (vv. 10, 15). As they watch the smoke rise from the burning ruins, they cry out in amazement, “Was there ever a city like this great city?” The same note of astonishment is heard in the lament over Tyre: “Who can be compared to Tyre?” (Ezek 27:32, GNB).
19 With one further description, those “who go down to the sea in ships” now are pictured as throwing dust on their heads (another act of sorrow also found in the lament over Tyre in Ezek 27:30) and raising the mournful lament, “Woe! Woe, O great city” (cf. vv. 10, 16). The phrase “through her wealth” could mean that the seagoing merchants and maritime personnel were made rich “through the greatness of her costly trade.”57
20 The sudden change from an extended lament (vv. 9–19) to a call for rejoicing (v. 20) is in keeping with the free style of the Apocalypse. Some writers feel that v. 20 is a call to the church to rejoice over the suffering of the unrighteous. The call, however, is first of all addressed to heaven. If we interpret the verse in light of its parallel in 12:12, then the saints, apostles, and prophets58 would be “you who dwell in the heavens.” It is the church glorified, not believers on earth, who are invited to rejoice. The specific reason offered for their rejoicing is variously understood. In an excellent discussion, Caird posits a forensic setting in which Babylon is found guilty of perjury and God requires from her the penalty she has exacted from her victims. He translates, “God has imposed on her the sentence she passed on you.”59 This interpretation comports well with an earlier verse in the chapter, “Give back to her as she has given” (v. 6). The church victorious is to rejoice that God the righteous judge has turned back the evidence laid against believers and in turn has served to bring judgment upon the accuser himself.
With this final lament by the maritime industry the sorrow and frustration of all who have profited from Rome’s profligacy come to a close. Each part of society has mourned the fall of Rome in terms of its own personal advantage. The city has come to ruin, and so have the special benefits of all who have served her for personal gain. In times of crisis human nature inevitably reveals how self-centered and opportunistic are its concerns.
3. Babylon Destroyed (18:21–24)
21Then a mighty angel picked up a boulder the size of a large millstone and threw it into the sea, and said:
“With such violence
the great city of Babylon will be thrown down,
never to be found again.
22The music of harpists and musicians, flute players and
will never be heard in you again.
No workman of any trade
will ever be found in you again.
The sound of a millstone
will never be heard in you again.
23The light of a lamp
will never shine in you again.
The voice of bridegroom and bride
will never be heard in you again.
Your merchants were the world’s great men.
By your magic spell all the nations were led astray.
24In her was found the blood of prophets and of the saints,
and of all who have been killed on the earth.”
In vv. 9–19 we saw how Rome’s political and commercial allies were affected by her fall. In the verses that follow we view her collapse from within. The arts, crafts, commerce, and customs of the great city have all been permanently silenced. Six times in vv. 21–23 the phrase “never … again”60 tolls the collapse of the city. The paragraph consists of a doom song introduced by symbolic action. It recalls an event in the days of Jeremiah when Seraiah the quartermaster was to go to Babylon and read a prophetic oracle against the proud city, bind a stone to it, and cast it into the Euphrates, saying, “So will Babylon sink to rise no more” (Jer 51:59–64; cf. Neh 9:11; Sib. Or. 5:155–61).
21 A mighty angel now takes a huge boulder and hurls it into the sea, declaring that so will Babylon be thrown down, never to be found again. Twice before we have encountered a mighty angel. In 5:2 he was the guardian of the great scroll. In 10:1 a strong angel arrived from heaven with the little scroll.61 The stone this “apocalyptic Paul Bunyan”62 throws into the sea is like a large millstone63 in size. As it plunges to the depths of the sea, the angel interprets the action as symbolizing the disappearance of Rome. The word translated “with such violence” appears in its cognate verb form in Mark 5:13 to describe the herd of swine that rushed down the steep bank into the lake, and in Acts 19:29 of the crowd of people who rushed into the theater in Ephesus.64 The huge millstone does not fall but is violently hurled into the sea. This stresses how suddenly and spectacularly the judgment of God will be executed not only upon an ancient city but ultimately upon the entire antichristian world in its opposition to God.
22–23a John now spells out the effects of the violent overthrow of Rome. In poetic form he describes various aspects of everyday life in Rome that will never again take place. First, the streets will never again be filled with music. Silence reigns in the fallen city. Where once the streets were filled with the sound of harpists and musicians,65 flute players and trumpeters, now an eerie silence has taken over. Isaiah describes the coming universal judgment as a time when “The gaiety of the tambourines is stilled, the noise of the revelers has stopped, the joyful harp is silent” (Isa 24:8; cf. Ezek 26:13). In Isa 5:12 the harp and flute are associated with carousing, and in 2 Sam 6:5 David and the house of Israel make merry before the Lord with harps, lyres, and various percussion instruments. Flutes were used both at festivals (Isa 30:29) and at funerals (Matt 9:23). Trumpets served for games and in the theater.66
Not only has music ceased, but, second, the sounds of craftsmen plying their trade as well. The entire economy has abruptly ceased. This is intensified by a third woeful reality, the cessation of food. The sound of the millstone is heard no more.67 Jeremiah describes the years of Israel’s exile as a time when God will banish from them “the sounds of joy and gladness, the voices of bride and bridegroom, the sound of millstones and the light of the lamp” (Jer 25:10). The parallels in these two passages are not accidental. John writes out of an extensive acquaintance with the prophetic literature of his Jewish predecessors.
Fourth, the absence of all light adds to the desolation of the fallen city. It is not known whether or not Rome had street lights, but everyone had at one time or another watched the wealthy as they were escorted home from festivals by a large entourage of slaves carrying torches. The busy city was accustomed to lights that burned by night as craftsmen worked long hours to fill their orders. But now the blackness of night blankets the deserted and lonely metropolis. Finally, the joy of matrimony—that closest bonding of human relationships—is likewise past. Weddings are a thing of the past. The merry sounds of bridal festivities have been forever silenced.
23b The exact connection between the two final clauses of v. 23 is not readily apparent.68 It is clear, however, that both supply reasons for the judgment that has fallen on Babylon and that each repeats what has been said earlier. First, Rome’s merchants69 had become the “magnates of the earth” (NRSV)—a title scarcely able to conceal considerable arrogance. Through their places of business had passed into the capital city enormous cargoes of extravagant and luxurious goods from around the world. The merchants’ personal fortunes had grown alongside the insatiable appetites of their patrons. Wealth had made them “the great ones.”70
A second reason for judgment was the deception of the nations, which Rome had achieved by means of her magic spell. It is unlikely that we are intended to understand this as the actual practice of magic for the benefit of commerce, although the black arts were widely known in Rome.71 It is intended to be taken in the broader sense of that art of deception by which Rome had bewitched the nations into a false sense of security, leading them to believe that she was in fact the eternal city.72
24 A third reason, the ultimate one, for judgment is added—the blood of Christian martyrs that ran red in the streets of Rome. In fact, Rome’s guilt extends to all who have been slain upon the earth because she is the reigning sovereign of the entire world. Wherever life has been sacrificed, the responsibility lies at her door.73 In Semitic thought the blood of innocent victims cries out for vengeance. Cain learned that the blood of his murdered brother Abel cried out to God from the ground (Gen 4:10; cf. 2 Macc 8:3–4). The martyrs under the altar in chapter 6 demanded to know how long it would be until their blood would be avenged (Rev 6:10). The prophets and saints are not to be taken as two distinct groups: the first is a special class within the second.74 The massacre under Nero in A.D. 64 as well as current troubles under Domitian would supply a realistic background for this stark reminder of imperial brutality.
For John, the judgment brought against the city of Rome was at the same time the eschatological judgment that would bring history to its close. He was describing things that “must soon take place” (1:1). While history has shown that some 2,000 years have intervened and the “end” has not yet come, it is nevertheless true that the forces exemplified by Rome will in fact be those very forces which will play the major role at the end of time. In the same way that the desolation of historic Jerusalem in Luke 21:5ff. becomes the eschatological finale, so does the portrayal of the fall of Rome describe the final judgment that will usher in the eternal state. Prophecy by nature resists being forced into any particular time sequence. It guarantees the ultimate issues of God’s redemptive program, which will be completely fulfilled when the end comes. Living in a world dominated by the oppressive practices of Rome, John portrays the eschaton in figures taken from that specific cultural setting. It is incumbent on us, living at a much later period in history, to interpret those same figures in the eschatological setting toward which we are rapidly moving. It will happen exactly has John has laid out. The last great secular society will demand that Christians wear the “mark of the beast,” but genuine believers remain true to the Lordship of Christ; as a result, religious persecution will follow. But eschatological “Babylon” will collapse in defeat, and the Lamb will return to claim those who have been faithful to the end.
C. HYMN OF VINDICATION (19:1–5)
1After this I heard what sounded like the roar of a great multitude in heaven shouting:
“Hallelujah!
Salvation and glory and power belong to our God,
2for true and just are his judgments.
He has condemned the great prostitute
who corrupted the earth by her adulteries.
He has avenged on her the blood of his servants.”
3And again they shouted:
“Hallelujah!
The smoke from her goes up for ever and ever.”
4The twenty-four elders and the four living creatures fell down and worshiped God, who was seated on the throne. And they cried:
“Amen, Hallelujah!”
5Then a voice came from the throne, saying:
“Praise our God,
all you his servants,
you who fear him,
both small and great!”
In response to the admonition of 18:20, “Rejoice over her, O heaven!” comes the “Hallelujah Chorus” of 19:1ff. The first five verses of chapter 19 constitute a fitting climax for the lengthy section on the fall of Rome, which began at 17:1.1 The heavenly jubilation breaks out in marked contrast to the solemn dirges of the kings, merchants, and seafarers whose economic empires collapsed with the devastation of the imperial capital. The series of three laments is followed by the adulation and worship of a new grouping of three. First, we hear the heavenly multitude (vv. 1–3) as they raise their voices to extol the salvation, glory, and power of God. His judgment on the notorious prostitute who corrupted the earth with her adulteries is true and just. Next we hear the twenty-four elders and the four living creatures (v. 4) as they cry out, “Amen, Hallelujah!” Finally, a voice from the throne (v. 5) invites those on earth to join the mighty chorus of praise to God.
1 The great multitude in heaven praises God for judging the prostitute and avenging the blood of the martyrs. Many writers understand this multitude to be an angelic host; others believe it to be made up of the faithful dead. The specific mention of salvation (as in 7:10) and the concern for avenging the blood of the martyrs (as in 6:10) make it more likely that they are the church triumphant of 7:9–10, 13–17.2 The word “Hallelujah” occurs only in this passage in the NT (vv. 1, 3, 4, 6). It is derived from two Hebrew words (hālal and ah), and means “Praise Yahweh.”3 The Hebrew form introduces a number of Psalms (106, 111–13, 117, 135, 146–50), and is regularly translated “Praise the LORD.”4 Salvation, glory, and power belong to God. Salvation is more than personal deliverance. In this context it refers to the safeguarding of God’s entire redemptive program. It stands first in the sequence in that it is the fundamental aspect of God’s redemptive work (cf. 7:9). Glory and power follow and refer respectively to the majesty and the might revealed in effecting a deliverance of such magnitude.
2 The outburst of praise rests upon the fact that the judgments of God—specifically, his judgment of the great harlot5—are both true and just. That God’s actions are “true” indicates that they are valid. The punishment that the prostitute Rome has received is precisely what she deserved. It is also “just,” that is, absolutely fair. The same two attributes are ascribed to God by the victors in 15:3 and by the voice of the altar in 16:7. Following the sounding of the seventh trumpet, it was announced that the time of judgment had arrived (11:18). With the fall of Babylon that judgment is under way. Once again we hear the grounds on which the judgment of the prostitute is based: she has corrupted the earth by her adulteries and has murdered the servants of God (cf. 18:23–24). Constant reference to her corrupting influence on the kings of the earth (14:8; 17:2; 18:3) stresses the extent of her guilt. Her adultery is her seductive and unholy alliances with the entire civilized world.
In the final clause of the section the multitude in heaven declares that by the utter destruction of Babylon God has avenged on her6 the blood of his servants. This is a concern that has run throughout the entire Apocalypse. The martyrs under the fifth seal asked God how long it would be until he would avenge their blood (6:10). The blood of the saints and/or prophets is mentioned in 16:6, 17:6, and 18:24 as well. Early in the history of Israel God was portrayed as one who avenges the blood of his servants and takes vengeance on his adversaries (Deut 32:43). Since God is by nature absolutely just, it becomes necessary for evil to be punished in a moral universe. That God will vindicate those who gave their life rather than betray their faith is absolutely certain.
3 Once again the heavenly multitude lifts its voice in praise to God. The second “Hallelujah” is not simple repetition but a sort of “heavenly encore”7 that heightens measurably the dramatic quality of the scene. If the second “and” (kai) in v. 3 (omitted by the NIV) is a Hebraism that introduces a circumstantial clause and not a mere conjunction,8 then the clause that follows supplies the reason for that praise. The multitude praises God because the destruction of the wicked city is absolutely final. The smoke of her burning rises forever and ever.9 John’s readers would perhaps recall the oracle of Isaiah against Edom in which the enemy’s land is to burn night and day and “its smoke will rise forever” (Isa 34:8–10; cf. Rev 14:11).
4 In 5:6–10, when the Lamb took the scroll from the right hand of God, the four living creatures and the twenty-four elders fell down before him and sang of his worthiness to open the seals. Once again they join in the same act of worship, this time honoring God for his righteous judgment.10 This is their last appearance in the book of Revelation. Their words, “Amen, Hallelujah!” echo the close of the doxology that marked the end of book 4 of the Psalter (Ps 106:48).
5 In vv. 1–3 the redeemed in heaven sing out the praises of God. In v. 4 the heavenly court responds, echoing antiphonally its affirmation. Now the church on earth is invited to join in. The voice that is heard from the throne calling upon all the servants of God to praise him is probably that of one of the heavenly beings who surround the throne. It is not the voice of God; nor is it the voice of the Lamb, who would have said “my God” rather than “our God” (cf. 3:12; John 20:17). Nor are the servants of God a limited and select group such as the glorified martyrs, but, as the two following phrases indicate, the entire group of faithful believers.11 “You who fear him, both small and great” (cf. Ps 115:13) are believers on earth from every socio-economic level, and represent every stage of spiritual maturity. The call is directed to the church on earth because it wouldn’t make sense to admonish those in heaven to praise him, for that is what they were just doing in vv. 1–4.12
It could appear to some that rejoicing over judgment is something less than a Christian response. Should the destruction of a mighty city and its effect upon all who do business with it be the cause of universal rejoicing? The answer is that it is not the actual suffering of those who are punished that brings rejoicing on the part of the redeemed but the fact that God has vindicated his cause in the world. Nothing less than the character of God is at stake. The one who promised the martyrs that their willingness to sacrifice their lives would not go unrequited must of necessity bring judgment on their oppressors. The redeemed shout “Hallelujah” not because tyrants are suffering but because God has vindicated himself by bringing about the punishment they deserve.