Semantic Features of Polysemantic Adjectives in Translation Perspectives
Abstract: The paper focuses on the role of semantics in translation and analyses a linguistic phenomenon of polysemy. The article provides the componential analysis of the polysemants true, loyal and faithful, pointing out the differences in their meaning that might help in translation of the synonyms.
How the idea of translation can help understand a language and elucidate the ways in which language has meaning? Translation being possible, the answer seems because of the shared domain of meaning. As it was stated by Peter Hewitt in the 1ST Translata conference, “you can peel away the body of one language, extract the meaning, and then instill it in the body of another language” (2012, 165).
The main objective of translation is to transfer meaning from the source language to the target language. In transferring meaning, a good translator should rely on knowledge of source and target languages, the grammar and cultures, as well as skills in translation. Skills and knowledge in translation are powerful means to produce better works. Knowledge can be gained through reading and understanding while skills can be further gained through practice and experience.
Since the main objective of any translation is ‘meaning’, it seems to be essential to refer to the theory of meaning or semantics. Semantics being a branch of linguistics which studies meaning plays a crucial role in translation. I will briefly focus on the role of semantics in translation and tackle the semantic features of the polysemantic adjectives true, loyal and faithful in a translation perspective.
Semantics studies provide theories, approaches and methods for understanding ‘meaning’ that are still lacking in translation. Some problems related to meaning are often faced by translators. According to Catford (1965, 94) “untranslatability” occurs when it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. It happens when the difficulty is linguistic phenomena such as ambiguity (due to shared exponent of two or more source language grammatical or lexical items and polysemy) and oligosemy, as well as cultural difficulties.
Semantics offers methods of analyzing the meaning of a word. Charles Ogden and Ivor Richards propose the triangular concept of meaning in which semantics is also related to semiotics, pragmatics and discourse. The point is that for understanding meaning it is necessary to relate it to the context (i.e. pragmatics).←233 | 234→
Another approach to meaning which is relevant to translation studies is offered in the theory proposed by Anna Wierzbicka, known in her research as Natural Semantic Metalanguage (NSM). NSM employs simple culturally-shared meanings (sematic primes) as its vocabulary of semantic and pragmatic description. NSM theory is based on evidence supporting the view that despite enormous differences, all languages share a small but stable core of simple shared meanings, the so-called semantic primes or primitives, and that these meanings have concrete linguistic exponents as words or word-like expressions in all languages, and that they share a universal grammar of combination, valency and complementation. In other words, in any natural language one can isolate a small vocabulary and grammar which has direct equivalents in all other languages. The number of semantic primes appears to be about sixty in number. Examples include the primary meanings of the English words someone/person, something/thing, people, say, words, do, think, want, good, bad, if, can, because. Semantic primes can be combined according to grammatical patterns which also seem universal, to form simple phrases and sentences such as ‘people think that this is good’, ‘it is bad if someone says something like this’, ‘if you do something like this, people will think something bad about you’, etc. The words and grammar of NSM jointly constitute a surprisingly flexible and expressive ‘mini-language’.
Another method of analysis is componential analysis of meaning, sometimes called feature analysis or contrast analysis. It refers to the description of the meaning of words through a structured set of semantic features, which are given as ‘present’, ‘absent’ or ‘indifferent with reference to feature’. Componential analysis is a method typical of structural semantics which analyzes the structure of a word’s meaning to reveal the culturally important features by which speakers of the language distinguish different words in the domain (Ottenheimer 2006, 20). This is an instrumental approach to learning a foreign language and understanding a specific semantic domain. For example, the word man is marked by two features male and mature, the word woman is marked by the absence of the first and the presence of the second, boy – presence of male feature and absence of mature feature, girl is characterized by the absence of both.
In addition, general semantics is also necessary for translation studies to deal with synonymy, antonymy, polysemy and hyponymy. Lexical semantic analyses necessarily involve more or less explicit considerations concerning the number of interpretational variants of a word form, i.e. identifying the lexical items associated with a lexeme (Solstad 2006).
As the paper deals with semantic features of polysemantic adjectives it seems important to briefly focus on the main linguistic phenomenon relevant for this research, i.e. polysemy.←234 | 235→
Polysemy is defined as the association of one lexeme with two or more different meanings. According to some estimates, more than 40 % of English words have more than one meaning. The fact that so many words (or lexemes) are polysemantic “shows that semantic changes often add meanings to the language without subtracting any” (M. Lynne Murphy 2013). The adjectives under research are also polysemantic and have the following definitions (taken from the American heritage dictionary of the English language):
True 1. a. Consistent with fact or reality; not false or erroneous. b. Not counterfeit; real or genuine. c. Conforming to the characteristics or criteria of a group or type; typical. d. Properly called. 2. Reliable; accurate. 3. a. Faithful, as to a friend, vow, or cause; loyal.
Loyal 1. Steadfast in allegiance to one's homeland, government, or sovereign. 2. Faithful to a person, ideal, custom, cause, or duty. 3. Of, relating to, or marked by loyalty.
Faithful 1. Adhering firmly and devotedly, as to a person, cause, or idea; loyal. 2. Engaging in sex only with one's spouse or only with one's partner in a sexual relationship. 3. a. Responsible; conscientious. b. Dependable; reliable. 4. Consistent with truth or actuality. 5. Having or full of faith.
Having a lot of meanings, the three adjectives are defined through each other (see the underlined parts of the dictionary entries) which gives grounds to assume that in some contexts they may be used interchangeably but at the same time their semantic structure comprises different semantic features. These semantic features being defined will make a translator’s choice not only easy but, what’s more important, make the translation more adequate.
The componential analysis described above helped to elicit the following specific components in the semantic structures of the adjectives under research (the examples have been taken from the British National Corpus).
1. Faithful X 1 – having deep devotion to a particular religion, which is proved by the frequency of occurrence of the adjective with this meaning in a great number of religious contexts. E.g. 1) ‘Stir up we beseech Thee, O Lord, the wills of Thy faithful people; that they, plenteously bringing forth the fruits of good works, may of Thee be plenteously rewarded.’ 2) What is more, this is only a whisper away from primitive Christianity, which is kept alive by faithful worship, rituals and community practices.
2. Faithful X 2 – steady in allegiance or affection, strict in performing the duty. This meaning is relevant in the contexts describing relations between people/groups of people (spouses, friends, workers, colleagues, parties, etc.) or attitude towards ideology/ideas/principles etc. E.g. 1) Patsy, looking like the faithful old←235 | 236→ black mammy slave in a film except that she was white and she was only twenty-five. 2) Nathan Holland on the other hand was a faithful friend, and but for him Paul's last work might never have found its way into print.
The primary ideas contained in faithful X 2 are affection (Says Dr Geeley: ‘Ninety per cent of American spouses have been faithful since they married.’), the sense of duty (At Mohnyin ten convalescent officers and twenty-eight men, the two faithful sergeants and myself got off the hospital train <…> gave medical treatment to those needing it), reliability (Sutton explained how he had started the Post with only his faithful assistant Carmel Bedford, a former Sunday Times copytaker), steadiness (On the other side, faithful to the spirit of the UDC's liberal internationalism, Labour insisted on an early return to unrestricted free trade).
Moreover, in the context of faithful X 1 and faithful X2 it seems evident to describe long-term relations. E.g. Daughter of a Spanish nobleman who had been an officer in the army of Napoleon I, and who had also held a post as Court Chamberlain, Eugénie had grown up in an atmosphere which was hopeful of, and sympathetic to, a Bonapartist restoration, her father having always remained faithful to the Bonaparte dynasty. The tense form of the verb and the presence of the time adverb ‘always’ as well as the adjective may be regarded as the signs of long-standing service and adherence to a particular group of people (the Bonaparte dynasty). Or as in the other example: The lady in the story (as plainly told as it is titled) inexplicably turns, halfway through an ordinary afternoon, into a bright-eyed vixen; and the man in the story, equally inexplicably, Boy thought, remains faithful to her and loves her dearly even when she leaves him in order to raise a family with another animal and he even, in the end, goes mad with love for her.
3. Faithful X 3 – accurate to the original or a standard, accurate in detail.
E.g. 1) The mistake the reformists make is a common and fundamental one: they assume that language is — or should be — a faithful representation of reality, a ‘mirror of nature’.
2) Some may find the external colours of the dome surprising, but apparently these reds, blues and creams are faithful to the colours that were there at the end of the 17C.
So, the semantics of the adjective faithful is strongly connected to religion and comprises steady allegiance to people or beliefs. The third meaning contains the component of accuracy to the original or accuracy in details. Moreover, the meaning of the adjective is marked by the notion of long-lasting affection or allegiance.
Another adjective being of utmost interest for the conducted research and the one that is partially synonymous is loyal.
I argue that the semantic structure of loyal is marked by the following features:←236 | 237→
1. Loyal X 1 – displaying support and sharing ideas, beliefs, principles, thoughts. As the adjective has the same word stem as the noun ‘loyalty’ the same ideas can be applied to it as well. Thus, loyalty is considered to be an important part of political life and is relevant in terms of loyalty and patriotism.
E.g. 1) For understandable reasons, neither side is prepared to proclaim the change too loudly: the left hates admitting defeat, while the right does not want to offend too many loyal party members by appearing triumphalist.
2) Sir Gregory took no pleasure in the arrangement, however: although he believed the schism between England and Rome had been a fatal mistake, he was still a Cornishman and loyal to his country, if not greatly enamored of Elizabeth.
2. Loyal X 2 – showing continuing allegiance to a particular brand, team or cultural establishment. As businesses seek to become the objects of loyalty in order to have their customers return, brand loyalty has become an important business driver. It is defined as a consumer's preference for a particular brand and a commitment to repeatedly purchase that brand in the face of other choices. The same can be applied to fan loyalty – an allegiance to and abiding interest in a sports team, fictional character, or fictional series. It is believed that devoted fans of a sports team will continue to follow it, relatively undaunted by a string of losing seasons.
E.g. 1) Loyal, long-standing customers are all too often ignored in the battle over mortgage rates, Margaret argues.
2) He was a loyal member of the Copenhagen school but he displayed a greater flexibility than most in the expression of his understanding.
As seen from the explanation above, the adjective loyal seems to have two major components in its semantic structure – displaying support and sharing ideas, beliefs, etc. (which also comprises patriotism in case of political allegiance) and allegiance to a particular brand.
So the two adjectives have something in common as they both comprise the idea of allegiance. Though, in case of faithful this allegiance is based on deep religious or dutiful affection marked by long-lasting attitude, while loyal describes mostly political or military allegiance that can or cannot be marked by long-lasting attitude as well as economic allegiance.
As for the polysemantic adjective true, I argue that true X 1 is used in the contexts where the speaker states the full consistency of X with reality and facts.
He tells the true story of a clergyman, Father Kleinsorge, who was helping to tend the wounded. ‘Well, tell me the true picture.’- the story told corresponds with the way the events took place, it agrees with the facts.
According to the photographer, the amazingly bright reds in this photo are the true color of the rock.←237 | 238→
True X 2 implies the qualities or characteristics of X, X being a member of a class.
This is why the search for true happiness will inevitably start to expose the shallowness of our lives.
And when he met and married Nessie Monaghan, he was immediately aware, like any true artist, that she had the better natural voice and he contented himself with being a better-than-ordinary pub tenor and a hit at every christening, wedding and funeral he attended.
True love is not egotistical, self-regarding, full of grief or irresistible demands, afflicted with anger, jealousy or self-satisfaction.
To sum up it is necessary to mention once again that the semantic features of polysemantic adjectives relevant to translation are the following:
true implies consistency with fact, reality, or actuality as well as steadiness, sincerity, and reliability; faithful and loyal both suggest undeviating attachment, though loyal applies more often to political allegiance.
From the above explanation we can conclude that semantics plays a significant role in translation studies. It provides theories; approaches or methods to meaning that are indispensable in translation studies. The ongoing research of polysemantic adjectives consists in real world example gathering and the analysis of their translation in different corpora to prove the hypothesis stated above.
References
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Goddard, C. (2002): The search for the shared semantic core of all languages. In: Goddard, C. / Wierzbicka, A. (eds.): Meaning and Universal Grammar –Theory and Empirical Findings. Amsterdam, 5–40.
Hewitt, P. (2011): Meaning and Translation. In: Zybatow, L. / Petrova, A. (eds.): Translation studies. Interdisciplinary issues in theory and didactics. Innsbruck, 165–170.
Murphy, M. Lynne (2013): What we talk about when we talk about synonyms (and what it can tell us about thesauruses). In: International Journal of Lexicography, 26/3, 279–304.
Ottenheimer, Harriet J. (2006): The Anthropology of Language: an introduction to linguistic anthropology. Belmont (Canada).
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Wierzbicka, A. (1987): English Speech Act Verbs: A semantic dictionary. Sydney.
Wierzbicka, A. (1996): Semantics: Primes and Universals. Oxford.←238 | 239→