Alexander the Great—depicted in this second- or first-century B.C.E. Roman mosaic—greatly expanded Greek culture and trade during his conquests in the fourth century B.C.E. (The Art Archive/Archaeological Museum Naples/Dagli Orti [A])
A king of Macedonia and conqueror of much of Asia.
Alexander the Great, also known as Alexander III of Macedonia, was born to King Philip II and his wife, Olympias, in 356 B.C.E. As a youth he was tutored by the philosopher Aristotle, who provided him with a classical education and wisely advised him to incorporate subject peoples into his future empire instead of merely subjecting them to his rule. After Philip II was murdered, Alexander III became the new king of Macedonia in 336 B.C.E. Several Greek cities that had been members of a league formed by his father, including Thrace and Illyria, attempted to revolt, but Alexander quietly suppressed the rebellion.
Alexander the Great—depicted in this second- or first-century B.C.E. Roman mosaic—greatly expanded Greek culture and trade during his conquests in the fourth century B.C.E. (The Art Archive/Archaeological Museum Naples/Dagli Orti [A])
After Alexander consolidated his control over Greece and the Balkan Peninsula, he attacked Persia (Iran). At the time, the Persian empire was at its peak and a victory would ensure territorial gain for Alexander. At the Granicus River (close to the Hellespont), he attacked the Persian forces and defeated them. He then proceeded to attack Syria, where he challenged the army of the Persian king Darius III, who fled after the Persian army experienced a crushing defeat at the Battle of Issus. After encountering such minimal resistance, Alexander decided to push even farther into Asia Minor. He conquered Tyre and Gaza with 40,000 infantry and 7,000 cavalry and finally descended on Egypt in 332. The next year Alexander consulted the oracle at the temple of Amon-Ra, where he was told that he was the descendant of the Egyptian sun god. That winter he founded the port city of Alexandria in northern Egypt, one of many such cities founded by Alexander but possibly the one that reaped the most benefit as a trading port. In 331, he returned to Syria to battle Darius III once again. Using superior military strategy, Alexander defeated him anew at the Battle of Guagamela. From Syria, Alexander turned southward toward Babylon, which he conquered. Alexander then proceeded to melt down all the royal treasures and mint his own gold coin. Throughout his empire, as he consolidated control over much of Asia and Asia Minor, Alexander created a uniform currency that helped promote trade. In addition, he continued to establish cities along the route of his army and trade again flourished as a result.
After conquering the Middle East, Alexander pushed farther into India. He was victorious in the Punjab in India, but then his men pressured him to turn back toward Macedonia. Alexander led a forced march through the great deserts of Persia and southern Afghanistan. He finally arrived in Susa, where he established his government. In addition to excelling at military strategy, Alexander also experimented with new forms of political administration. He used local rulers to control the population and then relied on their loyalty to collect revenues from the empire. He encouraged his men to take foreign wives. He promoted the use of one language—another factor that contributed to trade. But many of his men did not approve of these tactics. However, before Alexander faced any serious challenge to his authority, he died suddenly of a fever in 323. When he died, his vast empire, which stretched from Egypt to India, was divided among his four top generals.
After his death, the trade routes established by Alexander, including the Silk Road, continued to promote the transfer of goods between the Asian and Western civilizations. Many of the cities that he built continued for centuries as trade centers. He helped spread the Greek language throughout the ancient world, and as a result merchants had a common language in which to transact business. His policies laid the foundation for the future Roman empire.
Cynthia Clark Northrup
See also: Greek City-States; Roman Empire.
Bellinger, Alfred Raymond. Essays on the Coinage of Alexander the Great. New York: S.J. Durst, 1979.
Fraser, P.M. Cities of Alexander the Great. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.