The oldest and one of the most abundant metals known to humanity.
The ancient Egyptians referred to copper with the Ankh sign that signified Eternal Life. Homer called copper “chalkos,” a name that is sometimes used to denote the Chalcolithic Age. The Romans used the term “ase Cyprium.” From the Latin term, the English coined the term “copper.”
The use of copper dates back to the third millennium B.C.E. Evidence of early finds remained restricted to the Sumerian civilization along the Tigris River and ancient Egypt. The Sumerians used copper from the Lake Van region of Armenia, while the Egyptians relied on the metal from the hills along the eastern coast of the Red Sea. Cyprus, located in a strategic trade route in the eastern Mediterranean, also yielded copper articles from the early Egyptian and Sumerian empires. After realizing the usefulness of the metal, the inhabitants of Cyprus also discovered copper on their island and mined the metal extensively. During ancient times, these three countries were the only copper-producing areas known.
Although it has lost some of its importance as a component in electronics, copper remains one of the most important metallic trading commodities. Shown here is a trainload of copper ore leaving the Anaconda Company’s Butte, Montana, mines during World War II. (Library of Congress)
The use of copper was widespread in other nations scattered throughout the eastern Mediterranean Sea. The Phoenicians (who occupied present-day Lebanon) sailed throughout the Mediterranean Sea in search of this precious metal, which they finally discovered in the Iberian Peninsula (present-day Spain). Their mining operations, initially trenches cut into the side of a mountain, occurred around 1240 B.C.E. By this time copper was used for tools, religious items, and decorative objects. The Romans continued to mine for copper in Spain after conquering Carthage during the First Punic War. The Romans perfected the process of removing the ore from the ground by constructing shafts at a forty-degree angle and by utilizing a device powered by slaves that was similar to the Egyptian waterwheel to remove water from the tunnels. Workers descended into the shaft by using the footstones hammered into the side of the walls. The deepest known tunnel descended about 1,000 feet into the ground. Since the tunnels were still dangerous and expensive to maintain, the Romans devised another strategy for extracting the metal. Mountains containing copper were reduced to valleys down the center so that both sides of the remaining rock could be accessed easily. Besides the copper from Spain, the Romans also used copper from the region of Yugoslavia and Asia Minor.
By 2500 B.C.E., coppersmiths had discovered that by adding a small amount of tin to the copper during the heating process the metal would be harder. This combination of copper and tin yielded bronze. During the Bronze Age, the use of copper increased dramatically. Tin from Armenia, Saxony, and Cornwall was imported into the Mediterranean region to mix with the copper. The use of the bellows to increase the heat of the fire during the heating process helped generate the temperatures (the melting temperature of copper is 1,981 degrees Fahrenheit) needed to process large quantities of bronze with limited amounts of fuel.
Copper was used by the ancient civilizations for a wide variety of reasons and for many purposes. Copper is biostatic, which means that bacteria will not attach itself to the metal. Therefore, copper is an excellent metal to both hold water and to move water from one place to another. Copper pipes were used in ancient Egypt more than 5,000 years ago. The ancient Greeks relied on the strength of the metal to protect the bows of their ships’ triremes, which would often be used to ram other ships. Later ships would be coated with copper or material that contained copper so that barnacles would not attach to the vessel. Copper’s noncorrosive properties also reduced the chance of rust and mildew. Ancient civilizations used copper for religious items as well. King Solomon’s Temple in ancient Jerusalem had two twenty-six-foot-tall bronze pillars at the entrance and a vast circular copper container resting on the backs of twelve bronze bulls that held 16,000 gallons of water and was known as the “Bronze Sea.” Most ancient religious statues were made of bronze as well. Ancient Greeks cast bronze statutes and since the metal was easy to use they were capable of creating anatomically correct statues that were usually in motion (e.g., in the process of throwing a spear with their arms outstretched instead of the static statues of the Egyptians with their arms by their sides).
After the fall of the Western Roman empire, copper mining in Britain halted until the thirteenth century. Under the House of Tudor (Henry VII, Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I) mining resumed. During the interim period, Britain relied on Germany for its copper. The mine at Falun, Sweden (located approximately 100 miles from Stockholm), was also in operation during the Middle Ages. These regions supplied most of northern Europe at the time.
Before Europe resumed its use of copper on a wide scale, the Chinese and Indian cultures were using the metal on a grand scale. The temples of the region were primarily constructed of stone with bronze decorations and, most importantly, bronze statues of Buddhas and ceremonial bells. During the Middle Ages, the use of bronze also began in West Africa. Bronzes were usually cast heads instead of full statues. Nigerian use of bronze yielded some of the best bronze works from this period. In pre-Columbian America, the inhabitants, including the Aztecs and Incas, combined copper with gold to form a metal known as “tumbaga.” They also produced copper weapons, tools, and jewelry used for religious purposes.
The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain during the late eighteenth century, resulted in the need for more copper. An improvement in the process of removing impurities resulted in an increase in output. The use of coal as fuel for producing the high heat required to melt copper, a process developed by Edward Jorden and perfected by Sir Philip Vernatt, also sped up the output. Great Britain and Sweden were the primary sources of the metal. The production process was usually located close to large supplies of coal such as in the Swansea district. In addition to being used for the production of bronze, coal was also used to produce brass in the nineteenth century.
During the nineteenth century, copper mining occurred in many regions around the world. In the western United States, miners mined more copper than any other metal. Russia, Chile, Canada, Northern Rhodesia (present-day Zambia), and other African countries became major producers of the metal. Smaller mining operations occurred in Finland, Norway, and present-day Kazakhstan, as well as in Japan and China. The Cornish mines in Great Britain, which had been overworked for decades, were nearly depleted by the nineteenth century.
The demand for copper in the late nineteenth century is attributed to the development of electricity and from then the production of new manufactured products. The invention of the dynamo and electrical generators required a large quantity of copper wiring. The combustion engine also used copper with the high-performance engines of the twentieth century utilizing copper to reduce the heat on the engine. Copper is also used for electronic devices since it conducts electrical current better than any other metal. Computer companies have begun using copper instead of aluminum in their computer chips for the same reason. The invention of the telephone also increased the demand for copper wiring, and even at the end of the twentieth century copper telephone wires are used as an inexpensive alternative to fiber optics because of its high-quality transmission capabilities. Although many homes and businesses have PVC pipes for plumbing, the best pipes are still constructed of copper. Chefs rely on copper for their cooking pans because of its ability to conduct heat efficiently and evenly. Roofs, gutters, and downspouts contain copper frequently. The average house contains 439 pounds of copper from doorknobs to pipes and appliances. Automobiles contain copper for their electrical circuitry. Ships, submarines, heavy construction equipment, trains, and many other forms of transportation now rely on copper as well. Most coins consist of copper with the addition of a small amount of other metals. In the modern era, copper has become indispensable.
Although humans have mined and used copper for six millennia, the world’s supply of the metal is not in danger of depletion. Known copper sources amount to 5.8 trillion pounds, but only 12 percent of that amount (0.7 trillion pounds) has been mined. The primary reason for the low rate of consumption is that copper is the most widely recycled metal. Ancient copper or bronze objects were often reheated and formed into new objects. In modern times, copper wiring and objects are still recycled.
Cynthia Clark Northrup
See also: Computers; Electricity; Industrial Revolution; Roman Empire; Telephone.
Beatty, Richard. Copper. New York: Benchmark, 2001.
Copper Development Association (www.copper.org, accessed September 2003).